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Condensation & Precipitation

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 DEW

• Result of condensation
• Result of water changing from
vapour to liquid
• Similar to rain - forms from
condensing water vapour
• Dew forms as ambient
temperature reaches dew point
• Dew point is the temp at which
the dew forms
• At Dew point, RH = 100%

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 FROST

• Deposit of small white ice

crystals on the ground or other
surfaces when the temperature
falls below freezing
• Process similar to formation
of dew, except it occurs below
freezing point of water &
typically without crossing
through a liquid state

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 RIME

• Rime - type of ice that forms when super-

cooled water droplets freeze on contact with
a solid surface.
• Deposition of rime is different than the
process in which frost is formed.
Rime Frost
• Object and air both • Object itself must be
below freezing below freezing but the
• Liquid drops (e.g. fog) air can be above freezing
must be present. • Water vapour (not
droplets) are the source
of moisture
• Forms on clear cold
nights

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 MIST
• Mist - suspension of tiny water droplets in
the air
• Form when warmer water in air rapidly
cooled & changes from an invisible gas to
tiny visible water droplets
• Often forms when warmer air over water
suddenly encounters the cooler surface of
land
• Mist is a very dense water vapor, almost as
thick as fog
• Mist is when you can see further than 1,000
meters away. If the visibility is reduced
below 1 km, the suspension is called a fog
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 FOG

• Fog forms when air cools near the

Earth's surface and water vapor
condenses
• Fog is influenced by nearby bodies of
water, topography, and wind conditions
• Tends to form when the nights are very
cold and relatively long, like in spring and
autumn
• Visibility reduced to less than 1,000
meters

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 HAZE

• Haze is usually a reference to visible air

pollution, rather than just fog
• It's made up of dry particles of dust, salt,
aerosols, or photochemical smog that
are so small that they cannot be felt or
seen individually with the naked eye

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 SPRAY

• Spray is a collection of water droplets

that are torn from a large body of water
by the wind
• The droplets are usually torn from the
crests of waves and carried into the air
• When the water surface is rough, the
droplets may be accompanied by foam

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 CLOUD

• A cloud is a mass of water drops or ice

crystals suspended in the atmosphere
• Clouds form when water condenses in
the sky
• The condensation lets us see the water
vapour
• There are various types of clouds

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 CLOUD

• Clouds form when air cools to the dew point

as a parcel of air rises vertically
• Clouds form in four main ways:
 Surface heating (Convection)
 Mountains and terrain (Orographic)
 Air masses being forced to rise
(Convergence)
 Weather fronts (cold or warm) (Frontal
lifting)

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 CLOUD
Types
• Classified as per appearance and
height above sea level
• Four major classifications based
on appearance:
– Cirrus
– Cumulus
– Stratus
– Nimbus

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 CLOUD
Cirrus
• “Cirrus” comes from the Latin word
which means "curl" or "fringe“
• Cirrus clouds are high-altitude clouds
made of ice crystals
• They are long, thin, wispy white
streamers, are delicate and have a silky
sheen
• They are also known as "mare's tails"
because they look like a horse's tail
• During the day, they are whiter than
other clouds

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 CLOUD
Cumulus
• Derives it’s name from Latin word
cumulus, which means "heap" or
"pile“
• Low-level cloud puffy, cotton-like,
or fluffy in appearance
• Formed when bubbles of buoyant
air, called "thermals", rise over
thermal sources like concrete, bare
sand, and rocky hillsides. As the air
is lifted, it cools and water vapour
condenses to produce cloud.

