NDTS Lecture Notes

Class notes on Non-Destructive Testing of Structures
Unit 1
INTRODUCTION
Non-destructive testing (NDT) methods are techniques used to obtain information about the properties
or internal condition of an object without damaging the object. Non-destructive testing is a descriptive
term used for the examination of materials and components in such way that allows materials to be
examined without changing or destroying their usefulness. NDT is a quality assurance management
tool which can give impressive results when used correctly. It requires an understanding of the various
methods available, their capabilities and limitations, knowledge of the relevant standards and
specifications for performing the tests. NDT techniques can be used to monitor the integrity of the
item or structure throughout its design life.
Though non-destructive testing procedures are very straightforward to use, analyzing and interpreting
test findings is more difficult. As a result, analyzing the hardened characteristics of concrete
necessitates specialized expertise. Because the specimen is not loaded to failure in non-destructive
testing, the strength inferred or calculated cannot be anticipated to give absolute values of strength. As
a result, these approaches seek to test certain additional characteristics of concrete in order to
determine its strength, durability, and elastic parameters. Hardness, resistance to projectile penetration,
rebound number, resonance frequency, and capacity to transmit ultrasonic pulse velocity are some of
the characteristics of concrete.
Concrete’s electrical characteristics, as well as its ability to absorb, scatter, and transmit X-rays and
Gamma-rays, as well as its reaction to nuclear activation and acoustic emission, enable us to determine
its moisture content, density, thickness, and cement content.
Advantage
The greatest disadvantage of the conventional methods of testing concrete lies in the fact that
in-situ strength of the concrete can not be obtained without damaging the actual structure. Also the
test specimens are destroyed, once the test is performed and subsequent testing of the same specimens
is not possible. Thus, the effect of prolonged curing, weathering action and other time dependent
characteristics can not be correctly calculated. No matter how well a concrete mix is designed, there
are variations in mixing conditions, amount of compaction or curing conditions at site which cause the
variations in the final product. Conventional method of testing is not sufficient to predict the
performance of the structures under adverse conditions e.g. exposure to liquid, gas, and chemicals
radiation, explosion, fire, extreme cold or hot weather, marine and chemical environment. All such
severe exposure conditions may induce deterioration in concrete and impair the integrity, strength and
stability of the structure. Thus, conventional strength test does not give idea about the durability and
performance of the actual concrete in the structure. This gave the impetus to the development of non-
destructive methods for testing structural concrete in-situ.
Advantages of non-destructive testing of concrete are:
1. The equipment is simple to use.
2. Defects can be found without causing damage to the components.
3. The methods are rapid and precise.
4. Electrical, magnetic, and chemical characteristics can be used to sort components.
5. It’s simple to keep track of test results and other information.
Disadvantages of non-destructive testing of concrete are:
1. Manual operations need the attention of skilled experts.
2. Inspection of irregular components might be difficult.
3. The couplant’s requirement.
4. Water-resistant test items are required.
Thus, NDT methods are extremely valuable in assessing the condition of structures, such as bridges,
buildings, elevated service reservoirs and highways, etc. The principal objectives of the non-
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Prepared by Dr. S.M. Laskar
destructive testing of concrete in situ is to assess one or more of the following properties of structural
concrete as below:
1. In situ strength properties
2. Durability
3. Density
4. Moisture content
5. Elastic properties
6. Extent of visible cracks
7. Thickness of structural members having only one face exposed
8. Position and condition of steel reinforcement
9. Concrete cover over the reinforcement.
10. Reliable assessment of the integrity or detection of defects of concrete members even when
they are accessible only from a single surface.
The standard life of R.C.C. frame structure is considered to be in the range of 50-60 years
approximately depending upon the use and the importance of the structure. But it has been observed
that many of the buildings completing just 50% of their life in coastal areas found to be in distressed
condition and this needs the evaluation of the strength of the building so that appropriate remedial
action can be taken to improve performance of the building depending upon the extent of deterioration
of the structure.
A structure may also get damaged due to fire, earthquake, explosion, etc. there could be loss
of strength and reduction in area of cross section due to fire depending on intensity of fire, temperature,
duration of fire and size of the structural member. Stability of such member becomes critical. It is
imperative to measure residual strength and assess stability by NDT means.
Earthquake effects could prevail on all members calling resistance to deformation and
distortions by way of ductility and toughness available with them. The resulting distress is more
pronounced at beam column junction, shear and flexural zones due to excessive deflection and
deformations exhibited by way of surface and deeper penetrated cracks. In such cases there is a loss
of integrity and stability of the structure. NDT is the only means to assess the extent of cracks and to
decide weather any structural damage has occurred. This decision helps to undertake appropriate
restoration or improvement strategy i.e., whether to go for grouting or strengthening of the member.
Due to explosion, structure is suddenly loaded by way of impact forces. The structure may get
heated up under high temperature generated by explosion and burn partially and deform when it is
under loads. Visible damage may immediately help to decide for replacement of the member. But an
invisible damage, which has distressed the structure, needs assessment for integrity, loss of strength
and stability. Assessment through NDT can guide for reuse of the structure.
NDT being fast, easy to use at site and relatively less expensive can be used for the following:
1. To test actual structure instead of representative cube samples.
2. To test any number of points and at any location.
3. Quality control and quality assurance management tool
4. To assess the structure for various distressed conditions
5. Damage assessment due to fire, chemical attack, impact, age etc.
6. To detect cracks, voids, fractures, honeycombs and week locations
7. To monitor progressive changes in properties of concrete & reinforcement.
8. To assess overall stability of the structure
9. Monitoring repairs and rehabilitation systems
10. Scanning for reinforcement location, stress locations.
Variables Involved
When considering the variables of the test material that affect test results we can group them into
three areas of concern:
1. Entry surface
2. Part size and geometry
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3. Internal structure
1. Entry surface variables include:

a. surface roughness
b. surface coatings
c. couplant condition
a. Surface Roughness
Surface roughness have several possible effects on the inspection of a test piece. In contact testing
roughness on a gross scale result from weld spatter, plate scale, dirt (sand) and rough cast surfaces
from sand casting. These irregularities cause some points of contact to push away the couplant and
force it into the lower areas around the probe. If the couplant is not sufficiently viscous it drains away
quickly and fail to couple the probe to the test piece (ref. fig. below).
In addition to reduced coupling, which reduces signal amplitudes, the rough surface increases the rate
of wear on the probe. On an otherwise smooth surface isolated protrusions such as weld spatter can
hinder or stop probe motion or in the case of mechanized systems there may be sufficient force to
move the probe past the obstruction but this could result in damaging the probe by either tearing it
from its mounting or severely scoring the plastic wedge. When the dirt on the test piece is very fine
(similar to a flour texture) coupling can be prevented due to surface tension preventing the liquid
couplant penetrating to the metal. Unless a transfer value has been established between test piece and
calibration piece, this could go undetected.
b. Surface Coatings
Surface coatings are added to protect a surface from corrosion or to enhance its appearance. Thin films,
such as oxide layers, anodizing layers or electroplated finishes, and the slightly thicker coatings of
paint or lacquer are usually well bonded to the surface. Quality of bond may be compared to the
uncoated reference block by a simple transfer value. Even a slight loss due to the coating may be
preferable to removing the coating and trying to inspect on the rough surface it hides. When thickness
testing is done on a painted surface the paint thickness can add error to the reading.
c. Couplant Condition
Both contact and immersion methods utilize intervening media to transfer sound from the probe into
the test piece and back to the receiver. With immersion methods it is accomplished by a single fluid
medium. In contact testing there are nearly always at least two intervening media; the delay-line or
protective face and the thin film of coupling fluid or grease. Attenuation and acoustic velocity are the
two main properties that dictate the performance of a couplant. Attenuation affects amplitude of the
signal and velocity will determine both transit time and refracted angles.
But attenuation and velocity of couplants are not independent properties. Each is a function of other
parameters. Unless these parameters are controlled or in some way compensated for, gross variations
from the reference value or calibration conditions can result.
2. Part Size and Geometry

Test results may vary if the test piece differs from the calibration or reference piece. In this way both
shape and size contribute to potential variation in test results. Particular interest in this variable exists
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for contact testing on curved surfaces. When a flat probe is used on a convex curved surface only a
portion of the probe makes contact. This reduces the amount of sound that can be transferred to and
from the test piece. As a result sensitivity compared to coupling to a flat piece is reduced. The
proportion of sound reduction compared to a flat piece is a function of the curvature of the part, the
crystal diameter and the coupling ability of the couplant via its viscosity.
Some sources also consider the relative hardness of the probe face with a greater coupling or
contouring available from softer material such as plastics and virtually no contouring available.
3. Internal Structure
The final aspect of material variations affecting test results is the structure of material under test.
Material parameters are a function of makeup and environmental conditions. Makeup is determined
by design and processing. Whether the material under test is steel, aluminium or fibre-composite,
variations can occur by design. Proportion of resin to fibre vary in composites and metals may have
many alloying variations. In addition, metal grain structure can be varied by alloy, heat treatment and
working. All these factors provide differences in the results of ultrasonic tests manifested as variations
in velocity or attenuation. Also, just as temperature and pressures were noted to change velocity and
attenuation in couplants so too will the material under test be similarly affected by these externally
controlled conditions.
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Unit 2
QUALITY TESTS
The various non-destructive and semi-destructive tests can be grouped as below:

Group - I A: Non-destructive Tests for Concrete
• Surface Hardness Test - Rebound Hammer Test
• Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test
Group - I B: Partially Destructive Tests for Concrete
• Penetration Resistance Test - Windsor Probe
• Pull-out Test
• Pull-off Test
• Break-off Test
• Core Cutting
Group - II: Tests for Properties of Concrete at Fresh and Hardened State and For Durability
a. Chemical Tests
b. Cement Content & Aggregate / Cement Ratio
c. Sulphate Determination Test
d. Chloride Determination Test
e. Alkalinity Test
f. Carbonation Test
g. Absorption & Permeability Tests
h. Crack Monitor
i. Moisture Measurement
j. Abrasion Resistance Test
k. Fresh Concrete Tests For W/C Ratio and Compressive Strength
Group - III: NDT for reinforcement details and condition
➢ Rebar Locator & bar sizer
➢ Corrosion mapping
• Half-cell Potentiometer
• Resistivity meter
Group - IV: Miscellaneous Test
a. Radiographic Test
• X- Ray
• Cobalt Gamma ray
Selection of NDT and Semi-NDT Method
Table 2.1 Selection of NDT and Semi-NDT Method

