Fundamentals of Power Electronics - Compressed

FUNDAMENTAL
OF
POWER ELECTRONICS
Author
Prof. Soumitra Kumar Mandal
Professor of Electrical Engineering
National Institute of Technical Teachers’
Training & Research, Kolkata
Reviewer
Dr. Amod C. Umarikar
Associate Professor, Electrical Engineering (EE),
Indian Institute of Technology Indore, Madhya Pradesh
All India Council for Technical Education

Nelson Mandela Marg, Vasant Kunj
New Delhi, 110070
(ii)
BOOK AUTHOR DETAILS
Prof. Soumitra Kumar Mandal, Professor of Electrical Engineering, National Institute of Technical Teachers’
Training & Research, Kolkata
Email ID: skmandal@nitttrkol.ac.in
BOOK REVIEWER DETAIL

Dr. Amod C. Umarikar, Associate Professor, Electrical Engineering (EE), Indian Institute of Technology Indore,
Madhya Pradesh
Email ID: amodu@iiti.ac.in
BOOK COORDINATOR (S) – English Version

1. Dr. Ramesh Unnikrishnan, Advisor-II, Training and Learning Bureau, All India Council for Technical
Education (AICTE), New Delhi, India
Email ID: advtlb@aicte-india.org
Phone Number: 011-29581215
2. Dr. Sunil Luthra, Director, Training and Learning Bureau, All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE),
New Delhi, India
Email ID: directortlb@aicte-india.org
3. Sh. M. Sundaresan, Deputy Director, Training and Learning Bureau, All India Council for Technical Education
(AICTE), New Delhi, India
Email ID: ddtlb@aicte-india.org
January, 2024
© All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE)
ISBN : 978-81-963773-8-0
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means,
without permission in writing from the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE).
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Printed and published by All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), New Delhi.
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(iii)
(iv)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to the authorities of AICTE, particularly Prof. (Dr.) T G Sitharam,
Chairman; Dr. Abhay Jere, Vice-Chairman, Prof. Rajive Kumar, Member-Secretary,
Dr. Ramesh Unnikrishnan, Advisor-II and Dr. Sunil Luthra, Director, Training and Learning
Bureau for their planning to publish the books on Fundamental of Power Electronics. We
sincerely acknowledge the valuable contributions of the reviewer of the book Prof. Amod C.
Umarikar, IIT Indore. I have received immense co-operation and inspiration for writing this book
from Prof. Debi Prasad Mishra, Director NITTTR, Kolkata, Prof. Gurnam Singh, Pumjab
Engineering College, Chandigarh and my wife Malvika and my children Om and Puja.
This book is an outcome of various suggestions of AICTE members, experts and authors who
shared their opinion and thought to further develop the engineering education in our country.
Acknowledgements are due to the contributors and different workers in this field whose published
books, review articles, papers, photographs, footnotes, references and other valuable information
enriched us at the time of writing the book.
(v)
PREFACE
The book titled “Fundamental of Power Electronics” is an outcome of the rich experience of
teaching of Power Electronics courses in Under Graduate and Post Graduate students. The
initiation of writing this book is to expose Electrical Power and Basic Electronics to the
engineering students, the Fundamentals of Power Electronics as well as enable them to get an
insight of the subject. Keeping in mind the purpose of wide coverage as well as to provide
essential supplementary information, we have included the topics recommended by AICTE, in a
very systematic and orderly manner throughout the book. Efforts have been made to explain the
fundamental concepts of the subject in the simplest possible way.
During the process of preparation of the manuscript, the various standard text books have been
referred and accordingly. Different sections like critical questions, solved and supplementary
problems, short answer type questions, long answer type questions and multiple choice questions
etc. are incorporated in this book. The book covers all types of medium and advanced level
problems and these have been presented in a very logical and systematic manner. The gradations
of those problems have been tested over many years of teaching to a wide variety of students.
Apart from illustrations and examples as required, we have enriched the book with numerous
solved problems in every unit for proper understanding of the related topics.