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 CLOUD
Cumulus
• These clouds often appear in the
morning and disappear in the evening
• Low-level clouds under 6,000 feet are
fair-weather cumulus clouds and
indicate that the weather will be calm
and without precipitation
• However, if a cumulus cloud is taller
than it is wide, it can produce rain and
eventually morph into a
cumulonimbus cloud or thunderstorm

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 CLOUD
Stratus

• The term “stratus” describes flat, hazy, • Stratus clouds are one of the two main
featureless clouds at low altitudes types of low clouds, along with
varying in color from dark gray to cumulus clouds
nearly white

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 CLOUD
Stratus
• Stratus clouds develop horizontally,
while cumulus clouds develop
vertically
• They form when warm, moist air rises
into the atmosphere
• They often signal gray, drizzly days
with little sunshine

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 CLOUD
Nimbus
• The word "nimbus" comes from the
ancient Latin word for "rain storm"
• Nimbus clouds are dark gray clouds
that carry rain, snow, or hail
• Usually formed at lower altitudes
• Often cause heavy rainfall with
thunderstorms
• Appear dark gray because their depth
and/or density of large water droplets
that obscures sunlight

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CLOUD Abbreviations

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 VISIBILITY
• Visibility is a measure of the horizontal
opacity of the atmosphere at the point
of observation and is expressed in
terms of the horizontal distance
• Simply put, a measure of how far a
person can see
• Various factors affect visibility:
– Fog, cloud, haze, precipitation
– Height of the observer

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Pressure, Winds & Storms

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 PRESSURE GRADIENTS
• Pressure gradient is a way to describe the
difference in atmospheric pressure from
one location to another
• Pressure gradient force, is the force
produced by differences in barometric
pressure between two regions
• Responsible for the flow of air from a
region of high pressure to a region of low
pressure

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 ISOBAR
• Isobars are lines joining regions having the
same pressure on a chart
• The numbers measure the atmospheric
pressure in millibars
• Usually isobars are drawn at intervals of
two or four millibars
• The closer the isobars are together, the
windier it is
• Often low pressures mean wet and windy
weather & high pressures mean dry,
sunny weather On the chart the isobar marked 1004 represents an
• Air pressure tends to range from 890 mb area of high pressure, while the isobar marked 976
represents an area of low pressure
• (hurricane) to 1060 mb (anticyclone)
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 ISOBARIC SYSTEMS
• There are 7 types of Isobaric Systems or
Patterns:
– Low/Cyclone
– Secondary Low/Secondary Cyclone
– High/Anticyclone
– Warm/Cold Anticyclone
– Ridge/Wedge
– Trough
• Non-Frontal
• Frontal
– Col

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 Low/Cyclone
• Area of low pressure surrounded by area of
high pressure
• Isobars form closed shapes
• Winds blow spirally inwards
• Anticlockwise in the northern and clockwise in
the southern hemispheres
• Pressure gradient is usually high, resulting in
strong winds
• Low is an area of convergence of air
• On reaching the centre, the air moves up as a
strong upward current
• Results in cumulus or cumulonimbus clouds of
very high vertical extend and heavy
https://youtu.be/UKL9NIxLIIE?si=vBI8gM_fjpH018T6
precipitation 25
 Low/Cyclone
• Over the actual centre of the low, a thin
downward stream of air exists, where a patch of
blue sky may be seen
• low is a sign of bad weather – strong winds,
clouds, precipitation
• Wind speed:
 ≤ 33Kn : Low/Depression
 34 – 47Kn : Cyclonic storm
 ≥ 48Kn : Severe Cyclonic Storm

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 Secondary Low/Secondary Cyclone
• Sometimes a low is closely followed by another,
within its pattern or isobars
• The first one to form is called the primary and
the second one is called the secondary
• Although it formed later, it possesses all the
qualities of the primary
• The secondary Low may either fill up and
disappear or intensify and swallow up the
primary

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 High/Anti-Cyclone
• Anticyclone or high is an area of high
pressure surrounded by areas of low
pressure
• Isobars form closed shapes
• The winds blow spirally outwards, clockwise
in the northern hemisphere and anti-clock
wise in the southern hemisphere
• Pressure gradient is usually low resulting in
low wind speeds
• Is an area of divergence of air at sea level
• Out flow of air balanced by downward
current of air at centre

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 High/Anti-Cyclone
• Descending column of air warms up
adiabatically and becomes relatively drier
and drier as it descends
• There is total absence of any cloud or
precipitation over the anticyclone
• Anticyclone is, therefore, a sign of good
weather, light winds, no clouds (blue sky),
no precipitation, good visibility, etc
• At the surface, mist or fog may form on the
outer fringes of the anticyclone. Why?
• Even in such cases, visibility at the centre
will be good