Parameter Testing Methods
1. Windsor Probe
2. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity
3. Core
Compressive Strength of Concrete 4. Capo
5. Pull-out
6. Combined Methods
7. Rebound Hammer
Flexural Strength Break-off
1. Direct Tensile Strength
Direct Tensile Strength
2. Pull-off
Concrete Quality and Homogeneity
2. Pulse Echo
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3. Endoscopy
4. Gamma Ray Radiography
1. Rebound Hammer
Damage – Fire; Blast
2. Acoustic Crack Detector
3. Dye Penetration Test
Cracks - Water Tanks; Pavements
4. X-Ray Radiography
5. Gamma-Ray Radiography
6. Crack Scope
1. Rebar Locator
Steel – Location; Cover; Size
2. Rebar Scanner
1. Half-Cell Potential
2. Resistivity
Corrosion
3. Carbonation
4. Chloride Content
Condition Endoscope/Borescope
1. Tapping
2. Pulse-Echo
Integrity & Performance 3. Acoustic Emission
4. Rader
5. Load Test
A. Schmidt’s Rebound Hammer Test

The rebound hammer method could be used for the following:
1. Assessing the compressive strength of concrete with the help of suitable co-relations between
rebound index and compressive strength.
2. Assessing the uniformity of the concrete.
3. Assessing the quality of concrete in relation to the standard requirements.
4. Assessing the quality of one element of concrete in relation to another.
Principle of RH Test
The test is based on the principle that the rebound of an elastic mass depends on the hardness of the
surface upon which it impinges. When the plunger of the rebound hammer pressed against the surface
of the concrete, the spring controlled mass rebounds and the extent of such rebound depend upon the
surface hardness of concrete. The surface hardness and therefore the rebound is taken to be relation to
the compressive strength of concrete. The rebound is read off along a graduated scale and is designated
as the rebound number or rebound index.
Fig. 2.1 Basic Features of Rebound Hammer
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Working of Rebound Hammer
A schematic cut way view of Schmidt’s rebound hammer is shown in Fig. 2.1. The hammer weight
about 1.8 kg and is suitable for use both in a laboratory and in the field. When the plunger of rebound
hammer is pressed against the surface of concrete, a spring-controlled mass rebounds and the extent
of such rebound depends upon the surface hardness of concrete.
The rebound distance is measured on a graduated scale and is designated as rebound number.
Basically, the rebound distance depends on the value of kinetic energy in the hammer, prior to impact
with the shoulder of the plunger and how much of that energy is absorbed during impact. The energy
absorbed by the concrete depends on the stress-strain relationship of concrete. Thus, a low strength
low stiffness concrete will absorb more energy than high strength concrete and will give a lower
rebound number.
Fig. 2.2 Schematic Cross-section of Rebound Hammer and Principle of Operation
Method of testing using Schmidt’s RH

To prepare the instrument for a test, release the plunger from its locked position by pushing the plunger
against the concrete and slowly moving the body away from the concrete. This causes the plunger to
extend from the body and the latch engages the hammer mass to the plunger rod.
1. Hold the plunger perpendicular to the concrete surface and slowly push the body towards the
test object. (The surface must be smooth, clean and dry and should preferably be formed, but
if trowelled surfaced are unavoidable, they should be rubbed smooth with the carborundum
stone usually provided with the equipment. Loose material can be ground off, but areas which
are rough from poor compaction, grout loss, spalling or tooling must be avoided, since the
results will be unreliable).
2. As the body is pushed, the main spring connecting the hammer mass to the body is stretched.
When the body is pushed to the limit, the latch is automatically released and the energy stored
in the spring propels the hammer mass towards the plunger tip. The mass impacts the shoulder
of the plunger rod and rebounds.
3. During rebound, the slide indicator travels with the hammer mass and records the rebound
distance. A button on the side of the body is pushed to lock the plunger in the retracted position
and the rebound number is read from the scale.
The test can be conducted horizontally, vertically upward or downward or at any intermediate
angle. Due to different effects of gravity on the rebound as the test angle is changed, the
rebound number will be different for the same concrete. This will require separate calibration
or correction charts, given by the manufacturer of the hammer.
Correlation Procedure
Each hammer is provided with correlation curves developed by the manufacturer using standard cube
specimens. However, the use of these curves is not recommended because material and testing
conditions may not be similar to those in effect when the calibration of the instrument was performed.
A typical correlation procedure is given as below:
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1. Prepare a number of 150 mm cube specimens covering the strength range to be encountered
on the job site. Use the same cement and aggregates as are to be used on the job. Cure the
cubes under standard moist curing room conditions.
2. After capping, place the cubes in a compression testing machine under an initial load of
approximately 15% of the ultimate load to restrain the specimen. Ensure that cubes are in
saturated surface dry conditions.
3. Make 5 hammer rebound readings on each of four moulded faces without testing the same spot
twice and minimum 20 mm gap from edges.
4. Average the readings and call this the rebound number for the cube under test.
5. Repeat this procedure for all the cubes.
6. Test the cubes to failure in compression and plot the rebound numbers against the compressive
strength on a graph.
7. Fit a curve or a line by the method of least squares. It is important to note that some of the
curves deviate considerably from the curves supplied with the hammer.
Limitations
Although the rebound hammer provides a quick inexpensive means of checking the uniformity of
concrete, it has serious limitations and these must be understood clearly for interpretation of test
results.
Factors affecting rebound number

The results of Schmidt’s rebound hammer are significantly influenced by the following factors:
(a) Smoothness of Test Surface
(b) Size, Shape and Rigidity of the Specimen
(c) Age of Test Specimen
(d) Moisture Condition
(e) Type of Coarse Aggregate
(f) Type of Cement
(g) Type of Mould
(h) Surface Carbonation
Influence of these factors has different magnitudes. Hammer orientation will also influence the
measured values, although correction factors can be used to allow for this effect.
Precautions to be taken while using rebound hammer

The following precautionary measures are taken while using the rebound hammer which may give rise
to minimize error
• The surface on which the hammer strikes should be smooth and uniform. Moulded faces in
such cases may be preferred over the Trowelled faces.
• The test hammer should not be used within about 20 mm from the edge of the specimen.
• Rebound hammer should not be used over the same points more than once.
• The rebound test must be conducted closely placed to test points, on at least 10 to 12 locations
while taking the average extremely high and low values of the index number should be
neglected.
B. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test

The ultrasonic pulse velocity test is used for non-destructive testing of plain, reinforced and prestressed
concrete whether it is precast or cast in-situ
Objectives of UPV Test

The main objectives of the ultrasonic pulse velocity method are to establish
• The Homogeneity of the Concrete
• The Presence of Cracks, Voids and other Imperfections
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• Changes in the Structure of the Concrete Caused by the Exposure Condition, Corrosion, Wear
etc. which may occur with time,
• The Quality of the Concrete in Relation to the Specified Standard Requirements.
• The Quality of One Element of Concrete in Relation to the Another.
• The Values of the Dynamic Elastic Modulus of the Concrete.
Principle of UPV Test

This is one of the most commonly used method in which the ultrasonic pulses generated by electro-
acoustical transducer are transmitted through the concrete. In solids, the particles can oscillate along
the direction of sound propagation as longitudinal waves or the oscillations can be perpendicular to
the direction of sound waves as transverse waves. When the pulse is induced into the concrete from a
transducer, it undergoes multiple reflections at the boundaries of the different material phases within
the concrete. A complex system of stress waves is developed which includes longitudinal
(Compressional), shear (Transverse) and surface (Rayleigh) waves. This transducers convert electrical
signals into mechanical vibrations (transmit mode) and mechanical vibration into electrical signals
(receive mode). The travel time is measured with an accuracy of +/- 0.1 microseconds. Transducers
with natural frequencies between 20 kHz and 200 kHz are available, but 50 kHz to 100 kHz transducers
are common.
The receiving transducer detects the onset of the longitudinal waves which is the fastest wave.
Because the velocity of the pulses is almost independent of the geometry of the material through which
they pass and depends only on its elastic property. Under certain specified conditions, the velocity and
strength of concrete are directly related. The common factor is the density of concrete; a change in the
density results in a change in a pulse velocity, likewise for a same mix with change in density, the
strength of concrete changes. Thus lowering of the density caused by increase in water-cement ratio
decreases both the compressive strength of concrete as well as the velocity of a pulse transmitted
through it.
Pulse Velocity method is a convenient technique for investigating structural concrete. The
underlying principle of assessing the quality of concrete is that comparative higher velocities are
obtained when the quality of concrete in terms of density, homogeneity and uniformity is good. In case
poorer quality of concrete, lower velocities are obtained. If there is a crack, void or flaw inside the
concrete which comes in the way of transmission of the pulses, the pulse strength is attenuated and it
passes around the discontinuity, thereby making path length longer. Consequently, lower velocities
are obtained. The actual pulse velocity obtained depends primarily upon the material and the mix
proportion of the concrete. Density and modulus of elasticity of aggregate also significantly affect the
pulse velocity.
Transducers: Piezoelectric and magneto strictive types of transducers are available in the range of 20
kHz to 150 kHz of natural frequency. Generally, high frequency transducers are preferable for short
path length and low frequency transducers for long path lengths. Transducers with a frequency of 50
to 60 kHz are useful for most all-round applications.
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Fig. 2.3 Schematic Diagram of Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method
There are three possible ways of measuring pulse velocity through concrete:
a. Direct Transmission (Cross Probing) through Concrete: In this method transducers are held
on opposite face of the concrete specimen under test as shown in fig. The method is most
commonly used and is to be preferred to the other two methods because this results in
maximum sensitivity and provides a well-defined path length.
b. Semi-direct Transmission through Concrete: Sometimes one of the faces of the concrete
specimen under test is not accessible, in that case we have to apply semi-direct method as
shown in fig. In this method, the sensitivity will be smaller than cross probing and the path
length is not clearly defined.
c. Indirect Transmission (Surface Probing) through Concrete: This method of pulse
transmission is used when only one face of concrete is accessible. Surface probing is the least
satisfactory of the three methods because the pulse velocity measurements indicate the quality
of concrete only near the surface and do not give information about deeper layers of concrete.
The weaker concrete that may be below a strong surface cannot be detected. Also in this
method path length is less well defined. Surface probing in general gives lower pulse velocity
than in the case of cross probing and depending on number of parameters.
Fig. 2.4 Different Methods of Propagating Ultrasonic Pulses through Concrete
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Table 2.2 Velocity Criteria for Concrete Quality Grading (as per Table 2 of IS 13311 (Part 1) 1992)
Pulse Velocity by Cross Probing Concrete Quality
Sr. No.
(km/sec) Grading
1. Above 4.5 Excellent
2. 3.5 to 4.5 Good
3. 3.0 to 3.5 Medium
4. Below 3.0 Doubtful
Note: In case of doubtful quality of concrete, it may be necessary to carry out further tests.
Combined methods
There are different non-destructive testing methods which can be broadly classified as those which
measure the overall quality of the concrete, dynamic or vibration methods like resonance frequency
and ultrasonic pulse velocity tests and those which involve measurement of parameters like surface
hardness, rebound, penetration, pull-out strength etc. are believed to be indirectly related to the
compressive strength of concrete. In addition, radiographic, radiometric, nuclear, magnetic and
electrical methods are also available. Since such non-destructive tests are at best indirect methods of
monitoring the particulars, characteristics of concrete. The measurements are influenced by materials,
concrete mix proportions and environmental factors. When the data of the materials and mix
proportions used in the construction are not available, as is often the case. In view of the limitation of
the methods for the predicting the strength of concrete in the structure, IS 13311 (Part 1) 1992 has
suggested to use combined method of ultrasonic pulse velocity and rebound hammer methods to
alleviate the errors arising out of influence of materials, concrete mix proportions and environmental
parameters on the respective measurement.
The use of more than one methods are capable of providing useful information and statically
improved accuracy for estimation of in situ strength of concrete.
Combination of ultrasonic pulse velocity method and Schmidt rebound hammer may result much
better estimation of strength of concrete because the influence of certain factors in the composition of
the concrete and its curing are minimized.
• Smoothness of Concrete Surface under Test