This book consists of five units. The unit-I on power electronics devices can be able to provide
detail information regarding construction, working principle, V-I characteristics of power
semiconductor devices which are in wide use in modern industry for the control and conversion
of electrical power. This unit can helps students to get a primary idea about the construction,
operating principle and applications of Power bipolar junction transistor (Power BJT), Power
metal oxide field effect transistor (Power MOSFET), and Insulated gate bipolar transistor(IGBT).
The comparison between Power BJT, Power MOSFET and IGBT is incorporated in tabular
manner so that students can able to differentiate the BJT, MOSFT and IGBT very easily.
Switching characteristics, safe operating area (SOA) and series and parallel operation of Power
BJT, Power MOSFET and IGBT are also discussed in detail. The basic concept of single electron
transistor (SET) and some aspects of Nano-technology are also described in detail to help
students to know about the recent development of power semiconductor devices.
The unit-II on thyristor family devices can be able to provide detail information regarding
construction, two transistor analogy, types, working, V-I characteristics, mounting and cooling
of silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) devices which are widely use in modern industry for the
control and conversion of electrical power. This unit can help students to get knowledge about
types of thyristors such as SCR, LASCR, SCS, GTO, UJT, PUT, DIAC and TRIAC, thyristor family
devices: symbol, construction, operating principle and V-I characteristics. Turn-on and turn-off
characteristics of thyristor are also discussed. The comparison between SCR, GTO, DIAC and
TRIAC is incorporated in tabular manner so that students can be able to differentiate the SCR,
GTO, DIAC and TRIAC very easily. Protection circuits such as over-voltage, over-current,
snubber and crowbar for thyristor are explained in detail.
(vi)
The unit-III “turn-on and turn-off methods of thyristors” can be able to provide detail information
regarding different turn-on methods of SCR such as high voltage triggering, thermal triggering,
illumination triggering, dv/dt triggering and gate triggering. Gate triggering is most commonly
used in modern industry for the control and conversion of electrical power. This unit can help
students to get a primary idea about gate trigger circuits, R and RC circuits, SCR triggering using
UJT, PUT as Relaxation oscillator and synchronized UJT circuit and Pulse transformer and opto-
coupler based triggering. The different SCR turn–off methods such as class A- resonant
commutation circuit, class B-shunt resonant commutation circuit, class C-complimentary
symmetry commutation circuit, class D-auxiliary commutation, class E-external pulse
commutation and class F-line or natural commutation are described in detail to help students to
know about the recent development of turn-off methods of thyristors.
The unit-IV on “phase controlled rectifiers” can be able to provide detail information regarding
phase control: firing angle and conduction angle, single phase half controlled, full controlled
and midpoint–controlled rectifier with R and RL load, circuit diagram, working principle, and
input-output waveforms of phase controlled rectifiers. The equations of dc output voltage,
performance parameters of converters, and the effect of freewheeling diode in phase controlled
rectifiers are also incorporated in this unit. After study this unit, student can able to get knowledge
about different configurations of bridge controlled rectifiers: full bridge, half bridge with
common anode, common cathode and SCRs in one arm and diodes in another arm.
The unit-V on “Industrial Control Circuits” can be able to provide detail information regarding
different industrial applications of power electronics devices. This unit can helps students to get
a primary idea about burglar’s alarm system, battery charger using SCR, emergency light system,
and temperature controller using SCR. The illumination control/fan speed control using TRIAC,
switch mode power supply (SMPS), UPS: off-line and online and SCR based AC and DC circuit
breakers are also described elaborately to help students to know about the applications of power
semiconductor devices.
It is important to note that in this book, all relevant laboratory practical are included. In addition,
some essential information for the users are incorporated under the heading “Know More”
section.
The subject matters are presented in a constructive manner so that an Engineering degree
prepares students to work in different sectors or in national laboratories at the very forefront of
technology.