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 Cold/Warm Anti-Cyclone
• When the high pressure is brought about by
the air over an area being denser than that
nearby a cold anticyclone is formed, cold air
having a greater density than warm air
• On the other hand, a high pressure can be
formed by larger than normal amounts of
warm air over an area, in which case a warm
anticyclone is formed
• Cold anticyclones can bring us very cold,
crisp bright winter days and Warm anti-
cyclones warm, sunny summer weather

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 Ridge/Wedge
• A ridge or wedge is an area of high pressure
jutting into areas of low pressure
• The isobars are curved, with the high
pressure inside, and are generally far apart
• They do not necessarily form closed shapes
• A ridge may form by itself or it may be the
outer fringes of an anticyclone far away
• Weather associated with a ridge is like that
of an anticyclone – no precipitation, light
winds, no clouds

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 Trough
• A ridge or wedge is an area of low pressure
jutting into areas of high pressure
• The isobars are curved, with low pressure inside
• They do not form closed shapes
• Pressure gradient is fairly high resulting in strong
winds
• Winds blow from high pressure areas towards
areas of low pressure, being deflected to right in
NH, and left in the SH
• Bad weather is associated with a trough
• Before the trough, pressure falls and weather
deteriorates. After the passage of a trough,
pressure rises and weather improves

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 Trough
Trough is of two types:

• Non-Frontal
– Isobars curve gently & change direction gradually
– When a non frontal trough passes over an Observer,
wind gradually veers in N-H (backs in S-H)
– The “U” of the non-frontal trough always point
towards the equator
• Frontal
– Exists at the boundary between two air masses (i.e.
a front)
– On crossing the front, isobars change direction
abruptly by abt 90˚
– The “V” of the Frontal trough always point towards
equator
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 Col
• An area between two highs & two lows
situated alternately
• Col may also be situated between a primary
low & a secondary low or at the boundary
between 2 air masses
• Light variable winds are experienced but not
for long
• Sudden change of weather is likely
• Relative humidity is fairly high and lightning
may be seen
• No definite pattern of weather is associated
with a Col

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 Principal Pressure Systems

• Areas that consist of warm air have low

pressure because the warm air rises. These
areas are known as low-pressure systems
• Likewise, places with high air pressure are
known as high-pressure systems
• Air always flows from high-pressure areas to
low-pressure areas to reduce pressure
difference and reach equilibrium

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Principal Pressure Systems

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 General Pressure and Wind distribution
• The ideal condition:-
– The right hand side figure
gives the general pressure
and wind systems which
would exist if the entire
surface of the earth was
water only.
– Since such is not the case,
variation of the above
conditions occur over large
area of land.

Climatology - Part 2 37
 The Actual Situation
• During summer, the temperature of the land masses is high and
hence the temperature of air in contact with them is also high,
resulting in low pressure over them.
• During winter, the temperature of landmasses is low and the
temperature of the air in contact with them is also low, resulting
in high pressure over them.
• In short over large land masses there is low pressure in summer
and high pressure in winter. The wind direction and fore thus
become modified accordingly.

Climatology - Part 2 38
Land and Sea breeze
• Land and sea breezes are the result of the large difference in
diurnal range of atmosphere temperature over land and over sea.
• Over land, the diurnal range may be as high as 20°C whereas over
sea, it is less than 1°C. Land and sea breezes are experienced only
where large expanses of both water and land meet. It is because of
land and sea breezes that coastal regions do not experience great
heat or extreme cold. The effect of land and sea breezes may be
felt upto about 20 miles away from the coast. If the hinterland is
steep and high, their effect may be felt even beyond 20 miles.
• The sea breeze is much stronger than the land breeze. Ideal
conditions for strong land and sea breezes are a high, dry, rocky or
desert coast with no swamps or trees, a weak prevailing wind and a
partly cloudy sky.
•

Climatology - Part 2 39
 Land breeze
• During night the land gives off its heat very
quickly and the air in contact with it also
cools rapidly resulting in a high pressure
over the land. The temperature of the sea
surface, and hence the temperature of the
air in contact with it, remains fairly constant
resulting in a relatively low pressure over
the sea. The isobars run roughly parallel to
the coast.
• Since the distance between the HP over
land and the LP over sea is small, the wind
blows directly across the isobars from the
land towards the sea. The land breeze sets
in a couple of hours after sunset and blows
until about half-hour after sunrise.

