NFS210 ARes 002

Analysis of Food Products
Introductory Chapter: Food science terminology.
J. Mattar PhD
ANALYSIS OF FOOD PRODUCTS
1. Who analyzes food?
2. Why do they analyse food?
3. What types of properties are measured? 4. How
does one choose an appropriate analytical technique
for a particular food?
J. Mattar PhD
COMPONENTS IN THIS SCENARIO:
1. WHY DOES IT OCCUR ANYWAY?
2. WHY INSTRUMENTAL ANALYSIS?
3. PROPERTIES OF FOOD TO ANALYZE
J. Mattar PhD
1. Introduction
Food analysis is the discipline dealing

with the:
• development,
• application and
• study of analytical procedures
for characterizing the properties of food
and their constituents.
J. Mattar PhD
1. Introduction
• These analytical procedures are used to

provide information about a wide
variety of different characteristics of
food, including their
1. Composition
2. Structure
3. Physicochemical properties
4. Sensory attributes.
J. Mattar PhD
1.1. Reasons for Analysing
food
J. Mattar PhD
1.1.1. Government Regulations and Recommendations
1.1. Reasons for Analysing food

Objectives
Ensure safety and continuity of the processing operation
Maintain the optimal conditions
Use resources efficiently:
– Labor
– Raw materials
– Energy
– Machinery
Reduce loading of effluents (e.g. of waste water with organic matter.
J. Mattar PhD
1.1. Reasons for Analysing food (Cont’d)

Each food item has to be:
– Safe
– Wholesome
– Attractive in appearance
• Taste
• Texture
– Needs to be consistent with the product image:
• Variations within the same batch or between batches will have to be
kept to a minimum as they are often interpreted by the consumer as
indicating a fault.
J. Mattar PhD Discussion

1.1. Reasons for Analysing food

1.1.1. Government Regulations and Recommendations: (LAW)
Government regulations and recommendations create harmonized
international food standards to protect the health of consumers and
ensure fair trade practices:
✓ maintain the general quality of the food supply,
✓ to ensure the food industry provides consumers with food that are
wholesome and safe,
✓ to inform consumers about the nutritional composition to make
knowledgeable choices
✓ to enable fair competition amongst food companies,
✓ and to eliminate economic fraud.
Ex: Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the United States

Department of Agriculture (USDA), the Codex Alimentarius
Commission BRC Global Standard for Food Safety.
J. Mattar PhD

The availability, quality and price of raw materials will place
conditions on the food manufacturing operation:
– Product palette has to be adapted to change:
• Tastes
• Nutritional ideas
• stability
– Without forgetting that the legislation on food

composition and labelling will also play a role.
J. Mattar PhD

Government agencies responsible for regulating particular sectors of
the food industry and publish documents that contain detailed
information about the regulations and recommendations.
These documents can be purchased from the government or obtained
online from the appropriate website.
A. Standards
Government agencies have specified a number of voluntary and
mandatory standards concerning the composition, quality, inspection,
and labelling of specific food products.
J. Mattar PhD

Mandatory Standards:
Standards They specify the type and amounts of ingredients that certain food must contain if they are
of to be called by a particular name on the food label.
Identity. maximum or minimum concentration of a certain component that they must contain, e.g.,
peanut butter: must be less than 55% fat, ice-cream: must be greater than 10% milk fat,
cheddar cheese: must be greater than 50% milk fat and less than 39% moisture.
Standards Standards of quality have been defined for certain food (e.g., canned fruits and vegetables)
of Quality. to set minimum requirements on the color, tenderness, mass and freedom from defects.
Standards To state how full a container must be to avoid consumer deception, also specify how the
of Fill-of- degree of fill is measured.
Container.
Voluntary Standards:
Standards Some food, like meat, dairy products and eggs, are graded according to their quality, e.g.
of Grade. from standard to excellent. Ex.: meats can be graded as prime, choice, select, standard etc
according to their origin, tenderness, juiciness, flavor and appearance. There are clear
definitions associated with these descriptors that products must conform to before they
can be given the appropriate label. This is voluntary, but many food manufacturers opt to
J. Mattar PhD do this because superior grade products can be sold for a higher price.
B. Nutritional Labeling
Standardized nutritional labels worldwide are
mandatory.
Main reason: consumers could make informed
choices about their diet.