We sincerely hope that the book will inspire the students to learn and discuss the ideas behind
basic principles of fundamental of power electronics and will surely contribute to the development
of a solid foundation of the subject. We would be thankful to all beneficial comments and
suggestions which will contribute to the improvement of the future editions of the book. It gives
us immense pleasure to place this book in the hands of the teachers and students. It was indeed a
big pleasure to work on different aspects covering in the book.
(vii)
OUTCOME BASED EDUCATION
For the implementation of an outcome based education the first requirement is to develop an
outcome based curriculum and incorporate an outcome based assessment in the education system.
By going through outcome based assessments, evaluators will be able to evaluate whether the
students have achieved the outlined standard, specific and measurable outcomes. With the proper
incorporation of outcome based education there will be a definite commitment to achieve a
minimum standard for all learners without giving up at any level. At the end of the programme
running with the aid of outcome based education, a student will be able to arrive at the following
outcomes:
Programme Outcomes (POs) are statements that describe what students are expected to know and
be able to do upon graduating from the program. These relate to the skills, knowledge, analytical
ability attitude and behaviour that students acquire through the program. The POs essentially
indicate what the students can do from subject-wise knowledge acquired by them during the
program. As such, POs define the professional profile of an engineering diploma graduate.
National Board of Accreditation (NBA) has defined the following seven POs for an Engineering
diploma graduate:
PO1. Basic and Discipline specific knowledge: Apply knowledge of basic mathematics, science
and engineering fundamentals and engineering specialization to solve the engineering
problems.
PO2. Problem analysis: Identify and analyses well-defined engineering problems using codified
standard methods.
PO3. Design/ development of solutions: Design solutions for well-defined technical problems
and assist with the design of systems components or processes to meet specified needs.
PO4. Engineering Tools, Experimentation and Testing: Apply modern engineering tools and
appropriate technique to conduct standard tests and measurements.
PO5. Engineering practices for society, sustainability and environment: Apply appropriate
technology in context of society, sustainability, environment and ethical practices.
PO6. Project Management: Use engineering management principles individually, as a team

member or a leader to manage projects and effectively communicate about well-defined
engineering activities.
PO7. Life-long learning: Ability to analyse individual needs and engage in updating in the
context of technological changes.
(viii)
COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of the course the students are expected to learn:
CO-1: How to select power electronic devices for specific applications.
CO-2: To maintain the performance of Thyristors.
CO-3: To troubleshoot turn-on and turn-off circuits of Thyristors.
CO-4: To maintain phase controlled rectifiers.
CO-5: To maintain industrial control circuits.
Mapping of Course Outcomes with Programme Outcomes to be done according to the
matrix given below:
Expected Mapping with Programme Outcomes
(1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
Course Outcomes
PO-1 PO-2 PO-3 PO-4 PO-5 PO-6 PO-7
CO-1 3 3 3 3 1 1 3
CO-2 3 2 2 2 1 1 3
CO-3 3 2 2 2 1 1 3
CO-4 3 2 2 3 1 1 3
CO-5 3 3 3 3 1 1 3
(ix)
GUIDELINES FOR TEACHERS
To implement Outcome Based Education (OBE) knowledge level and skill set of the students
should be enhanced. Teachers should take a major responsibility for the proper implementation
of OBE. Some of the responsibilities (not limited to) for the teachers in OBE system may be as
follows:
● Within reasonable constraint, they should manoeuvre time to the best advantage of all
students.
● They should assess the students only upon certain defined criterion without considering any
other potential ineligibility to discriminate them.
● They should try to grow the learning abilities of the students to a certain level before they
leave the institute.
● They should try to ensure that all the students are equipped with the quality knowledge as
well as competence after they finish their education.
● They should always encourage the students to develop their ultimate performance capabilities.
● They should facilitate and encourage group work and team work to consolidate newer
approach.
● They should follow Bloom's taxonomy in every part of the assessment.