• Moisture Condition of Concrete
• Influence of Path Length on Pulse Velocity
• Lateral Dimensions.
• Temperature of Concrete
• Effect of Reinforcing Bars
• Influence of stress
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Unit 3
SEMI-DESTRUCTIVE TESTS
A. Windsor Probe (Penetration Resistance Test)
Penetration resistance test is conducted on concrete structures using Windsor Probe test machine. In
this test method, a steel probe is fired on the concrete surface by a sudden explosion. The penetration
is inversely proportional to the strength of concrete. The result of the test is influenced by aggregate
strength and nature of formed surfaces of concrete.
The purpose of the penetration resistance test is used to determine the uniformity of concrete, specify
the poor quality or deteriorated concrete zones, and evaluate the in-place strength of concrete. It is
sometimes necessary to estimate the strength of concrete on-site for early form removal or to
investigate the strength of concrete in place because of low cylinder test results.
Due to the nature of the equipment, it cannot and should not be expected to yield absolute values of
strength. The penetration resistance test on hardened concrete can be carried out based on the
procedures and specifications of the Standard Test Method for Penetration Resistance of Hardened
Concrete (ASTM C 803/ 803M- 97) or British Standard (BS 1881 Part 207).
Purpose of Penetration Resistance Test

1. To determine the concrete strength.
2. For evaluating the uniformity of concrete.
3. To identify deterioration in concrete.
4. To evaluate the in-place strength.
5. For investigating the presence of cracks and flaws.
Application of Penetration Resistance Test

Penetration resistance test is conducted to estimate the strength of concrete on-site for early
form removal or to investigate the strength of concrete in place because of low cylinder test
results.
Apparatus
1. Probe
Probe consists of driver unit used to drive the probe into the concrete and probe manufactured from
alloy-steel rod plated for corrosion protection, with a blunt conical end that can be inserted into the
driver unit and driven into the concrete surface.
Probes of 79.4-mm overall length and 7.9-mm diameter, with the penetrating end diameter reduced to
6.4 mm for approximately 14.3 mm in length, is suitable for testing concrete with a unit weight of
2000 kg/m3 or greater. Pins can be used instead of probe when the penetration resistance test is carried
out using this tool.
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2. Measurement Equipment
Measurement equipment such as a Vernier caliper or depth gauge to measure the exposed length of a
probe to the nearest 0.5 mm. The measuring equipment shall include a reference base plate which is
supported on the concrete surface at three equally spaced points at least 50 mm from the probe to be
measured.
3. Positioning Device
A single device or a triangular device with holes at the three corners can be used for positioning and
guiding the probe and driver unit.
Sampling
1. Concrete to be tested should have gain enough strength so that the probe would not penetrate
more than one half the thickness of the concrete member
2. Maximum spacing between probes is 175 mm
3. Minimum spacing between probes is 100 mm
4. Minimum spacing between concrete and the edge of a concrete surface is 100mm.
5. A minimum of three firmly embedded test probes in a given test area constitute one test.
Testing Procedure
1. Place the positioning device on the surface of the concrete at the location to be tested.
2. Mount a probe in the driver unit
3. Position the driver in the positioning device
4. Fire the probe into the concrete.
5. Remove the positioning device and tap the probe on the exposed end with a small hammer to
ensure that it has not rebounded and to confirm that it is firmly embedded.
6. Place the measuring base plate over the probe and position it so that it bears firmly on the
surface of the concrete without rocking or other movement.
Limitations
1. Tests only on through the thin layers of concrete surface.
2. Fails to yield the absolute value of the strength.
3. Damages the structures by making holes.
4. The accuracy of this test is ± 25 %.
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B. Pull out Test
The fundamental principle behind pull-out testing is that the test equipment designed to a specific
geometry will produce results (pull-out forces) that closely correlate to the compressive strength of
concrete. This correlation is achieved by measuring the force required to pull a steel disc or ring,
embedded in fresh concrete, against a circular counter pressure placed on the concrete surface
concentric with the disc/ring.
Types of Pull-out Tests:
Depending upon the placement of disc/ring in he fresh concrete, pull out test can be divided into 2
types,
1. LOK test
2. CAPO test (Cut and Pull-out Test)
LOK Test:
The LOK-test system is used to obtain a reliable estimate of the in-place strength of concrete in newly
cast structures in accordance with the pullout test method described in ASTM C900, BS 1881:207, or
EN 12504-3.
A steel disc, 25 mm in diameter at a depth of 25 mm, is pulled centrally against a 55 mm diameter

counter pressure ring bearing on the surface. The force f required to pullout the insert is measured.
The concrete in the strut between the disc and the counter pressure ring is subjected to a compressive
load. Therefore, the pullout force f is related directly to the compressive strength.
CAPO test (Cut and Pull-out Test)

The CAPO-TEST permits performing pullout tests on existing structures without the need of
preinstalled inserts. CAPO-TEST provides a pullout test system similar to the LOK-TEST system for
accurate on-site estimates of compressive strength. Procedures for performing post-installed pullout
tests, such as CAPO-TEST, are included in ASTM C900 and EN 12504-3.
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When selecting the location for a CAPO-TEST, ensure that reinforcing bars are not within the failure
region. The surface at the test location is ground using a planing tool and a 18.4 mm hole is made
perpendicular to the surface using a diamond-studded core bit. A recess (slot) is routed in the hole to
a diameter of 25 mm and at a depth of 25 mm. A split ring is expanded in the recess and pulled out
using a pull machine reacting against a 55 mm diameter counter pressure ring. As in the LOKTEST,
the concrete in the strut between the expanded ring and the counter pressure ring is in compression.
Hence, the ultimate pullout force F is related directly to compressive strength.
CAPO Test on Concrete Slab
Relationship between the pullout force and compressive strength

The relationship between the pullout force Fu in kN and compressive strength Fc in MPa is given
below,
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Typical Pull out Force Calibration Chart
By measuring the pull-out force of a cast-in disc or expanded ring, the compressive strength of in-situ
concrete can be determined from the relationship in figure below to a great degree of confidence.
Pull off force compressive strength relationship
The pullout test produces a well defined in the concrete and measure a static strength property of
concrete. The equipment is simple to assemble and operate.
The compressive strength can be considered as proportional to the ultimate pullout force. The
reliability of the test is reported as good. It is superior to rebound hammer and Windsor probe test
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because of greater depth of concrete volume tested. However, this test is not recommended for
aggregates beyond size of 38mm.
The major limitation of this test is that it requires special care at the time of placement of inserts to
minimize air void below the disc besides a pre-planned usage.
Uses:
1. Determine in-situ compressive strength of the concrete
2. Ascertain the strength of concrete for carrying out post tensioning operations.
3. Determine the time of removal of forms and shores based on actual in-situ strength of the
structure.
4. Terminate curing based on in-situ strength of the structure.
5. It can be also used for testing repaired concrete sections.
17
Unit 4
CORROSION TESTING
A. Profometer
(Detection of reinforcement location, size and corrosion)
Steel shares about 40 to 70% of the load in RCC. During last few decades it has been observed that,
corrosion of reinforcement in severe in structures near seashore and in the vicinity of chemical
industries. A lot of attention is needed for detecting this deterioration and protecting it with proper
treatment. Thus, due importance shall be given for measuring the size of bar and the amount of
corrosion.
Profometer/Rebar Locator and Bar Sizer

Principle and Procedure
The reinforcement bar is detected by magnetizing it and inducing a circulating "eddy current" in it.
After the end of the pulse, the eddy current dies away, creating a weaker magnetic field as an echo of
the initial pulse. The strength of the induced filed is measured by a search head as it dies away and
this signal is processed to give the depth measurement. The eddy current echo is determined by the
depth of the bar, the size of bar and the orientation of the bar. This detection of location of
reinforcement is required as a pre-process for core cutting.
Profometer is a portable battery-operated magnetic device that can measure the depth of
reinforcement cover in concrete and detect the position of reinforcement bars, Fig. 3.1. The basic
principle in this method is that the presence of steel affects the field of electromagnet.
In the typical Proformeter, the probe unit consists of a high permeable U-shaped magnetic core
on which two coils are mounted. An alternating current is passed through one of these coils and the
current induced in the other coil is measured. The induced current depends upon the mutual inductance
of the coils and upon the nearness of the steel reinforcement.
Using Profometer, rebars can be scanned over a defined area by connecting the mobile probe
first and following procedure is as follows :
a) Select defined area from ‘Basic Steps’ with scan area option
b) Set bar diameter of first layer
c) Select option ‘Scanning Bar’ from menu.
d) Press ‘start’ to locate the rebars over selected area.
e) The starting position of a mobile probe can be defined with the cursor and the cursor is moved
with arrow keys to locate the rebars. The cursor position is then transferred to the measuring
area. In similar way, other rebars in first layer is marked Fig. 3.1. The rebars in second layer
is also marked by moving probe in other direction. Cover is also simultaneously measured.
f) Store the diagram showing the position of rebars in first and second layer and concrete cover.
Cyber scan print out can be obtained on a printer.
In the similar manner diameter of bar can also be determined. A typical arrangement for
measurement of bar diameter by using diameter prob. There are various factors, which affect the
Profometer results. These factors are: arrangement of reinforcement, variation in the iron content of
cement and use of aggregate with magnetic properties, metal ties also affect the magnetic field. These
factors should be considered in interpretation of observations obtained from this instrument.
Applications of Profometer
Profometer is used for:
1. Determination of bar arrangement
2. Determination of cover of reinforcement
3. Determination of bar diameter
18
Fig. 3.1 Diameter of Rebar in I & II Layer
Reliability and Limitations