Nutritional labels state the total calorific value
of the food, as well as
– total fat,
– saturated fat,
– cholesterol,
– sodium,
– carbohydrate,
– dietary fiber,
– sugars,
– protein,
– vitamins,
– calcium
– and iron.
The label may also contain information about
nutrient content claims (such as low fat, low sodium,
high fiber, fat free, etc), & government regulations
stipulate the minimum or maximum amounts of
specific food components that a food must contain if
it is to be given one of these nutrient content
descriptors.


C. Authenticity
The price of certain food is dictated by the quality of the
ingredients that they contain.
Ex: a packet of premium coffee may claim that the coffee beans are from
Columbia, or the label of an expensive wine may claim that it was
produced in a certain region, using a certain type of grapes in a particular
year. How do we verify these claims?


C. Authenticity
The price of certain food is dictated by the quality of the
ingredients that they contain.
In the past where manufacturers have made false claims about the
authenticity of their products in order to get a higher price.
Now it is important to have analytical techniques that can be used to test
the authenticity of certain food components,
1. to ensure that consumers are not the victims of economic fraud
2. and that competition among food manufacturers is fair.
J. Mattar PhD

D. Food Inspection and Grading
The US and EU governments have Food Inspection and Grading
Services that routinely analyses the properties of food products to
ensure that they meet the appropriate international laws and
regulations. Hence, both government agencies and food manufacturers
need analytical techniques to provide the appropriate information
about food properties.
The most important criteria for this type of test are often the accuracy
of the measurements and the use of an official method.
Important especially regarding imports and exports.

(Hallal slaughter certification etc) (Bureau veritas and SGS)
1.1.2. Food Safety

1.1.2. Food Safety
A food may be considered to be unsafe because
it contains harmful microorganisms (e.g.,
Listeria, Salmonella), toxic chemicals (e.g.,
pesticides, herbicides) or extraneous matter
(e.g., glass, wood, metal, insect matter).
Food safety can be achieved by following good
manufacturing practice, regulations
specified by the government for specific food
products and by having analytical techniques
that are capable of detecting harmful
substances (BV & SGS) .

1.1.3. Quality control

The food industry is highly competitive.
Manufacturers must ensure that their
products are of higher quality, less expensive,
and more desirable than their competitors,
whilst ensuring that they are safe and
nutritious.
To meet these rigorous standards food
manufacturers need analytical techniques to
analyze food materials before, during and
after the manufacturing process to ensure
that the final product meets the desired
standards.
J. Mattar PhD

Most important in end product: consistently ie. the same
overall properties, (appearance, texture, flavour and shelf
life).
BUT, the properties of the raw ingredients and the
processing conditions vary from time to time which causes
the properties of the final product to vary, often in an
unpredictable way.
J. Mattar PhD

How can food manufacturers control these variations?
1. Understand the role that different food ingredients and
processing operations play in determining the final
properties of food, through research and development
work (see later).
2. Monitor the properties of food during production to
ensure that they are meeting the specified requirements.
J. Mattar PhD

• Characterization of raw materials.
Even when a batch of raw materials has been
accepted, variations in its properties might lead
to changes in the properties of the final
product.
Ex: the color of potato chips depends on the
concentration of reducing sugars in the
potatoes that they are manufactured from:
The higher the concentration, the browner the
potato chip (Maillard reaction). So important
to have an analytical technique to measure the
concentration of reducing sugars in the
potatoes (refractometer) & alter the frying
conditions to produce the optimum colored
potato chip.
J. Mattar PhD

Monitoring of food properties during processing.
• Detect any problem quickly and adjust process.
Ex: In salad dressing production, if oil content became
too high or too low. Traditionally, samples are removed
from the process and tested in a quality assurance
laboratory. Time-consuming!
• The ideal criteria for an on-line technique is that it be
capable of rapid and precise measurements, it is non-
intrusive, it is non-destructive and that it can be Ex. In-line NIR moisture gauge
automated.