Bloom’s Taxonomy
Teacher should Student should be Possible Mode of

Level
Check able to Assessment
Students ability to
Create Design or Create Mini project
create
Students ability to
Evaluate Argue or Defend Assignment
justify
Students ability to Differentiate or

Analyse Project/Lab Methodology
distinguish Distinguish
Students ability to Operate or Technical Presentation/

Apply
use information Demonstrate Demonstration
Students ability to
Understand Explain or Classify Presentation/Seminar
explain the ideas
Students ability to
Remember recall (or Define or Recall Quiz
remember)
(x)
GUIDELINES FOR STUDENTS
Students should take equal responsibility for implementing the OBE. Some of the
responsibilities (not limited to) for the students in OBE system are as follows:
● Students should be well aware of each UO before the start of a unit in each and every course.
● Students should be well aware of each CO before the start of the course.
● Students should be well aware of each PO before the start of the programme.
● Students should think critically and reasonably with proper reflection and action.
● Learning of the students should be connected and integrated with practical and real life
consequences.
● Students should be well aware of their competency at every level of OBE.
(xi)
ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
List of Abbreviations
General Terms
Abbreviations Full form
ASCR Asymmetrical silicon-controlled rectifier
BJT Bipolar Junction Transistor
CE Common emitter
CNT Carbon nanotubes
COMFET Conductivity modulated field effect transistor
DIAC Diode for Alternating current
FBSOA Forward bias safe operating area
FET Field effect transistor
FB Forward blocking
FC Forward conduction
GTO Gate Turn-off thyristor
HVDC High voltage direct current
IGBT Insulated gate bipolar transistor
IC Integrated circuit
LASCR Light activated silicon controlled rectifier
LED Light emitting diode
MOSFET Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor
MCT MOS controlled thyristors
MOSIGT Metal oxide insulate
NED Nanotube emissive displays
NED Nanotube Emissive Displays
ODF Overdrive factor
PUT Programmable unijunction transistor
RB Reverse blocking
RBSOA Reverse bias safe operating area
RTD Temperature detector resistor
SCR Silicon controlled rectifier
SCS Silicon controlled switch
SET Single electron transistor
SMPS Switch mode power supply
(xii)
Abbreviations Full form
SIT Static induction transistor
SITH Static induction thyristor
SOA Safe Operating Area
TB Tera-byte
TRIAC Triode for alternating current
TUF Transformer utilization factor
UJT Unijunction transistor
UPS Uninterruptible power supplies
VLSI Very large scale integrated circuit
List of Symbols
Symbols Description
A Anode
B Base
C Collector
C, K Cathode
Gate to source capacitance
D Drain
Rate of change of drain to source voltage
E Emitter
G Gate
Anode current
IB Base current
IC Collector current
Drain current
IE Emitter current
I Total current
Gate current
Latching current
Holding current
(xiii)
Symbols Description
, , Junctions
NA, ND Doping intensity
Power dissipation
Power dissipation in on-state
Power dissipation in on-state
Total power loss
Power dissipation during turn-off state
Average gate power dissipation
Q Charge
Channel resistance
Resistance of drift region
, Emitter resistance
Drain resistance
Resistance of drift region
Drain to source resistance
Resistance of source voltage