Climatology - Part 2 40
 Sea breeze
During the day, the land gets extremely hot
and the air in contact with it gets heated,
resulting in a low pressure over land.The
temperature of the sea surface, and hence the
temperature of the air over it, remains fairly
constant resulting in a relatively high pressure
over sea. The isobars run roughly parallel to the
coast. Since the distance between the high and
the low pressure areas is quite small and the
pressure gradient is fairly high, the wind blows
directly across the isobars from the HP over the
sea, towards the LP over the land. The sea
breeze usually sets in by about 1000 or 1100
hours local time, reaches a maximum force of 3
to 4 by about 1400 hours and dies down about
sunset. In rare cases, sea breezes have been
detected as far as 100 miles from the coast.

Climatology - Part 2 41
 Over Land
1. Land, being a solid, has a low
value of specific heat and so
heats up or cools very quickly
2. Heat received from the sun is
retained by the top layer of land
(only a few centimetres deep)
as land is a poor conductor of
heat
3. Negligible evaporation
Climatology - Part 2
Over sea
Sea, being a liquid, has a higher
value of specific heat so heats up
or cools slowly.
Heat received from the sun is
distributed over a large mass of
water by convection currents.
Evaporation of water during day
causes adiabatic cooling which
balances some of the heat
received from the sun.
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CLIMATOLOGY- PART - I 43
 Intertropical Convergence Zone
The Intertropical Convergence
Zone (ITCZ), known by sailors as
the doldrums or the calms because of its
monotonous windless weather, is the area
where the northeast and the
southeast trade winds converge. It encircles
Earth near the thermal equator though its
specific position varies seasonally. When it
lies near the geographic Equator, it is called
the near-equatorial trough. Where the
ITCZ is drawn into and merges with
a monsoonial circulation, it is sometimes
referred to as a monsoon trough, a usage
that is more common in Australia and parts
of Asia.

CLIMATOLOGY- PART - I 44
 Equatorial Low Pressure Belt or ‘Doldrums’
 Lies between 10°N and 10°S
latitudes.
 Width may vary between 5°N and 5°S
and 20°N and 20°S.
 This belt happens to be the zone of
convergence of trade winds from
two hemispheres from sub-tropical
high pressure belts.
 This belt is also called the Doldrums,
because of the extremely calm air
movements.
 The position of the belt varies with the
apparent movement of the Sun.
CLIMATOLOGY- PART - I 45
 Formation
 As this region lies along the equator,
it receives highest amount of
insolation.
 Due to intense heating, air gets
warmed up and rises over the
equatorial region (convection).
 Whenever there is vertically upward
movement of air, the region at the
surface will be at low pressure. Thus
the belt along the equator is called
equatorial low pressure belt.

CLIMATOLOGY- PART - I 46
 Climate
 This belt is characterized by extremely low pressure with calm
conditions.
 This is because of the absence of Surface winds since winds
approaching this belt begin to rise near its margin. Thus, only vertical
currents are found.
 As the larger part of the low pressure belt passes along the oceans, the
winds obtain huge amount of moisture.
 Vertical winds (convection) carrying moisture form cumulonimbus
clouds and lead to thunderstorms (convectional rainfall).
 Inspite of high temperatures, cyclones are not formed at the
equator because of ‘zero’ coriolis force. (we will see more later)

CLIMATOLOGY- PART - I 47
 KATABATIC AND ANABATIC WINDS

• These two types of winds

are opposite. Katabatic
winds blow downhill, at
night, whereas Anabatic
Winds blow up-hill, during
daytime.