Monitoring of food properties during processing.
• For optimum quality the manufacturer requires cost-effective
methods for the rapid assessment, and preferably the one-line
measurement of the:
• Chemical components
• Physical properties
• Microbial status of raw materials
• Process steam & end products
• Monitoring during the processing operation helps prevent expensive

rework or disposal of out-off-specification product.


Characterization of final product.
• Analyse final product’s properties to meet legal and labelling requirements, is
safe, & high quality.
• Product should retain its properties up to the time when it is consumed. (ex:
SMART PACKAGING)


HACCP. (Start to finish) Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point
HACCP system identifies ingredients/processes that may cause problems
(hazard analysis), assign locations (critical control points) to measure
properties of food to ensure that safety & quality are maintained, & to specify
the appropriate action to take if a problem is identified.
➢ The type of analytical technique required to carry out the analysis is specified.
➢ Also important detailed documentation of the performance & results of tests.
➢ HACCP was initially developed for safety testing, but can be used to
test food quality.

1.1.4. Research and Development

1.1.4. Research and Development
Food companies often employ a number of scientists to carry out research
• that will lead to the development of new products,
• the improvement of existing products
• & the reduction of manufacturing costs.
In practice, there is overlap between basic research and product development.
Basic research: done on simple model systems not complex compositions that
are affected by changes in environment.

1.3 Properties Analyzed
Important section
J. Mattar PhD

Food analysts are interested in obtaining information about a
variety of different characteristics of food, including their
✓composition,
✓structure,
✓physicochemical properties
✓and sensory attributes.
J. Mattar PhD

1.2.1 Composition
The composition of a food largely determines its
• safety,
• nutrition,
• physicochemical properties,
• quality attributes and
• sensory characteristics.
Most food are compositionally complex materials made up of
a wide variety of different chemical constituents.
J. Mattar PhD

1.2.1 Composition
Their composition can be specified in a number of different ways
depending on the property that is of interest to the analyst and the
type of analytical procedure used:
- specific atoms (e.g., Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfur,
Sodium, etc.);
- specific molecules (e.g., water, sucrose, tristearin, blactoglobulin),
- types of molecules (e.g., fats, proteins, carbohydrates, fiber,
minerals),
- or specific substances (e.g., peas, flour, milk, peanuts, butter).
J. Mattar PhD

1.2.1 Composition
Government regulations state that:
the concentration of certain food components must be
stipulated on the nutritional label of most food products,
and are usually reported as specific molecules (e.g., vitamin
A) or types of molecules (e.g., proteins).
J. Mattar PhD

Composition Food Analysis
■ USUALLY: Detailed compositional analysis
– protein composition
– amino acid composition
– lipids (fatty acids and triglycerides)
– sugar composition
J. Mattar PhD
1.2 Properties Analyzed (Cont’d)

1.2.2 Structure
The structural organization of the components within a food
also plays a large role in determining the physicochemical
properties, quality attributes and sensory characteristics of
many food.
Hence, two food that have the same composition can
have very different quality attributes if their constituents
are organized differently.
J. Mattar PhD
1.2 Properties Analyzed (Cont’d)
1.2.2 Structure
For example, a carton of ice cream taken from a
refrigerator has a pleasant appearance and good
taste,
but if it is allowed to melt and then is placed back in
the refrigerator its appearance and texture change
dramatically and it would not be acceptable to a
consumer.
Thus, there has been an adverse influence on its
quality, even though its chemical composition is
unchanged, because of an alteration in the
structural organization of the constituents caused
by the melting
J. Mattar PhD
of ice and fat crystals.
1.2 Properties Analyzed (Cont’d) 1.1.3. Quality control
1.2.2 Structure
Another familiar example is
the change in egg white from a transparent viscous
liquid to an optically opaque gel when it is
heated in boiling water for a few minutes.
Again there is no change in the chemical
composition of the food, but its physiochemical
properties have changed dramatically
because of an alteration in the structural
organization of the constituents caused by
protein unfolding and gelation.
J. Mattar PhD
1.2. Properties Analyzed (Cont’d)