, Snubber resistance and capacitance
S Source
Delay time
ton Switching on time
toff Switching off time
Rise time
Turn-on time
Storage time
fall time
spread time
Turn-off time of thyristor
reverse time
(xiv)
Symbols Description
Gate recovery time
Turn-off time
Internal junction temperature
Voltage across anode to cathode
Reverse breakdown voltage
VBE Base emitter voltage
Reverse breakdown voltage
Forward breakover voltage
VCB Collector base voltage
VCE Collector emitter voltage
Anode-gate junction voltage
Peak forward blocking voltage
Drain to source voltage
Voltage drop across drift region
Peak repetitive forward blocking voltage
Gate voltage
Input voltage at gate
Gate to source voltage
Minimum gate voltage
Gate to emitter voltage
Peak point of voltage
Peak reverse voltage
Repetitive peak reverse voltage
Gate to source voltage
Voltage safety factor
Threshold voltage
On-state voltage drop
α Common base dc current gain
(xv)
Symbols Description
ᵦ Common emitter dc current gain
current gain of auxiliary transistor
current gain of main transistor
Forced current gain
ƞ intrinsic stand-off ratio
(xvi)
LIST OF FIGURES
Unit - 1 Power Electronic Devices

Fig.1.1 Schematic block diagram of basic structure of a power electronic based system 3
Fig.1.2 Construction of p-n-p transistors 10
Fig.1.3 Construction of n-p-n transistors 11
Fig.1.4 Symbol of p-n-p transistors 12
Fig.1.5 Symbol of n-p-n transistors 12
Fig.1.6 Structure of n-p-n type power BJT 16
Fig.1.7 Darlington pair of power BJTs 18
Fig.1.8 Darlington pair of power BJTs with diodes D1 and D2 19
Fig.1.9 BJT is used as a switch 19
Fig.1.10 Input characteristics of a bipolar junction transistor 20
Fig.1.11 V-I characteristics of an npn power BJT 21
Fig.1.12 Biasing of npn power BJT 22
Fig.1.13 (a) Storage charge in the base region during operate in active mode 23
(b) Storage charge in the base region during operate in quasi-saturation 23
(c) Storage charge in the base region during operate in hard saturation 23
Fig.1.14 ON- state collector-emitter voltage of a power BJT 27
Fig.1.15 Bipolar transistor 28
Fig.1.16 Forward bias safe operating area (FBSOA) of power BJT 30
Fig.1.17 RBSOA of a power BJT 32
Fig.1.18 Parallel connection of transistors with current sharing at steady-state condition 33
Fig.1.19 n-p-n Power BJT as a switch 34
Fig.1.20 The switching waveforms of an npn transistor 35
Fig.1.21 Switching waveforms of a power BJT 37
Fig.1.22 Structure of a n- channel power MOSFET 40
Fig.1.23 (a) Symbol of n-channel power MOSFET (b) Symbol of p-channel power 42
MOSFET
Fig.1.24 Circuit diagram of n channel power MOSFET 42
Fig.1.25 Transfer characteristics of power MOSFET 43
Fig.1.26 Output characteristics of Power MOSFET 44
Fig.1.27 On-state resistances of n-channel enhancement mode MOSFET 46
Fig.1.28 SOA of a power MOSFET 47
Fig.1.29 Parallel connection of power MOSFETs with current sharing at steady-state 49
condition
Fig.1.30 Power MOSFET as a switch 49
Fig.1.31 The switching waveforms of a Power MOSFET 50
Fig.1.32 Structure of a n- channel IGBT 53
Fig.1.33 Circuit symbol of n-channel IGBT 55
Fig.1.34 Circuit symbol of p-channel IGBT 55
(xvii)
Fig.1.35 Creation of an inversion layer in IGBT 56
Fig.1.36 Conductivity modulation in IGBT 56
Fig.1.37 n-channel IGBT circuit 57
Fig.1.38 Transfer characteristic of an n-channel IGBT 57
Fig.1.39 Output characteristic of an n-channel IGBT 59