Climatology - Part 2 48
 Katabatic winds
• On clear nights, the land surface radiates its heat into space
very quickly resulting in a cold layer of air next to the land
surface. If the ground is sloping, the air at point X in the
figure is colder and hence denser than at point Y, which is at
the same horizontal level. Air from point X at the top of the
hill starts sliding down due to gravitational force and is called
a ‘Katabatic wind’.
• If the mountain is high and the slop is steep, Katabatic winds
can reach sea level with force 7 or more in a very short while.
Because of their sudden onset and great force, they are a
menance to small craft and vessel at anchor.

Climatology - Part 2 49
 Katabatic winds
• The onset of Katabatic winds cannot be predicted because they have
no relationship with isobars – they are caused more by gravitational
force than by pressure gradient.
• They are frequently experienced in the Adriatic Sea (e.g., Bora,
Mistral), off Greenland, in the fjords of Norway and many other
places having a high hinterland.

Climatology - Part 2 50
Anabatic winds

Climatology - Part 2 51
 True & Apparent Wind
True Wind

• True wind refers to the actual direction and speed of the wind
relative to the surface of the Earth when measured in a
stationary reference frame.
• It is measured with respect to the earth's surface, ignoring
the motion of the observer.
• True wind is what you would feel if you were stationary and
the air around you was moving

Climatology - Part 2 52
 True & Apparent Wind
Apparent Wind

• Apparent wind is the wind experienced by an observer moving

through the air.
• It's the combination of the true wind and the wind generated by
the observer's motion.
• For example, on a sailboat, if you're sailing at 5 knots directly into
a true wind of 10 knots, you would experience an apparent wind
that is stronger and slightly shifted in direction due to your
motion.
• Apparent wind is what you feel on your face when you're moving,
such as sailing or driving a convertible car.
Climatology - Part 2 53
 True & Apparent Wind
Calculation of Basic Wind Triangle

The direction and speed of the wind is determined by using the OAT
triangle, where: AT stands for the ship's course and speed; OA is the
direction and speed of the apparent wind; and OT is the direction
and speed of the true wind

Explain OAT Triangle

Climatology - Part 2 54
 Buys Ballot’s Law
Buys Ballot’s Law takes its name from C. H. D. Buys Ballot, a Dutch
meteorologist who first published it in 1857.

It describes the relationship between wind direction and atmospheric

pressure.

Northern Hemisphere:
If an observer stands with their back to the wind, the low-pressure
area is to their left, and the high-pressure area is to their right
This phenomenon occurs because wind travels counterclockwise
around low-pressure zones in the Northern Hemisphere.

Climatology - Part 2 55
 Buys Ballot’s Law
Southern Hemisphere:
The relationship is reversed in the Southern Hemisphere.
If you stand with your back to the wind, the low-pressure center will
be to your right and somewhat toward the front

Climatology - Part 2 56
 What is a TRS?
 A tropical revolving storm (TRS) is a low-pressure system that
forms over warm tropical oceans. It is characterized by:
 Low pressure center
 Strong winds
 Spiral arrangement of thunderstorms
 Heavy rains
 Very heavy seas and swell
 In the Northern Hemisphere, winds blow spirally inwards,
anticlockwise, with gale force (34 knots or force 8) or more. In
the Southern Hemisphere, winds blow clockwise
 Also called a Typhoon, Baguios, Hurricane. Cycline, Cordanazo,
Willy-Willy
Capt M Arul Kandhan 57
 TRS : Origin, Movement
 TRS originate in latitudes between 5° & 20° and travel between
W and WNW in the NH and between W and WSW in the SH, at
a speed of about 12 knots. Somewhere along their track, they
curve away from the equator – curve to N and then recurve to
NE in the NH; curve to S and then recurve to SE in the SH.
 Track – The route over which a TRS is already passed.
 Path – The predicted route, over which, there is a possibility of
the TRS passing at near future.
 Another point on the route is called the Vertex, which is the
westernmost point, of the TRS, when recurving takes place.