With this instrument a cover to reinforcement can be measured up to 100 mm with an accuracy of +
15% and a bar diameter with an accuracy of less than 2 to 3 mm. Proper calibration of these instruments
is very essential. The factors which affect the accuracy are – very closely spaced bars or bundled bars,
binding wire, aggregate containing iron or magnetic properties.
1. Reinforcement less than 10mm diameter, high tensile steel or deformed bars. In these cases
the indicated cover is likely to be higher than true value.
2. Cover measured lower than the true value when special cement, including high alumna or
added pigments is used.
3. Rebars in excess 32 mm distance may require a recalibration.
Corrosion Mapping
Reinforcement in concrete will not corrode if the protective iron oxide film formed by the high
alkaline condition of the concrete pore fluid with a pH around 13 is maintained. This film gets
destroyed by chlorides or by carbonation, if moisture and oxygen are present, resulting in corrosion.
In the corrosion process anodic and cathodic areas are formed on the reinforcement, causing
dissolution of the steel and the formation of expansive corrosion products at the anode.
B. Half-cell Potentiometer

The instrument measures the potential and the electrical resistance between the reinforcement and the
surface to evaluate the corrosion activity as well as the actual condition of the cover layer during
testing. The electrical activity of the steel reinforcement and the concrete leads them to be considered
as one half of weak battery cell with the steel acting as one electrode and the concrete as the electrolyte.
The name half-cell surveying derives from the fact that the one half of the battery cell is considered to
be the steel reinforcing bar and the surrounding concrete. The electrical potential of a point on the
surface of steel reinforcing bar can be measured comparing its potential with that of copper – copper
sulphate reference electrode on the surface. Practically this achieved by connecting a wire from one
terminal of a voltmeter to the reinforcement and another wire to the copper sulphate reference
electrode. Then readings taken are at grid of 1 m x 1 m.
19
Fig. 3.2 Half-cell Potential Test
The risk of corrosion is evaluated by means of the potential gradient obtained, the higher the gradient,
the higher risk of corrosion. The test results can be interpreted based on the following table.
Table 3.1 Half Cell Potential Corresponding to Percentage Chance of Corrosion Activity
Half-cell potential (mv) relative to Cu-Cu sulphate Ref.
% chance of corrosion activity
Electrode
Less than -200 10%
Between -200 to -350 50% (uncertain)
Above -350 90%
Significance and Use

This method may be used to indicate the corrosion activity associated with steel embedded in concrete.
This method can be applied to members regardless of their size or the depth of concrete cover. This
method can be used at the any time during the life of concrete member.
Reliability and Limitation

The test does not corrosion rate or whether corrosion activity has already started, but it indicates the
probability of the corrosion activity depending upon the actual surrounding conditions. if this method
used in combination with resistivity measurement, the accuracy is higher. If the concrete surface has
dried to the extent that it is dielectric, then pre wetting of concrete is essential.
C. Ground Penetrating Radar or Rebar Scanner
Ground penetrating radar (GPR) for the nondestructive evaluation of concrete is a relatively recent
application for a mature technology. When a GPR transmitting antenna directs high-frequency radio
waves into a solid surface, the waves scatter and reflect as they encounter objects or boundaries with
different densities.
The reflected electromagnetic energy detected by the receiving antenna documents changes in the
structure and density of the material. This non-intrusive method allows sub-surface investigations of
structures, pavements, soil and rock, and detects variations in material properties like cracks and voids.

Ground penetrating radar is a powerful tool when performing a nondestructive evaluation of hardened
concrete. The most common applications include detection and mapping of reinforcing steel bars,
20
tendons, and other embedments for measurement, confirmation of placement, and location before
drilling or coring operations.
It also assesses homogeneity, measures thickness, and detects cracks, voids, and other discontinuities.
Total GPR evaluation capabilities of concrete show the location and orientation of primary and
secondary layers of reinforcing steel, cracks, defects and inclusions, location of conduits and ductwork,
and overall dimensions. General quality and uniformity of concrete can be determined, and advanced
corrosion of reinforcing steel bars can be detected if not accurately measured. Surveys of bridge decks
reveal the thickness and homogeneity of asphalt layers on top of concrete.
(Please refer to the research paper, “Ground Penetrating Radar for Concrete Evaluation Studies”
by Michael D. Gehrig, Derek V. Morris, John T. Bryant attached herewith)
21
Unit 5
NDT TO ASSESS CHEMICAL ATTACK IN STRUCTURES
A. Carbonation Depth Measurement Test
22
23
B. Permeability Test
24
25
C. Fiber Optic Method for Prediction of Structural Weakness

Generally, an optical fiber sensor system consists of a light transmitter, a receiver, an optical fiber, a
modulator element, and a signal processing unit. As the core part of an optical fiber sensor, the optical
fiber is usually made from silica glass or polymer material, which itself can act as a sensing element
or carry the light fromthe source to themodulator element. When the strain or temperature variation of
the structure occurs, the surface-mounted or embedded optical fiber sensor in the structure will expand
or contract. In accordance with the change of the length of the optical fiber, the optical fiber sensor
modulates the light and reflects back an optical signal to the analytical unit for deriving the concerned
physical quantity of the structure. Based on the sensing principle, the optical fiber sensors can be
categorized into different types as: Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) Senso; Extrinsic Fabry-Perot
Interferometric (EFPI) Sensors and Optical Time-Domain Reflectometry (OTDR) Sensors
D. Visual Inspection and Rapid Visual Screening

(Please refer to the attachment)
26
by:-
Dr.Anand S. Arya, FNA, FNAE, FIE

(Professor Emeritus, Dept. of Eq. Engineering, IIT Roorkee)
Chairman, BIS Committee CED 39
National Seismic Advisor (EVR)
Ministry of Home Affairs
Prepared Under GOI – UNDP Disaster Risk Management Programme

3
Rapid Visual Screening of Reinforce Concrete Buildings
A.1 RVS Procedure, Objectives and Scope

The Rapid Visual Screening method is designed to be implemented without performing any structural
calculations. The procedure utilises a damageability grading system that requires the evaluator to (1) identify
the primary structural lateral load-resisting system, and (2) identify building attributes that modify the
seismic performance expected for this lateral load-resisting system along with non-structural components.
The inspection, data collection and decision-making process typically occurs at the building site, and is
expected to take couple of hours for a building, depending on its size.
The screening is based on Code based Seismic Intensity, Building Type and Damageability Grade as
observed in past earthquake and covered in MSK/European macro-intensity
A.2 Uses of RVS Results

The main uses of this procedure in relation to seismic upgrading of existing buildings are:
i. To identify if a particular building requires further evaluation for assessment of its seismic
vulnerability.
ii. To assess the seismic damageability (structural vulnerability) of the building and seismic
rehabilitation needs.
iii. To identify simplified retrofitting requirements for the building (to collapse prevention level) where
further evaluations are not considered necessary or not found feasible.
A.3 Seismic Hazard in India

As per IS 1893:2002 (Part 1), India has been divided into 4 seismic hazard zones (see Fig.A.1). The
details of different seismic zones are given below:
Zone II Low seismic hazard (damage during earthquake may be of MSK Intensity VI or
lower)
Zone III Moderate seismic hazard (maximum damage during earthquake may be upto MSK
Intensity VII)
Zone IV High seismic hazard (maximum damage during earthquake may be upto MSK
Intensity VIII)
Zone V Very high seismic hazard (maximum damage during earthquake may be of MSK
Intensity IX or greater)
4
When a particular damage Intensity occurs, different building types experience different levels of damage
depending on their inherent characteristics. For carrying out the Rapid Visual Screening, all four hazard
zones have been considered.
A.4 Building Types Considered in RVS Procedure

A wide variety of construction types and building materials are used in urban and rural areas of India.
These include local materials such as mud, straw and wood, semi-engineered materials such as burnt brick
and stone masonry and engineered materials such as concrete and steel. The seismic vulnerability of the
different building types depends on the choice of building materials and construction technology adopted.
The building vulnerability is generally highest with the use of local materials without engineering inputs and
lowest with the use of engineered materials and skills.
The basic vulnerability class of a building type is based on the average expected seismic performance for that
building type. All buildings have been divided into type A to type F based on the European Macroseismic
Scale (EMS-98) recommendations. The buildings in type A have the highest seismic vulnerability while the
buildings in type F have the lowest seismic vulnerability. A building of a given type, however, may have its
vulnerability different from the basic class defined for that type depending on the condition of the building,
presence of earthquake resistance features, architectural features, number of storeys etc. It is therefore
possible to have a damageability range for each building type considering the different factors affecting its
likely performance. Some variations in building type are therefore defined as A, B, B+ etc.
The RVS procedure presented here has considered different building types, based on the building materials
and construction types that are most commonly found in India. RCC buildings are presented in Tables A.1.
The likely damages to buildings have been categorized in different Grades depending on the seismic impact
on the strength of the building.
A.5 Grades of Damageability

`Five grades of damageability from G1 to G5 are specified in MSK and European Intensity Scale as
described in Table A.2:
A.6 Relationship of Seismic Intensity, Building Type & Damage Grades

Table A.3 provides guidance regarding likely performance of the building in the event of design-level
earthquake intensity postulated in the seismic zone. This information has been used in the survey forms to
decide if there is necessity of further evaluation of the building using higher level procedures. It can also be
used to identify need for retrofitting, and to recommend simple retrofitting techniques for ordinary buildings
where more detailed evaluation is not feasible.
The Indicative quantities Few, Many and Most as defined in European Intensity Scales are as follows:
Few: Less than (15±5) %; Many: Between (15±5) to (55±5) %;
5
Most: Between (55±5) to100%
As per MSK Intensity scale the average values of these terms may be taken as
Few: 5-15% Many: 50% Most: 75%
Table A.3 is generally based on MSK descriptions.
A.7 RVS Survey Forms – Special Points