Fig.1.40 Formation of MOSFET, pnp and npn transistors within structure of IGBT 60
Fig.1.41 (a) Equivalent circuit diagram of an IGBT (b) Darlington representation of 60
MOSFET and p-n-p transistor
Fig.1.42 Approximate equivalent circuit diagram of an IGBT 61
Fig.1.43 FBSOA of a IGBT 62
Fig.1.44 RBSOA of a IGBT 63
Fig.1.45 Turn on switching characteristics of IGBT 64
Fig.1.46 Turn off switching characteristics of IGBT 65
Fig.1.47 Construction of a basic SET 68
Fig.1.48 Schematic diagram of a basic SET 69
Fig.1.49 Single electron flow in SET 69
Unit - 2 Thyristor Family Devices

Fig.2.1 Basic structure of SCR 90
Fig.2.2 Vertically oriented structure of SCR 90
Fig.2.3 Symbol of SCR 91
Fig.2.4 V-I characteristics of SCR 92
Fig.2.5 Forward blocking state of SCR with forward bias of J1 and J3 and reverse bias of 93
J2
Fig.2.6 Reverse blocking state of SCR with reverse bias of J1 and J3 and forward bias of 94
J2
Fig.2.7 Two transistor model of SCR 95
Fig.2.8 Connection of p-n-p and n-p-n transistors to model a SCR 95
Fig.2.9 Turn-on characteristics of SCR 97
Fig.2.11 Turn-off characteristics of SCR 99
Fig.2.12 Gate-characteristics of SCR 100
Fig.2.13 Triggering circuit of SCR 101
Fig.2.14 Gate voltage vs gate current 102
Fig.2.15 Tigger Circuit 104
Fig.2.16 Heat sinks are mounting with SCRs. 105
Fig.2.17 Construction of heat pipes for cooling 106
Fig.2.18 Voltage rating of SCR 107
Fig.2.19 The basic construction of LASCR 110
Fig.2.20 The basic operation of LASCR 111
Fig.2.21 Symbol of LASCR 111
Fig.2.22 V-I characteristics of LASCR 112
Fig.2.23 Basic construction of SCS 113
Fig.2.24 Symbol of SCS 113
Fig.2.25 Equivalent circuit of two transistor analogy of SCS 114
(xviii)
Fig.2.26 V-I characteristics of SCS 114
Fig.2.27 Construction of GTO 115
Fig.2.28 Two transistor analogy of GTO 116
Fig.2.29 Symbol of GTO 116
Fig.2.30 V-I characteristic of GTO 117
Fig. 2.31 Current distribution in GTO during turn-on 118
Fig.2.32 Current distribution in GTO during turn-off 120
Fig.2.33 Construction of an UJT 121
Fig.2.34 Symbol of UJT 121
Fig.2.35 Equivalent circuit of UJT 122
Fig.2.36 V-I characteristics of a UJT 123
Fig. 2.37 Construction of PUT 123
Fig.2.38 Symbol of PUT 124
Fig.2.39 PUT circuit 124
Fig.2.40 V-I Characteristics of PUT 125
Fig.2.41 Construction of DIAC 126
Fig. 2.42 V-I characteristic of DIAC 126
Fig.2.43 The symbol of DIAC 127
Fig.2.44 The circuit for DIAC operation along with output voltage across 128
Fig.2.45 Equivalent circuit of TRIAC 128
Fig.2.46 Basic construction of TRIAC 129
Fig.2.47 Symbol of TRIAC 129
Fig.2.48 V-I characteristic of a TRIAC 130
Fig.2.49 Mode 1- MT2 positive and positive gate current 131
Fig.2.50 Mode 2- MT2 positive and negative gate current 132
Fig.2.51 Mode 3 - MT2 negative and positive gate current 133
Fig.2.52 Mode 4 - MT2 negative and negative gate current 134
Fig.2.53 V-I characteristics of varistor 136
Fig.2.54 Function of current limiting switch 136
Fig.2.55 Thyristor protection 137
Fig.2.56 Snubber circuit connected across thyristor (T) 138
Fig.2.57 Equivalent circuit of snubber circuit 139
Fig.2.58 Crowbar protection circuit 141
Fig.2.59 Circuit diagram for test the proper functioning of DIAC to determine the break over 147
voltage (a) MT1 is positive with respect to MT2 (b) MT2 is positive with respect to MT1
Fig.2.60 Circuit diagram to determine the latching and holding current using V-I characteristics of 149
SCR.