The structure of a food can be examined at a
number of different levels:
Molecular structure (~ 1 - 100 nm).
Ultimately, the overall physicochemical
properties of a food depend on the type of
molecules present, their three-dimensional
structure and their interactions with each
other. It is therefore important for food
scientists to have analytical techniques to
examine the structure and interactions of
individual food molecules.
J. Mattar PhD

The structure of a food can be examined at
a number of different levels:
Microscopic structure (~ 10 nm - 100
mm).
The microscopic structure of a food can be
observed by microscopy (but not by the
unaided eye) and consists of regions in a
material where the molecules associate to
form discrete phases, e.g., emulsion
droplets, fat crystals, protein aggregates
and small air cells.
J. Mattar PhD

The structure of a food can be examined at a number of
different levels:
Macroscopic structure (~ > 100 mm).
This is the structure that can be observed by the unaided

human eye, e.g., sugar granules, large air cells, raisins,
chocolate chips
All of these different levels of structure contribute to the
overall properties of food, such as texture, appearance,
stability and taste.
In order to design new food, or to improve the properties of
existing food, it is extremely useful to understand the
relationship between the structural properties of food and
their bulk properties.
Analytical techniques are therefore needed to characterize
these different levels of structure. A number of the most
important of these techniques are considered in this course.
J. Mattar PhD
1.2. Properties Analyzed
1.2.3. Physicochemical Properties
The physiochemical properties of food
(rheological, optical, stability, flavor)
ultimately determine their perceived
quality, sensory attributes and behavior
during
production, storage and consumption.
J. Mattar PhD
The optical properties of food are determined by the way that they interact with
electromagnetic radiation in the visible region of the spectrum,
e.g., absorption, scattering, transmission and reflection of light.
For example, full fat milk has a whiter appearance than skim milk because a
greater fraction of the light incident upon the surface of full fat milk is
scattered due to the presence of the fat droplets.
J. Mattar PhD
The rheological properties of food are determined by the way that the shape of
the food changes, or the way that the food flows, in response to some applied
force. (Much more to come later in the course)
For example, margarine should be spreadable when it comes out of a
refrigerator, but it must not be so soft that it collapses under its own weight
when it is left on a table.
J. Mattar PhD
The stability of a food is a measure of its ability to resist changes in its properties over time.
These changes may be chemical, physical or biological in origin.
■ Chemical stability refers to the change in the type of molecules present in a food with time
due to chemical or biochemical reactions, e.g., fat rancidity or non-enzymatic browning.
■ Physical stability refers to the change in the spatial distribution of the molecules present in
a food with time due to movement of molecules from one location to another, e.g., droplet
creaming in milk.
■ Biological stability refers to the change in the number of microorganisms present in a food
with time, e.g., bacterial or fungal growth.
J. Mattar PhD
The flavor of a food is determined by the way that certain molecules in
the food interact with receptors in the mouth (taste) and nose (smell) of
human beings. The perceived flavor of a food product depends on
• the type and concentration of flavour constituents within it,
• the nature of the food matrix,
• as well as how quickly the
flavour molecules can move
from the food to the sensors
in the mouth and nose.
J. Mattar PhD
Analytically, the flavor of a food is often characterized by measuring the