The RVS survey forms are developed here for all the seismic zones II to V based on the probable
earthquake Intensities, building types and damageability grades as described above. Some special cases
included therein are described below:
1) Importance of Building/Structure
As per IS: 1893-2002, an important factor I is defined for enhancing the seismic strength of buildings &
structures, as follows:
Important buildings*: Hospitals, Schools, monumental structures; emergency buildings like telephone
exchange, television, radio stations, railway stations, fire stations, large community halls like cinemas,
assembly halls and subway stations, power stations, Important Industrial establishments, VIP residences
& Residences of Important Emergency person.
*Any building having more than 100 Occupants may be treated as Important for purpose of RVS.
For these important buildings the value of I is specified as 1.5, by which the design seismic force is
increased by a factor of 1.5. Now the seismic zone factors for zone II to V are as follows.
Zone II III IV V
Zone Factor 0.10 0.16 0.24 0.36
It is seen that one Unit change in Seismic Zone Intensity increases the Zone Factor 1.5 times.
Hence to deal with the damageability of Important buildings in any zone, they should be checked for one
Unit higher zone. The assessment forms are designed accordingly.
2) Special Hazards
There are some special hazardous conditions to be considered:
I. Liquefiable condition: Normal loose sands submerged under high water table are susceptible to
liquefaction under moderate to high ground accelerations; building founded on such soils will require
special evaluation and treatment.
II. Land Slide Prone Area: If the building is situated on a hill slope which is prone to land slide/ land
slip or rock-fall under monsoon and/or earthquake, special evaluation of the site and treatment of the
building will be needed.
6
III. Irregular Buildings:
Irregularities in buildings are defined in Cl.7.1 of IS: 1893 – 2002 under the following sub- heads:
i. Plan Irregularities: These are defined in Table 4 of the Code as follows:
a) Torsion Irregularity
b) Re-entrant Corners
c) Diaphragm Discontinuity
d) Out of Plane Offsets
e) Non – Parallel Systems
The Geometric Irregularities in building plans which can be easily identified are shown in Fig.A.2
These irregularities enhance the overall damage (increased grade of damage e.g. at re-entrant
corners). Such a building may be recommended for detailed evaluation.
ii. Vertical Irregularities: The following vertical irregularities may be seen in masonry
buildings (see Fig. A.3).
a) Mass Irregularity
b) Vertical Geometric Irregularity
c) In-Plane Discontinuity in vertical Elements Resisting Lateral Forces.
If any of these irregularities are noticed, the building should be recommended for detailed evaluation.
IV. Falling Hazard: Where such hazards are present, particularly in Zones IV & V, recommendations
should make reference to these in the survey report as indicated.
V. Type of Foundation Soil: IS 1893-2002 defines three soil types hard/stiff, medium & soft. No
effect of these is seen in the design spectra of short period buildings, T< 0.4 second, covering all
masonry buildings, hence the effect may be considered not so significant.
7
Table A.1: Reinforced Concrete Frame Buildings (RCF) and Steel Frames (SF)
Frame Description
Type
C a) RC Beam Post buildings without ERD or WRD, built in non-engineered way.
b) SF without bracings having hinge joints;.
c) RCF of ordinary design for gravity loads without ERD or WRD.
d) SF of ordinary design without ERD or WRD
C+ a) MR-RCF/MR-SF of ordinary design without ERD or WRD.
b) Do, with unreinforced masonry infill.
c) Flat slab framed structure.
d) Prefabricated framed structure.
D a) MR-RCF with ordinary ERD without special details as per IS: 13920, with ordinary infill
walls (such walls may fail earlier similar to C in masonry buildings.
b) MR-SF with ordinary ERD without special details as per Plastic Design Hand Book
SP:6(6)-1972.
E a) MR-RCF with high level of ERD as per IS: 1893-2002 & special details as per IS: 13920.
b) MR-SF with high level of ERD as per IS: 1893-2002 & special details as per Plastic
Design Hand Book, SP:6(6)-1972
E+ a) MR-RCF as at E with well designed infills walls.
b) MR-SF as at E with well designed braces
F a) MR-RCF as at E with well designed & detailed RC shear walls.
b) MR-SF as at E with well designed & detailed steel braces & cladding.
c) MR-RCF/MR-SF with well designed base isolation.
Notes: RCF = Reinforced concrete column- beam frame system

SF = Steel column- beam frame system
ERD = Earthquake Resistant Design
WRD = Wind Resistant Design
MR = Moment Resistant jointed frame
IMPORTANT NOTE:
Buildings having severe vertical irregularity e.g. open plinth, stilt floor called soft storey & those
having floating columns resting on horizontal cantilever beams are not covered in the above table &
will require special evaluation.
8
Table A.2: Grades of Damageability of RCC Buildings
Classification of damage to buildings of reinforced concrete

Grade 1: Negligible to slight damage (no structural damage, slight non-structural damage)
Fine cracks in plaster over frame members or in walls at the base.
Fine cracks in partitions & infills.
Grade 2: Moderate damage (Slight structural damage, moderate non-structural damage)
Cracks in columns & beams of frames & in structural walls.
Cracks in partition & infill walls; fall of brittle cladding & plaster. Falling mortar from the joints of wall
panels.
Grade 3: Substantial to heavy damage (moderate structural damage, heavy non-structural
damage)
Cracks in columns & beam column joints of frames at the base & at joints of coupled walls. Spalling of
concrete cover, buckling of reinforced rods.
Large cracks in partition & infill walls, failure of individual infill panels.
Grade 4: Very heavy damage (heavy structural damage, very heavy non-structural damage)
Large cracks in structural elements with compression failure of concrete & fracture of rebar’s; bond
failure of beam reinforcing bars; tilting of columns. Collapse of a few columns or of a single upper
floor.
Grade 5: Destruction (very heavy structural damage)
Collapse of ground floor parts (e.g. Wings) of the building.
* The grades of damage in steel and wood buildings will also be based on non-structural and
structural damage classification (shown in bold print in Table 4). Non-structural damage to infills
would be the same as indicated for masonry building in the above table. Structural damage grade
in steel & wooden elements still needs to be defined.
9
Table A.3: Damageability Grades of RCC Buildings
R Type of Zone II Zone III Zone IV Zone V

C Building MSK VI or less MSK VII MSK VIII MSK IX or
F More
/ C Few of grade 1 Few of grade 2 Many of grade 2 Many of grade 3
S and (rest no damage) (rest of grade 1,0) Few of grade 3 Few of grade 4
F C+ (rest of grade 1) (rest of grade 2)
/ D Few of grade 1 Few of grade 2 Many of grade 2
B - Few of grade 3
U (rest of grade 1)
I E Few of grade 2
L and - - - (rest of grade 1 or
D E+ 0)
I
N F - - - Few of grade 1
G
NOTE:
NOTE:
1. As per MSK scale, few, Many and Most may be taken as: Few: 15%, Many: 50% and Most: 75%.
2. Buildings having vertical irregularity (see note under table 3) may under go severe damage in
seismic zones III, IV & V if not specifically designed. Hence they will require special evaluation.
Also buildings sited in liquefiable or landslide prone areas will require special evaluation for
seismic safety.
3. Buildings having plan irregularity may under go a damage of one grade higher in zones III, IV &
V. The sur veyor may recommend re-evakuation.
10
ZONE V MM IX OR MORE
ZONE IV MM VIII
ZONE III MM VII
ZONE II MM VI OR LESS
AREAS UNDER THE ZONES

V 10.9 %
11
IV 17.3 %
III 30.4 %
TOTAL DAMAGEABLE AREA
~ 58.6 %
Fig. A.1 EARTHQUAKE HAZARD ZONES 2002

12
1 Rapid Visual Screening of RC/Steel Buildings for Seismic Hazards
Seismic Zone II Ordinary Building

1.1 Building Name_____________________________________
1.2 Use______________________________________________
1.3 Address:__________________________________________
________________________Pin ______________
1.4 Other Identifiers____________________________________
1.5 No. of Stories____________ 1.6 Year of Const.___________
Photograph 1.7 Storey Ht: 1st ________, 2nd _________, 3rd__________ etc.
1.8 Total Covered Area; all floors (sq.m) ___________________
1.9 Ground Coverage (Sq.m):____________________________
1.10 Soil Type:__________1.11 Foundation Type:____________
1.12 Depth of Ground water table: ____________
1.13 Bldg. Type: Frame Pre-cast
Frame - Shear Wall Flat Slab Frame
1.14 Thickness of infill wall: Exterior _______ Interior ______
1.15 Struct. Dwg./Calculations available: Yes / No (If yes,attach)
1.16 Extn. to the original bldg. Yes/ No ( If.yes pl. indicate)
1.17 Location of Shear walls (if any)
1.18 Special Confining R/F in Beam/Column/joints:
1.19 Stair case: Separated Connected Enclosed
Sketch Plan with Length & Breadth
4.0 FALLING
2.0 OCCUPANCY 3.0 SPECIAL HAZARD HAZARD RECOMMENDED ACTION:-
3.1 High Water Table (within 1m) Ensure adequate maintenance.
2.1 Important buildings: Hospitals,
Schools, monumental structures; emergency & if sandy soil, then liquefiable If any Special Hazard 3.0 found
buildings like telephone exchange, television, 4.1 Chimneys , re-evaluate for possible
site indicated.
radio stations, railway stations, fire stations, retrofitting.
large community halls like cinemas, assembly Yes No
4.2 Parapets
halls and subway stations, power stations, 3.2 Land Slide Prone Site
Important Industrial establishments, VIP
residences & Residences of Important Yes No
Emergency person. 3.3 Severe Vertical Irregularity 4.3 Cladding
*Any building having more than 100 Yes No
Occupants may be treated as Important. 3.4 Severe Plan Irregularity
4.4 Others
2.2 Ordinary buildings:- Other buildings Yes No
having occupants <100
5.0 Probable Damageability in Few/Many Buildings