Unit -3 Turn-on and Turn-off Methods of Thyristors

Fig.3.1 Triggering signals of a thyristor 158
Fig.3.2 Gate current waveform 159
Fig.3.3 Resistance triggering circuit of SCR 160
Fig.3.4 Voltage waveforms of resistance triggering circuit of SCR 160
Fig.3.5 Resistance capacitance triggering circuit of SCR 162
Fig.3.6 Voltage waveforms of resistance capacitance triggering circuit of SCR 162
Fig.3.7 SCR triggering circuit using UJT 165
(xix)
Fig.3.8 Voltage waveforms of SCR triggering circuit using UJT 166
Fig.3.9 PUT as relaxation oscillartor 167
Fig.3.10 Charging and discharging of capacitor as a saw tooth waveform 168
Fig. 3.11 Synchronised UJT Circuit 168
Fig.3.12 Generation of triggering pulse and output voltage of single phase half-wave controlled 169
rectifier
Fig.3.13 Triggering circuit for single phase half-wave controlled rectifier using 170
synchronized UJT
Fig.3.14 Pulse transformer triggering circuit for SCR 172
Fig.3.15 Opto-coupler IC- MCT2E 173
Fig.3.16 shows opto-coupler based triggering circuit 173
Fig.3.17 Class A resonant commutation circuit 175
Fig.3.18 Current flows through SCR in Class A-series resonant commutation 175
Fig.3.19 Voltage and current waveforms of Class A series resonant commutation circuit 177
(when load RL is parallel with capacitor)
Fig.3.20 Class B shunt resonant commutation circuit 178
Fig.3.21 Voltage and current waveforms of class B commutation 179
Fig.3.22(a) Class C commutation circuit with T1 ON and TA OFF and (b) Class C 180
commutation circuit with T1 OFF and TA ON
Fig.3.23 Voltage and current waveforms of class C complimentary symmetry 182
commutation circuit
Fig.3.24 Class D - auxiliary commutation circuit 184
Fig.3.25 Voltage and current waveforms of Class D auxiliary commutation 186
Fig.3.26 Class E external pulse commutation 187
Fig.3.27 Voltage and current waveforms of Class E external pulse commutation 188
Fig.3.28 Class F line or natural commutation 189
Fig.3.29 Voltage and current waveforms of Class F line or natural commutation 189
Fig.3.30 Circuit diagram for Resistance (R) triggering circuit of SCR 200
Fig.3.31 Circuit diagram for Resistor-capacitor (RC) triggering circuit of SCR 201
Fig.3.32 Circuit diagram to test effect of variation of R, C in UJT triggering technique 203
Fig.3.33 Circuit diagram (a) Class-A (b) Class-B and (c) Class-C commutation circuits 205
Fig.3.34 Circuit diagram (a) Class-D (b) Class-E and (c) Class-F commutation circuits 208
Unit –4 Phase Controlled Rectifiers

Fig.4.1 Classification of single phase controlled rectifiers 213
Fig.4.2 Single phase half controlled rectifier with R load 214
Fig.4.3 Input voltage (Vs), triggering pulse of T1 (ig1), output voltage (Vo), output 215
current (Io) and VT1 voltage across T1 for half wave controlled rectifier with R load
Fig.4.4 Firing angle vs output voltage 216
Fig.4.5 First quadrant operation of single half wave controlled rectifier with R load 216
Fig.4.6 Single phase half controlled rectifier with R-L load 218
Fig.4.7 Input voltage (Vs), triggering pulse of T1 (ig1), output voltage (Vo), output 219
current Io) and VT1 voltage across T1 for single phase half wave controlled rectifier
with R-L load
Fig.4.8 First and fourth quadrant operation of single half wave controlled rectifier with 220
R-L load
Fig.4.9 Single phase half controlled rectifier with R-L load and freewheeling diode DF 225
(xx)
Fig.4.10 Supply voltage (Vs), triggering pulse of T1 (ig1), output voltage (Vo), output 226
current (Io) and voltage across T1 for single phase half wave controlled rectifier with R-
L load and freewheeling diode (discontinuous mode)
Fig.4.11 Supply voltage (Vs), triggering pulse of T1 (ig1), output voltage (Vo), output 228
current (Io) and voltage across T1 for single phase half wave controlled rectifier with R-
L load and freewheeling diode (continuous mode)
Fig.4.12 Single phase full wave midpoint controlled rectifier 230
Fig.4.13 Single phase full wave midpoint controlled rectifier with R load 230