Capt M Arul Kandhan 58

 Tropical revolving storms - Seasons
Area Name Season
North Atlantic: Western side Hurricane June to November

North Pacific: Western side
North Pacific Eastern side
South Pacific: Western side
South Indian Ocean: Western
& Eastern
Arabian Sea
Bay of Bengal
Typhoon or Baguios
Hurricane or Cordonazo
Hurricane
Cyclone & Willy - Willy
Cyclone
Cyclone
Tropical Revolving Storm
All the year round. Worst
period is from June to
November
June to November
December to April
December to April
During change of Monsoon:
Mid April to mid June, Oct &
Nov. Worst months are May,
Oct & Nov
May to Dec., Worst months
are May, Oct, Nov., and Dec.
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 Weather associated with TRS
• Weather
1. Heavy torrential rains and
winds
2. Violent squalls and sudden
shifts of wind
3. Tornadoes could develop if the
TRS interacts with other
weather systems
4. Flooding of coastal areas

Tropical Revolving Storm 61

 Warning Signs of Approaching TRS
 Swell: swell can be experienced as much as 1000 miles away.
Swell approaches from the direction of storm centre. It is the
first indication of approaching TRS.

 Atmospheric Pressure: Falls steadily, the presence of TRS is

confirmed if the vessel is in area where TRS generally originate,
or it is the time of the year within the season when TRS occurs
or barometric pressure is 5 mb below normal. A pressure drop
of 20 mb is sufficient to cause a well developed TRS.

Capt M Arul Kandhan 62

 Warning Signs of Approaching TRS
 Weather:
 Unusually clear visibility may occur.
 Sometimes peculiar dark red or copper colour of sky is seen at
sunset before a TRS
 Increase of wind force as the pressure falls.
 Frequently lightning may be seen.
 Succession of squalls, with or without rain.

 Storm warning: Radio/Telex/NAVTEX and all other means at hand

should be set on the right frequencies and monitored closely, for
they broadcast comprehensive warnings with respect to known
storms. Refer to the respective ALRS Volumes for more data and
frequencies of radio stations in the vicinity. The Telex, although
barely
Capt used, is also a very important tool that is high on accuracy.
M Arul Kandhan 63
 1-2-3 Rule
 1 – 100 miles error radius for 24 hours forecast.
 2 – 200 miles error radius for 48 hours forecast.
 3 – 300 miles error radius for 72 hours forecast

Capt M Arul Kandhan 64

 Fronts
• When two air masses of different
characteristics meet, the
boundary between the two
adjacent air mass is called as a
front
• It is a transition zone between
two air masses with different
temperatures and humidity.
• Fronts can be thought of as a
frontline, where warm air is on
one side and cold air is on the
other

Capt M Arul Kandhan 65

 Warm Fronts
• A Warm Front forms when a
relatively moist, warm air mass
slides up and over a cold air mass.
• As the warm air mass rises, it often
condenses into a broad area of
clouds.
• The warm air at the surface, behind
the warm front, advances slowly,
replacing the cold air at the surface
• Warm fronts bring warmer
temperatures and changes in wind
direction and air pressure.
• Clouds and precipitation develop
ahead of a warm front, and clear
skies and warmer temperatures
follow

Capt M Arul Kandhan 66

 Warm Fronts
• On weather maps, a warm front
is represented by a solid red line
with red, filled-in semicircles
along it.
• The semicircles indicate the
direction that the front is moving.
• Warm fronts usually move more
slowly than cold fronts. This is
because warm air is less dense
than cold air, and so it tends to
override, rather than displace,
the cold air.

Capt M Arul Kandhan 67

 Cold Fronts
• A cold front is a boundary between
two air masses, where a cooler
mass of air replaces a warmer
mass.
• A cold front marks the leading edge
of a mass of air that is cooler than
the air in front of it
• Since cool air is more dense than
warm air, the advancing cool air lifts
the warm air out of the way.
• This lift often creates clouds, rain
and snow and can sometimes bring
severe thunderstorms and even
powerful wind gusts in lieu of any
rain. Cold fronts are hence
characterized by clouds, rain, and
sometimes storms