Building 5.1 RC or Steel Frame/ wooden Buildings 5.2
Type URM Surveyor’s
Damage- C / C+ D E,E+ F Infill sign:_____________________
ability in Name:___________________
Zone II G1 / G1 - - - G1
Note: +sign indicates higher strength hence somewhat lower damage expected as Executive
stated. Also average damage in one building type in the area may be lower by one Engineer’s
grade point than the probable damageability indicated. Sign:____________________
Surveyor will identify the Building Type; encircle it, also the corresponding damage grade. Date of Survey:______________
13
Seismic Zone III Ordinary Building
(Also for Zone II Important Building)
1.1 Building Name_____________________________________
1.2 Use______________________________________________
1.3 Address:__________________________________________
________________________Pin ______________
Photograph 1.7 Storey Ht.: 1st _______, 2nd ________, 3rd__________ .etc.
4.0 FALLING RECOMMENDED ACTION:-
2.0 OCCUPANCY 3.0 SPECIAL HAZARD HAZARD
Ensure adequate maintenance.
2.1 Important buildings: Hospitals, 3.1 High Water Table (within 3m)
If any Special Hazard 3.0 found ,
Schools, monumental structures; emergency & if sandy soil, then liquefiable
4.1 Chimneys re-evaluate for possible
buildings like telephone exchange, television, site indicated.
radio stations, railway stations, fire stations,
prevention/retrofitting.
large community halls like cinemas, assembly Yes No If any of the falling hazard is
4.2 Parapets
halls and subway stations, power stations, 3.2 Land Slide Prone Site present, either remove it or
Important Industrial establishments, VIP strengthen against falling.
Emergency person. 3.3 Severe Vertical Irregularity 4.3 Cladding
4.4 Others

Building 5.1 RC or Steel Frame/ wooden Buildings 5.2
Type URM Surveyor’s
Damage- ability C / C+ D E,E+ F Infill Sign :___________________
in Zone III Name:___________________
G2 / G1 G1 - - G2
Note: +sign indicates higher strength hence somewhat lower damage expected as Executive
stated. Also average damage in one building type in the area may be lower by one Engineer’s
grade point than the probable damageability indicated. Sign:____________________
14
Seismic Zone IV Ordinary Building

(Also for Zone III Important Building)
1.1 Building Name_____________________________________
1.2 Use______________________________________________
1.3 Address:__________________________________________
________________________Pin ______________
C: evaluate in detail for need for
2.1 Important buildings: Hospitals, 3.1 High Water Table (within 5m) retrofitting
Schools, monumental structures; emergency & if sandy soil, then liquefiable If any Special Hazard 3.0 found ,
buildings like telephone exchange, television, 4.1 Chimneys re-evaluate for possible
site indicated.
radio stations, railway stations, fire stations, prevention/retrofitting.
4.2 Parapets If any of the falling hazard is
Important Industrial establishments, VIP strengthen against falling.
Emergency person. 3.3 Severe Vertical Irregularity 4.3 Cladding URM infill : evaluate in detail for
need of retrofitting
4.4 Others

Building 5.1 RC or Steel Frame/ wooden Buildings 5.2 Surveyor’s
Type URM Sign :___________________
Damage- C / C+ D E,E+ F Infill Name:___________________
ability in
Zone IV G3 / G2 G2 - - G3 Executive
Note: +sign indicates higher strength hence somewhat lower damage expected as Engineer’s
stated. Also average damage in one building type in the area may be lower by one Sign:____________________
grade point than the probable damageability indicated.
15
Seismic Zone V All Buildings

(Also for Zone IV Important Building)
1.1 Building Name_____________________________________
1.2 Use______________________________________________
1.3 Address:__________________________________________
________________________Pin ______________
C: evaluate in detail for need for
2.1 Important buildings: Hospitals, 3.1 High Water Table (within 3m) retrofitting to achieve type E, E+.
Schools, monumental structures; emergency & if sandy soil, then liquefiable If any Special Hazard 3.0 found ,
buildings like telephone exchange, television, 4.1 Chimneys re-evaluate for possible prevention/
site indicated.
radio stations, railway stations, fire stations, retrofitting.
4.2 Parapets If any of the falling hazard is
Important Industrial establishments, VIP strengthen against fall.
Emergency person. 3.3 Severe Vertical Irregularity 4.3 Cladding URM infill : evaluate for need of
reconstruction or possible
*Any building having more than 100 Yes No retrofitting to level D.
4.4 Others

Building 5.1 RC or Steel Frame/ wooden Buildings 5.2 Surveyor’s
Type URM Sign :___________________
Damage- C / C+ D E,E+ F Infill Name:___________________
ability in
Zone V G4 / G3 G3 G2/G1 G1 G4 Executive
Note: +sign indicates higher strength hence somewhat lower damage expected as Engineer’s
stated. Also average damage in one building type in the area may be lower by one Sign:____________________
grade point than the probable damageability indicated.
Date of Survey:______________
Surveyor will identify the Building Type; encircle it, also the corresponding damage grade.
16
Prepared by:
Professor Anand S. Arya and Ankush Agarwal
under the GoI-UNDP Disaster Risk Management Programme
Email: anand.s.arya@undp.org, ankush.agarwal@undp.org
NATIONAL DISASTER MANAGEMENT DIVISION
Ministry of Home Affairs, North Block, New Delhi
Tel: 91-11-23093178; Tele/fax: 23094019, Email: ndmindia@nic.in; Website: www.ndmindia.nic.in
41
Ground Penetrating Radar for Concrete Evaluation Studies
Michael D. Gehrig, Derek V. Morris, John T. Bryant1
ABSTRACT
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) is a geophysical imaging technique used for
subsurface exploration and monitoring. It is widely used within the forensic,
engineering, geological, mining and archeological communities. GPR provides an
ideal technique for concrete evaluation in that it has the highest resolution of any
subsurface imaging, non-invasive method and is far safer than other method such as
x-ray technology. Recent improvements in hardware, and in particular, software
processing have contributed to the rapidly expanding popularity and usability of this
technique.
Concrete evaluation studies utilizing GPR include the inspection of various

foundation floor systems such as structurally suspended slabs, post tensioned or
conventionally reinforced slab-on-grade foundation systems, retaining walls, decks,
tunnels, balconies and garages. Typically, the objectives of these studies are to
accurately locate and/or delineate rebar, tension cables, grade beams, conduits,
voids and slab thickness. Several case studies will be presented where such
objectives have been achieved.
______________
1
Bryant Consultants, Inc., 2033 Chenault Dr, Suite 150, Carrollton, Texas 75006.
Phone 972-713-9109, Email: mgehrig@geoneering.com, Website: geoneering.com
1
INTRODUCTION
Ground penetrating radar covers a wide area in a relatively short period of time for
concrete evaluation studies. Due to recent hardware and software advances, real
time cursory analysis can be performed at the site. Because of these and other
reasons, GPR has become an increasingly attractive method for the engineering
community, in particular for shallow, high resolution applications such as concrete
evaluation studies. Standard test methods and guides involving GPR have been
derived by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). ASTM D
4748-87 is a standard test method for the exploratory use of GPR for the
determination of pavement layer(s) thickness. A more recent and broad guide for
GPR usage for subsurface investigation is standardized in ASTM D 6432-99. This
ASTM guide provides a compendium of related GPR information useful for a wide
range of applications including concrete evaluation studies.
GPR is a non-destructive technique that emits a short pulse of electromagnetic

energy, which is radiated into the subsurface. When this pulse strikes an interface
between layers of materials with different electrical properties, part of the wave
reflects back, and the remaining energy continues to the next interface. GPR
evaluates the reflection of electromagnetic waves at the interface between two
different dielectric materials. The penetration of the waves into the subsurface is a
function of the media relative dielectric constants (ε). If a material is dielectrically
homogeneous, then the wave reflections will indicate a single thick layer.
Ground penetrating radar directs electromagnetic energy into the subsurface. The
propagation of electromagnetic energy is described by Maxwell’s equation with the
electric component (E) orthogonal to the magnetic component (H) (Reynolds,
1997). For concrete evaluation studies, both components are equally important.
Concrete material is a low conductivity, non-metallic medium that is ideal for GPR
signal propagation. However, concrete typically has steel reinforcement, which is a
metallic and therefore completely reflects the GPR signal and shadows anything
directly below the metal. If applicable, the sub-base beneath a concrete unit is non-
metallic. The sub-base may be highly conductive soils (such as expansive clays)
that effectively attenuate the GPR signal propagation thereby limiting depth
penetration. The relative dielectric constant (ε) of non-metallic medium is a
function of three different materials within the medium – solid, fluid and gas
(Lytton, 1995). Therefore, for example, the relative dielectric constant for an
unsaturated soil is a combination of the relative dielectric constant of the air,
relative dielectric constant of water, relative dielectric constant of soil, porosity and
degree of saturation.
The velocity in which electromagnetic energy propagates through any medium is a

function of the relative dielectric property, speed of light (c = 0.3
meters/nanosecond) and magnetic permeability (µ). The magnetic permeability is
equal to one (µ = 1) in a non-metallic medium and therefore is not a factor for the
2
wave propagation velocity. Wave propagation velocities (V) through a given
medium are important to convert a time domain radargram model into a distance
domain radargram model.
OPERATION PRINCIPLES
There are several antenna manufacturers, antenna types, signal pre- and post- setting
options, operating frequencies, software packages, etc. to consider for a specific
application within the engineering and construction industry, geological,
environmental and/or archaeological fields. Each radar system must be designed to
meet the objective(s) of a given project. For concrete evaluation studies, there are
several options available – all of which have certain advantages and disadvantages.
For the evaluation of various concrete structures, which include streets/highways,
parking lots, bridge decks, pools, tilt wall panels, sidewalks, various foundation
systems and retaining walls, a versatile and highly portable radar system with a
ground coupled, monostatic antenna is suitable. However, for specialized projects,
such as road condition evaluation, an air-launched (horn) antenna is commonly used
due to the efficient data collection characteristic of this antenna. Currently, GPR
data can be collected with these air-launched antennae at highway speeds.
A typical radar system for concrete evaluation studies generally consists of a control
unit (computer), pulse generator, transmitting and receiving antennae and video
monitor. A bistatic antenna describes a radar system with two antennae, one to
transmit and the other to receive. An antenna that both transmits and receives is
defined as a monostatic antenna. There are advantages and disadvantages of each
antenna type for a given application; however, for concrete evaluation studies,
monostatic antennae are typically more advantageous due to higher data collection
and processing efficiency.
For concrete evaluation studies provided in this paper, a Geophysical Survey