concentration, type and release of flavor molecules within a food or in the
headspace above the food.
Foods must therefore be carefully designed so that they have the required
physicochemical properties over the range of environmental conditions
that they will experience during processing, storage and consumption,
e.g., variations in temperature or mechanical stress.
Consequently, analytical techniques are needed to test foods to ensure
that they have the appropriate physicochemical properties.
J. Mattar PhD
Melting point
In processing technology, listed Boiling point
are some of the important
Vapor pressure
physicochemical properties of
processing materials and products Density
in food engineering. Composition
Enthalpy and specific heat
They are important in quality & Thermal conductivity
competitiveness:
Viscosity
pH
J. Mattar PhD
Importance of Texture
The importance of texture in the overall of food varies widely, depending upon the type of
food:
– Critical
• food in which texture is the dominant quality characteristic; meat, some dairy product,…
– Important
• food in which texture makes a significant but not a dominant contribution to the overall
quality, contributing, more or less equally, with flavor and appearance; most fruits,
vegetables, bread,…
– Minor
• food in which texture makes a negligible contribution to the overall quality; soups, …
J. Mattar PhD
1.2.3. Sensory Attributes
Ultimately, the quality and desirability of a food product is determined by its
interaction with the sensory organs of human beings, e.g., vision, taste,
smell, feel and hearing.
For this reason the sensory properties of new or improved foods are usually
tested by human beings to ensure that they have acceptable and desirable
properties before they are launched onto the market.
Even so, individuals' perceptions of sensory attributes are often fairly
subjective, being influenced by such factors as current trends, nutritional
education, climate, age, health, and social, cultural and religious patterns.
J. Mattar PhD
To minimize the effects of such factors a number of procedures have been

developed to obtain statistically relevant information.
For example, foods are often tested on statistically large groups of untrained
consumers to determine their reaction to a new or improved product before
full-scale marketing or further development. Alternatively, selected
individuals may be trained so that they can reliably detect small differences
in specific qualities of particular food products, e.g., the mint flavor of a
chewing gum.
J. Mattar PhD
J. Mattar PhD
J. Mattar PhD
1.2.3. Senory Attributes
J. Mattar PhD

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Analysis of Food Products

Introductory Chapter: Food science terminology.

Food analysis is the discipline dealing

• These analytical procedures are used to

1.1. Reasons for Analysing food

1.1. Reasons for Analysing food (Cont’d)

J. Mattar PhD Discussion

1.1. Reasons for Analysing food

Ex: Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the United States

1.1. Reasons for Analysing food (Cont’d)

– Without forgetting that the legislation on food

1.1. Reasons for Analysing food (Cont’d)

1.1. Reasons for Analysing food (Cont’d)

1.1. Reasons for Analysing food (Cont’d)

J. Mattar PhD Discussion

1.1. Reasons for Analysing food (Cont’d)

1.1. Reasons for Analysing food (Cont’d)

J. Mattar PhD Discussion

1.1. Reasons for Analysing food (Cont’d)

J. Mattar PhD Discussion

1.1. Reasons for Analysing food (Cont’d)

1.1. Reasons for Analysing food (Cont’d)

Important especially regarding imports and exports.

1.1. Reasons for Analysing food (Cont’d)

J. Mattar PhD Discussion

1.1. Reasons for Analysing food (Cont’d)

1.1. Reasons for Analysing food (Cont’d)

1.1. Reasons for Analysing food (Cont’d)

1.1. Reasons for Analysing food (Cont’d)

1.1. Reasons for Analysing food (Cont’d)

1.1. Reasons for Analysing food (Cont’d)

J. Mattar PhD Discussion

1.1. Reasons for Analysing food (Cont’d)

• Monitoring during the processing operation helps prevent expensive

J. Mattar PhD Discussion

1.1. Reasons for Analysing food (Cont’d)

J. Mattar PhD Discussion

1.1. Reasons for Analysing food (Cont’d)

J. Mattar PhD Discussion

1.1. Reasons for Analysing food (Cont’d)

J. Mattar PhD Discussion

1.2 Properties Analyzed

1.2 Properties Analyzed

1.2 Properties Analyzed

1.2 Properties Analyzed

1.2 Properties Analyzed

1.2 Properties Analyzed (Cont’d)

1.2 Properties Analyzed (Cont’d)

1.2. Properties Analyzed (Cont’d)

1.2. Properties Analyzed (Cont’d)

1.2. Properties Analyzed (Cont’d)

This is the structure that can be observed by the unaided

Analytically, the flavor of a food is often characterized by measuring the

To minimize the effects of such factors a number of procedures have been

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