Capt M Arul Kandhan 68

 Cold Fronts
• Generally moves from NW to SE.
• Behind cold front, air is colder &
drier.
• When a cold front passes through,
temp can drop even by >15°C.
• Slope / gradient of the Cold front is
1:50.
• Cold fronts produce cumulus clouds,
which can grow into cumulonimbus
clouds (that produce
thunderstorms).
• After a cold front moves through,
the cumulus clouds are replaced by
stratus and stratocumulus clouds or
clear skies.
Capt M Arul Kandhan 69
 Cold Fronts
• As a cold front approaches, the
barometric pressure usually falls.
• In the wake of a cold front, the
barometric pressure usually rises.
• Slow moving cold fronts have
gentle gradient.
• Average speed of cold front is
about 25 kts
• On weather maps, a cold front is
represented by a solid blue line
with filled-in triangles along it,
like in the map

Capt M Arul Kandhan 70

 Stationary & Occluded Fronts
• Stationary Front • Occluded Front
• A stationary front forms at a • An occlusion occurs when the
fixed location when two air cold front "catches up" with the
masses meet, but neither is warm front. The warm air is
strong enough to replace the then lifted from the surface,
other. and therefore hidden. The
temperature drops as the warm
air mass is occluded, or “cut
off,” from the ground and
pushed upward.

Capt M Arul Kandhan 71

 Temperate Latitude Depression

Capt M Arul Kandhan 72

 Temperate Latitude Depression
 Temperate Latitude Depressions, are also known as
Mid-latitude depressions,
Extra-tropical cyclones,
Frontal depressions,
 Weather systems that occur in the mid-latitudinal regions
(between 35° to 65° latitudes) in both hemispheres.
 Formation and Location:
Temperate depressions develop where humid tropical air
masses meet cold polar air masses.
These air masses converge at a zone called the polar front.
The depressions often form as wavelike perturbations along
these fronts.
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 Temperate Latitude Depression
 Movement and Shape:
 Temperate cyclones move from west to east and are more
pronounced during winter.
 On weather maps, they appear as low-pressure areas enclosed by
circular or elliptical isobars.
 When isobars elongate, the system is referred to as a trough.
 Characteristics:
 Diameter: Larger than tropical cyclones (1000–2000 nautical miles).
 Pressure Gradient: Lesser than tropical cyclones.
 Wind Strength: Weaker than tropical cyclones.
 Velocity Increase: Gradual and uniform.
 Residual Warmth and Moisture: Sometimes contain remnants from
dissipated tropical storms.
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 Temperate Latitude Depression
 Weather Conditions:
Associated with strong winds and low pressures.
Changing weather conditions during temperate cyclones
include:
Warm Front: Occurs when warm air replaces cold air,
leading to gradual weather changes.
Cold Front: Brings abrupt weather changes as cold air
displaces warm air.
Precipitation: Often accompanied by rain, snow, or sleet.
 Distribution: Most temperate cyclones are observed in the Atlantic
Ocean and northwest Europe.
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 TRS Vs Temperate Latitude Depression
TRS Temp Lat Depression
Develop over tropical ocean areas Develop at the boundary between different air
masses in middle or higher latitudes
Diameter: Generally less than 500 nautical Diameter: Larger (1000–2000 nm)
miles (nm)
Pressure: Frequently around 960 millibars Pressure gradient: Lesser than TRS
(mb)
Winds regularly reach hurricane force Wind strength: Weaker than TRS
Only one single air mass involved Two different air masses involved
Wind speeds are maximum at lower levels Wind speeds increase with height . At height
& decrease with height of 1.5km, jets of 100Kn to 200Kn may be
experienced
No appreciable change in air temperature Drastic changes of air temperature, as much
observed when it passes over an observer as 20°C owing to the different air masses in
contact
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 TRS Vs Temperate Latitude Depression
TRS
Form in areas of constant winds (Trade
wind areas)
Energy obtained from latent heat given off
by enormous condensation
Similar pattern of isobars exist throughout
the life of storm
Capt M Arul Kandhan
Temp Lat Depression
Usually form in areas of different wind
directions
Energy obtained by lifting of warm air by cold
air
Pattern of isobars vary and change very much
during the life of Exotropical depression
78
 Beaufort Scale of Wind Force