Systems, Inc. SIR 10B control unit is used with a monostatic antenna operating at a
central frequency of 1.5 gigahertz (GHz) to evaluate the subsurface conditions of a
particular site. High vertical and horizontal resolution is essential for concrete
studies; whereas depth penetration is not. Typically, high frequency antennae
greater than 900 megahertz (MHz) are used to collect high resolution data for
concrete evaluation studies. In general, the higher the antenna frequency, the higher
resolution power, but lower penetration depth. Based upon current 1.5 GHz antenna
configuration, signal penetration depths below approximately 1 to 2 feet from the
top of the surface are not probable although some deeper penetrations are possible
in some materials.
Figure 1 provides the primary components of a radar system used extensively for
several concrete evaluation studies. As previously stated, there are numerous
system variations and/or alterations which can be used effectively. The control unit
3
(A) comprises of an electronic data storage unit and pulse generator in one unit.
The monostatic 1.5 GHz antenna (B) is encased within a broom-like device (C),
which includes a survey wheel essential for horizontal spatial control. The monitor
display (D) allows for on-site cursory analysis. A hundred foot cable (E) attaches
the antenna to the control unit. A direct current (DC) power conversion unit (F)
may also be necessary if the power source originates from a 110-volt alternating
current source. More recent radar systems are now available that are more compact
for field portability.
(C)
(D)
(F)
(A)
(E) (B)
Figure 1 – Ground Penetrating Radar System Components
PROPAGATION WAVE ANALYSIS
Received GPR signatures or wavefronts are basically dependent on the

electromagnetic properties of the tested medium or mediums through which the
energy passed through. These signatures are important for the identification,
qualification and/or quantification of subsurface features. GPR signatures include
reflection strength, signal polarity, two-way travel time, signal attenuation and
hyperbolic reflection, most of which will be discussed hereafter.
Reflection Strength
4
Like many other geophysical techniques employed, a material property contrast is
necessary for subsurface identification, qualification and/or quantification. For
example, seismic surveys, which utilize elastic strain energy, are reliant on
contrasting seismic velocities of media. The elastic strain energy for seismic
exploration is analogous to electromagnetic energy used for GPR exploration. The
velocities at which seismic waves propagate through any given medium are dictated
by the elasticity modulus and density. The velocity at which GPR propagates
through a medium is a function of the dielectric constant. Changes in moduli and
densities result in incident seismic wave reflections. Similarly for GPR, changes of
dielectric properties of two materials result in electromagnetic wave reflections.
The greater the dielectric contrast between two media, the greater amount of
reflected energy. The amount of energy reflected is a function of the dielectric
properties of adjacent media. The reflection coefficient (R) quantifies the reflective
strength between two adjacent media:
ε 2 − ε1
(1) R=
ε 2 + ε1
where ε1 and ε2 are the dielectric constants of media (or layers) 1 and 2,
respectively. Therefore, the larger the dielectric contrast between two media, the
larger the reflection coefficient and subsequently, layer delineation and subsurface
feature detection is more evident. Figure 2 plots the reflection coefficient of layer 1
with respect to a range of dielectric constants between 1 and 81. The dielectric
constant of layer 1 equals seven, which is typical for a concrete layer. As shown in
Figure 2, the larger the dielectric contrast, the stronger the reflection.
5
0.6
Strong Positive Reflection
0.4
Reflection coefficient, R
0.2
Moderate Positive Reflection
0 Weak Reflection ε1 = 7
Moderate Negative Reflection

-0.2
-0.4
Strong Negative Reflection
-0.6
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Layer 2 - Dielectric constant, ε2
Figure 2 - Reflectivity Chart for Concrete
Assuming a dielectric constant of seven for concrete, if layer 2 has a dielectric

between 5 and 10, a weak reflection would occur and layer delineation would be
difficult. Therefore, certain site and subsurface conditions are not conducive toward
layer delineation due to a lack of dielectric contrast between the two adjacent layers.
Figure 3 provides a table of common dielectric constants encountered during
concrete evaluation studies. The curve represents the propagation velocity (V) of
electromagnetic energy through a given non-metallic medium as represented by the
following equation:
c
(2) V =
ε
where c is the speed of light through air (0.3 m/ns). As shown in Figure 3, certain
underlying soil conditions such as wetter clay may have similar dielectric constant
as concrete, which would result in a weak reflection or no reflection at that interface
between the two medium. On the other hand, if an air-filled or water-filled void
space is present beneath the concrete slab, a strong wave reflection will occur at this
interface. The corresponding reflection coefficient (R) for an air-filled or water-
filled void would exceed + 0.4 as shown in Figure 2.
6
0.3
V = c/sqrt(ε)
0.25
0.2
Velocity, m/ns
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
Dielectric Constant
Figure 3 - Dielectric Constants for Concrete Evaluation Studies
Signal Polarity
Reflection polarity can also provide valuable information regarding subsurface
conditions beneath the concrete unit. Reflection polarity is also a function of the
dielectric constant between two media. If the reflection coefficient, R, is a positive
value, a positive amplitude precedes a negative amplitude on the reflection signal.
The signature of a reversed polarity is just the opposite - negative amplitude
followed by a positive amplitude. Reversed polarity due to phase inversion occurs
when the dielectric constant of layer 1 is greater than the dielectric constant of layer
2, which results in a negative reflection coefficient. Figure 2 also indicates the
predicted polarity of the received signal based on dielectric variations of layer 2
with respect to layer 1 (concrete). A reversed polarity will occur within the blue
shaded region and is typical for an air-filled void beneath a concrete slab unit. The
other side of the dielectric spectrum is water (ε = 81) where a positive reflection
proceeds the negative reflection. The red region in Figure 2 graphically represents
this type of condition.
7
a. b.
Figure 4 – Oscilloscope Return Signal for (a) air-filled void beneath concrete slab
and (b) water-filled void beneath concrete slab.
Figure 4 provides radar signal data performed underneath the structurally suspended
foundation slab. As shown in Figure 4b, areas underneath the foundation slab with
water-filled void space resulted in a positive amplitude at the concrete slab and void
interface. A phase inversion occurred at the concrete and air void interface as
indicated by a negative amplitude preceding a positive amplitude. This principle in
determining air- or water- filled void space can also be useful for content detection
within buried PVC piping. An air-filled PVC pipe will have opposed polarity with
respect to a water-filled PVC pipe.
Figure 5 provides a representative radargram of water-filled plastic tubing within a

slab-on-grade foundation system. In each of the radargrams provided in this paper,
the amplitude of the GPR data is represented by red, blue and white colors. Red
colors represent a positive reflection. Blue colors represent a negative reflection.
White areas are indicative of minute reflected areas, typically indicative of a
dielectric uniformity within a given medium. The blue arrow marks the position of
the water-filled tubing. The tubing is represented by a red color (positive reflection)
8
over a blue color (negative reflection). If this tubing was air-filled, opposite
polarity would have been recorded – blue color (negative reflection) over a red
color (positive reflection). The plastic tubing was part of a floor heating system that
piped warm water underneath the concrete slab.
Two-Way Travel Time

The time it takes for the signal pulse to travel to a certain interface and back to the
receiving antenna is referred to the two-way travel time. Variations in two-way
travel times within a medium such as concrete suggest the presence of variable
concrete thicknesses. A shorter two-way travel time would be indicative of a
thinner concrete section. A thicker concrete section would yield a longer two-way
travel time. In-situ cursory analyses of two-way travel times are important for grade
beam detection in slab-on-grade foundation systems. If grade beam location is
pertinent information for the structural evaluation of a slab-on-grade foundation
system, a steep increase in two-way travel time would be the pertinent signature
within the radargram.
Two-way travel time is also important in the conversion of time domain radargram
models into distance domain radargram models. Two-way travel time through a
given medium is typically collected at a known depth location (usually by means of
coring). The propagation velocity (V) can then be calculated based on the known
travel times (tt) and medium depth (d) at particular location based on the simple
formula:
2× d
(3) V =
tt
Equations 2 and 3 can then be used to approximate the relative dielectric constant, ε,
for a given medium. This velocity analysis provides the most accurate means to
convert radargram from time domain to distance domain. Other methods include
the assignment of relative dielectric constants from documented resources such as
the table provided in Figure 3, geometric scaling utilizing a data migration
technique and common depth point, which is uncommon in concrete evaluation
studies.
Hyperbolic Reflection
When the transmitting antenna radiates energy into the subsurface, the radiating
beam is conical in nature. The cone angle may range between 60 to 90 degrees with
the apex of the cone in the center of the antenna. Due to this broad energy
transmission pattern, hyperbolic shapes from reflections occurred when the antenna
crosses a linear target (steel reinforcement, pipes) situated perpendicular to the
antenna path. The hyperbolic shapes develop because of antenna beam has a broad
transmission pattern; therefore, the radar antenna will detect the target not only
when it’s directly above it, but also before and after the target. As the antenna
approaches the target, the left leg of the hyperbola is formed. The apex of the
9
hyperbola represents the top of the target. As the antenna retreats from the target,
the right leg of the hyperbola is formed. The hyperbolic shapes of several targets
(rebar) are shown in the time domain radargram section in Figure 5.
The shape of the hyperbola is a function of scan spacing, which a controlled setting
within the radar system, and dielectric medium that embeds the target. The higher
the relative dielectric constant value, the lower the propagation velocity and more
focused (less broad) the conical energy transmission into the ground (Conyers et al.
1997). Therefore, a target embedded within a medium having higher relative
dielectric constant will produce thinner hyperbolas and vice versa. Hence, since the
shape of the hyperbola is a function of the dielectric medium of which the target is
embedded within, propagation velocity, V, can be estimated based on geometric
scaling techniques. Geometric scaling involves the migration of GPR data from a
time domain radargram image to a “real world” distance domain radargram image
of the subsurface.
Figure 5 – Migrated GPR data of a Conventional Reinforced Slab-on-Grade Foundation

System with a Floor Heating System
Figure 5 provides an example of differing hyperbolic shapes of steel reinforcements

(rebar) within two different media. The red arrows mark several rebar positions.
The time domain radargram depicts two visually different hyperbolas, one of which
has a wider hyperbolic shape. The left red arrow depicts the reflective properties of
rebar within a concrete section. The right red arrow depicts the reflective properties
of rebar below the concrete section within a lower dielectric medium such as a dry
sand since a medium having lower relative dielectric constant will produce wider
hyperbolas. Geometric scaling and the migration of data were also performed to
model the “real world” concrete section. Based on the migration method, the
estimate propagation velocity (V) within the concrete was approximately 0.12 m/ns,
which has a corresponding relative dielectric constant of 6.3. Given these estimated
10
dielectric parameters, the distance domain radargram was generated. Note how the
hyperbolic shapes represent rebar, and water-filled tubing targets condense into
points.
CASE HISTORIES
The Missing Reinforcement