 The Beaufort scale, also known

as the Beaufort wind force scale,
is a descriptive table that
measures wind speed and its
effects.
 It was developed in 1805 by
Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort to
help sailors estimate winds.
 The scale starts at 0 and goes
up to 12
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 Symbols and Colors on Weather Maps

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 Symbols

• A weather map and its symbols are meant to

convey a lot of weather information quickly and
without using a lot of words.
• Just as equations are the language of
mathematics, weather symbols are the language
of weather, so that anyone looking at a map
should be able to decipher the same exact
information from it

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High and Low Air Pressure Centers

The large letters (Blue H's and red L's) on weather maps
indicate high- and low-pressure centers. They mark where the
air pressure is highest and lowest relative to the surrounding air
and are often labeled with a three- or four-digit pressure
reading
Capt in millibars.
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High and Low Air Pressure Centers

Highs tend to bring clearing and stable weather, whereas

lows encourage clouds and precipitation. So pressure
centers are "x-marks-the-spot" areas to aid in determining
where these two general conditions will occur
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Isobars

Lines surrounding and encircling the "highs" and "lows" are called
isobars because they connect areas where the air pressure is the
same The more closely the isobars are spaced together, the
stronger the pressure change (pressure gradient) is over a
distance. On the other hand, widely-spaced isobars indicate a
more
Capt gradual change in pressure
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Wx Fronts & Features
Warm fronts are indicated by curved
red lines with red semicircles.

Cold fronts are curved blue lines with

blue triangles.

Stationary fronts have alternating

sections of red curves with semicircles
and blue curves with triangles.

Occluded fronts are curved purple

lines with both semicircles and
triangles.

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 Station plots describe the weather at a
station location. They include reports of a
variety of weather data at that location:

• Air temperature (in degrees

Fahrenheit)
• Dewpoint temperature (degrees
Fahrenheit)
• Current weather (marked as one of
dozens of symbols established by
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration or NOAA)
• Sky cover (also as one of NOAA's
symbols)
• Atmospheric pressure (in millibars)
• Pressure tendency
Capt M Arul Kandhan
• Wind direction and speed (in knots) 87
Surface Weather Station Plots
Station plots describe the weather at a
station location. They include reports of a
variety of weather data at that location:

• Air temperature (in degrees Fahrenheit)

• Dewpoint temperature (degrees
Fahrenheit)
• Current weather (marked as one of
dozens of symbols established by
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration or NOAA)
• Sky cover (also as one of NOAA's
symbols)
• Atmospheric pressure (in millibars)
• Pressure tendency
Capt M Arul Kandhan • Wind direction and speed (in knots) 88
Weather Map Symbols for Current Weather

These symbols were

Capt M Arul Kandhan
established by NOAA for
use in weather station
plots. They tell what
weather conditions are
currently happening at
that particular station
location 89
Sky Cover Symbols

NOAA has also established sky cover

symbols to use in station weather
plots. In general, the percentage that
the circle is filled represents the
amount of sky that's covered with
clouds.

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Wind Direction and Wind Speed Symbols
Wind direction is indicated by the line that
extends out from the station plot sky cover
circle. The direction the line points is the
direction from which the wind is blowing.

Wind speed is indicated by the shorter lines,

called "barbs," which extend from the longer
line. Wind speed is measured in knots and is
always rounded to the nearest 5 knots. The
total wind speed is determined by adding
together the different sizes of barbs
according to the following winds speeds that
each represents:
Half barb = 5 knots
Long barb = 10 knots
Capt M Arul Kandhan
Pennant (flag) = 50 knots 91
Precipitation Areas and Symbols
• Some surface maps include
a radar image overlay (called
a radar composite) that
depicts where precipitation is
falling based on returns from
a weather radar.

• The intensity of rain, snow,

sleet, or hail is estimated
based on color, where light
blue represents light rain (or
snow), and red/magenta
indicates flooding rains and
severe storms

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Symbols : Facsimile Broadcast

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Cold, Warm & Occluded Front on Synoptic Chart

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 Important Ocean Currents

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96