The most notable construction and/or design defect documented in this paper
occurred within a heavily loaded concrete pavement servicing a manufacturing
facility. The concrete pavement shown in Figure 6 developed a series of significant
cracks in various concrete sections. Some concrete sections exhibited no significant
distress; whereas, adjacent concrete sections yielded numerous oblique cracking
patterns. The formulated hypotheses prior to the GPR investigation ranged from
horizontal and/or vertical placement concerns of the rebar to inadequate concrete
strength. To evaluate the vertical and horizontal rebar placement within the
concrete section, several GPR scans were performed across the concrete pavement.
Proper horizontal and vertical rebar placement is represented by the hyperbolic
shapes at the right side of the radargram in Figure 6. Note how the rebar is placed
near the center of the concrete section, which is common. Observed concrete
sections with no to minimal distress were shown to have proper vertical and
horizontal steel placement as reflected at the right side of Figure 6.
However, as shown in Figure 6, rebar was not continuously present throughout the
concrete pavement sections as evident by the lack of hyperbolic reflections.
Observed concrete sections with moderate to high observed distress had no steel
reinforcement.
11
Figure 6 – Time-domain Radargram of a Heavily Loaded Traffic Pavement
Servicing a Manufacturing Facility.
Structurally Suspended Concrete Floor Slab

The foundation system supporting the superstructure of a high school building
consists of a structurally suspended foundation floor slab supported by
interior/exterior grade beams and straight shafted, cast-in-place, concrete piers.
Based on structural plans, an 8-inch separation between the foundation slab and
underlying soils was specified using carton forms. However, a significant amount
of upward movement occurred at the interior grade beams and certain sections of
the floor slab. GPR was used to perform a concrete evaluation study of the
foundation slab and determine the presence, or lack thereof, of the underlying voids.
Figure 7 shows a time-domain radargram across portions of the suspended slab with
varying interfaces. The signal polarity, two-way travel time and reflection strength
characteristics of this scan are important in the diagnosis of the concrete interfaces.
The first third of the scan shows a strong negative reflection (blue) followed by a
strong positive (red) reflection, which is indicative of an air-filled void beneath the
concrete slab. The middle third of the scans recorded an opposite polarity (strong
positive followed by strong negative) indicative of a water-filled void space. Soil
contact with the foundation slab was encountered at the latter third. It was
hypothesized (and confirmed) that the void space at this location collapsed due to
heaving soils; and not during construction. If it had occurred during construction,
the two-way travel time of the concrete section would have been significantly
greater due to a thicker concrete section. The reflection strength at the concrete/soil
interface is weaker with respect to the other two interfaces due to a lower dielectric
12
contrast between the two media. Based on Figure 7, the placement of reinforcement
and depth of concrete were within project specifications.
Figure 7 – Time-domain Radargram of Structurally Suspended Foundation Slab

with Varying Concrete Interfaces.
A three-dimensional (3D) GPR survey was also performed across an interior grade
beam, which had experienced upward movement and subsequent nearby
superstructure distress at this location. Three-dimensional GPR survey lines are
typically one to two feet on center. The model itself is compiled in highly robust
visualization software capable of integrating large volumes of GPR data. Figure 8
plots the GPR data in a 3D format with respect to the foundation floor slab, interior
grade beam and nearby column. The vertical scale is in inches and has been
exaggerated by a factor of five for visualization clarity. Recent software advances
has made three-dimensional model of GPR possible. However, additional
development is much needed to further facilitate a user-friendly platform and
expedite post-processing analysis. As indicated in Figure 8, the foundation slab
thickness was on the order of 7 inches, which is near project specification. An air-
filled void was present on both sides of the interior grade beam, as evident by a
strong negative reflection (blue color) preceding a strong positive reflection (red
color). However, the GPR data indicates that the interior grade beam width is
approximately 26 to 30 inches throughout model as compared to a specified design
width of 14 inches. This extended width may be attributed to over-pour at the
interior grade beam and/or collapsed void space on either side of the interior grade
beam. Whichever the case, the structural elements in close proximity to this interior
grade beam were most likely in direct contact with the highly expansive supporting
soils.
13
Figure 8 – 3D GPR Model of Interior Grade Beam
Utility Trench Settlement

Due to the improper compaction of backfill soils within utility trenches, settlement
within these trenches is not uncommon. A concrete breakout in the hall bathroom
revealed the presence of air-filled voids. GPR was used to spatially delineate the
void space. Based on the GPR profile scans, localized void spaces underneath the
concrete slab were located in the same vicinity of the utility trench. A typical void
location map is shown in Figure 9. The documented air-filled voids beneath the
foundation slab are marked by the hashed blue zones in Figure 9. The red arrows
represent the GPR survey paths at this site. The secondary purpose of this
investigation was to delineate the horizontal placement of post-tensioned steel
cables within the concrete foundation slab unit. Based on the GPR investigation,
the steel cables were approximately 5 to 6 feet on center.
14
60
50
40
Distance, ft
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40
Distance, ft
Figure 9 – Typical Void Detection Map
Figure 10 provides a representative migrated, distance domain radargram within the

north hallway and dining room areas. Depth conversions are derived from
hyperbolic geometric shape analysis using the migration method. The steel tendons
were approximately 5 to 6 feet on center. As shown in Figure 10, the approximate
slab thickness is five inches. An air-filled void is present underneath this section
based on a strong negative-positive (blue-red) reflection. This was isolated to an
approximate five foot section located just north of the hall bathroom during this
profile scan, which corresponds to the utility trench location. The remaining section
in Figure 10 reflects a typical concrete/soil interface (with similar dielectric
properties) with no indications of subsurface voids. Note the lack of dielectric
contrast between the concrete/soil interface, which makes slab thickness delineation
and quantification difficult.
15
Top of Slab
POST TENSIONED
CABLES
Slab Bottom
VOID SPACE
UNDERNEATH SLAB
Figure 10 – Migrated, Distance-domain Radargram Model on a Slab-on-Grade

Foundation System.
CONCLUSIONS
GPR provides an efficient and versatile means for concrete evaluation studies. Ideal
electrical properties of concrete make exploratory studies using GPR extremely
efficacious. Data collection and on-site cursory analysis are increasingly becoming
easier with recent hardware improvements. More importantly, readily available
GPR software has improved significantly, in particular for the concrete evaluation
usage. Significant research and development has recently been applied to the
determination of density and water content of each layer using GPR (Lytton, 1995).
This is an added benefit for concrete evaluation studies. Three-dimensional
modeling of GPR data is relatively new, but recent software advances using 3D
processing and modeling are becoming more feasible and user-friendly. Current
concrete evaluation studies involve the identification, qualification and/or
quantification of reflected GPR signatures. These GPR signatures include, but may
not be limited to, reflection strength, signal polarity, two-way travel time, signal
attenuation and hyperbolic reflection, which is necessary for subsurface feature
identification and/or delineation.
16
REFERENCES
Lytton, R.L., (1995-2003). US Patent Number 5,384,715, US Patent Office,

Washington, D.C.
Hunaidi, O. and Giamou, P. (1998). Ground-Penetrating Radar for Detection of

Leaks in Buried Plastic Water Distribution Pipes, Proceedings from the Seventh
International Conference on Ground-Penetrating Radar, Lawrence, Kansas.
Conyers, L.B. and Goodman, D. (1997). Ground-Penetrating Radar: An

Introduction for Archaeologists, Walnut Creek, Colorado, 232 p.
Reynolds, J.M. (1997). An Introduction to Applied and Environmental Geophysics,

West Sussex, England, 796 p.
Cardimona, S., Willeford, B., Webb, D., Wenzlick, J., Anderson, N., (2000).
Ground Penetrating Radar Survey of Interstate 70 Across Missouri, Proceedings
from the 2000 SAGEEP Conference.
ASTM Designation D 4748-87 (1995), Standard Test Method for Determining the
Thickness of Bound Pavement Layers Using Short-Pulse Radar.
ASTM Designation D 6432-99, Standard Guide for Using the Surface Ground
Penetrating Radar Method for Subsurface Investigation.
17

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Class notes on Non-Destructive Testing of Structures

1. Entry surface variables include:

2. Part Size and Geometry

The various non-destructive and semi-destructive tests can be grouped as below:

Selection of NDT and Semi-NDT Method

Table 2.1 Selection of NDT and Semi-NDT Method

A. Schmidt’s Rebound Hammer Test

Fig. 2.1 Basic Features of Rebound Hammer

Fig. 2.2 Schematic Cross-section of Rebound Hammer and Principle of Operation

Method of testing using Schmidt’s RH

Factors affecting rebound number

Precautions to be taken while using rebound hammer

B. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test

Objectives of UPV Test

Principle of UPV Test

Fig. 2.3 Schematic Diagram of Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method

Fig. 2.4 Different Methods of Propagating Ultrasonic Pulses through Concrete

• Smoothness of Concrete Surface under Test

Purpose of Penetration Resistance Test

Application of Penetration Resistance Test

A steel disc, 25 mm in diameter at a depth of 25 mm, is pulled centrally against a 55 mm diameter

CAPO test (Cut and Pull-out Test)

CAPO Test on Concrete Slab

Relationship between the pullout force and compressive strength

Typical Pull out Force Calibration Chart

Pull off force compressive strength relationship

Profometer/Rebar Locator and Bar Sizer

Fig. 3.1 Diameter of Rebar in I & II Layer

Reliability and Limitations

Principle and Procedure

Fig. 3.2 Half-cell Potential Test

Significance and Use

Reliability and Limitation

C. Ground Penetrating Radar or Rebar Scanner

Principle and Procedure

NDT TO ASSESS CHEMICAL ATTACK IN STRUCTURES

A. Carbonation Depth Measurement Test

C. Fiber Optic Method for Prediction of Structural Weakness

D. Visual Inspection and Rapid Visual Screening

Dr.Anand S. Arya, FNA, FNAE, FIE

Prepared Under GOI – UNDP Disaster Risk Management Programme

A.1 RVS Procedure, Objectives and Scope

A.2 Uses of RVS Results

A.3 Seismic Hazard in India

A.4 Building Types Considered in RVS Procedure

A.5 Grades of Damageability

A.6 Relationship of Seismic Intensity, Building Type & Damage Grades

A.7 RVS Survey Forms – Special Points

Notes: RCF = Reinforced concrete column- beam frame system

Classification of damage to buildings of reinforced concrete

R Type of Zone II Zone III Zone IV Zone V

AREAS UNDER THE ZONES

Fig. A.1 EARTHQUAKE HAZARD ZONES 2002

Seismic Zone II Ordinary Building

5.0 Probable Damageability in Few/Many Buildings

5.0 Probable Damageability in Few/Many Buildings

Seismic Zone IV Ordinary Building

5.0 Probable Damageability in Few/Many Buildings

Seismic Zone V All Buildings