Fig.4.14 Supply voltages (Vs), gate pulse, output voltage (Vo), voltage across thyristor 231
and load current (Io) waveforms at firing angle for single phase full wave controlled
rectifier with R load
Fig.4.15 Firing angle vs output voltage 232
Fig.4.16 First quadrant operation of single phase full wave mid point controlled rectifier 232
with R load
Fig.4.17 Single phase full wave midpoint controlled rectifier with R-L load 235
Fig.4.18 Voltage and current waveforms of single phase full wave midpoint controlled 237
rectifier with R-L load in discontinuous load current
rectifier with R-L load in continuous load current
Fig.4.20 Firing angle vs output voltage of single phase full wave midpoint controlled 239
rectifier with R-L load in continuous load current
Fig.4.21 First and fourth quadrant operation of single phase full wave midpoint 239
controlled rectifier with R-L load
Fig.4.22 Single phase full wave midpoint controlled rectifier with R-L load and free 241
wheeling diode
rectifier with R-L load and free wheeling diode in discontinuous load current
Fig.4.24 Voltage and current waveforms of Single phase full wave midpoint controlled 243
rectifier with R-L load and free wheeling diode in continuous load current
Fig.4.25 Different configuration of single phase bridge controlled rectifier 244
Fig.4.26 Single phase full wave controlled bridge rectifier with R load 244
Fig.4.27 voltage and current waveforms of single phase full wave controlled bridge 245
rectifier with R load
Fig.4.28 Single phase full wave controlled bridge rectifier with R-L load 245
Fig.4.29 The voltage and current waveforms of single phase full wave controlled bridge 247
rectifier with R-L load for continuous load current
rectifier with R-L load for discontinuous load current
Fig.4.31 Single phase full wave controlled bridge rectifier with R-L load and free 249
wheeling diode DF
rectifier with R-L load and free wheeling diode DF for continuous load current
rectifier with R-L load and free wheeling diode DF for discontinuous load current
Fig.4.34 Single phase half controlled bridge controlled rectifier common-cathode with R 251
load
Fig.4.35 Single phase half controlled bridge controlled rectifier common-anode with R 252
load
(xxi)
Fig.4.36 Single phase asymmetrical half controlled bridge controlled rectifier with R 252
load
Fig.4.37 Voltage and current waveforms of single phase half bridge controlled rectifier 253
with R load
Fig.4.38 Single phase half controlled bridge controlled rectifier common-cathode with R- 254
L load
Fig.4.39 Single phase half controlled bridge controlled rectifier common-anode with R-L 254
load
Fig.4.40 Single phase asymmetrical half controlled bridge controlled rectifier with R-L 255
load
Fig.4.41 Voltage and current waveforms of single phase half controlled bridge controlled 256
rectifier with R-L load for continuous load current
Fig.4.42 Voltage and current waveforms of single phase half controlled bridge controlled 257
rectifier with R-L load for discontinuous load current.
Unit –V Industrial Control Circuits

Fig.5.1 Circuit diagram of a burglar alarm 276
Fig.5.2 Circuit diagram of battery charger using SCR 278
Fig.5.3 Circuit diagram of emergency light system using SCR 281
Fig.5.4 Circuit diagram for temperature controller using SCR 283
Fig.5.5 Circuit diagram for illumination control using TRIAC 284
Fig.5.6 Circuit diagram for switch mode power supply (SMPS) 286
Fig.5.7 Off-line UPS where load is normally connected to ac supply 288
Fig.5.8 Online UPS where load normally connected to inverter 289
Fig. 5.9 SCR based AC circuit breaker 290
Fig. 5.10 Voltage and current waveforms of SCR based AC circuit breaker 291
Fig.5.11 SCR based DC circuit breaker 292
Fig.5.12 Circuit diagram for the test “DIAC and TRIAC Phase Control Circuit Performance” 295
Fig.5.13 Circuit diagram for simulation the firing angle control for DIAC and TRIAC Phase 297
control circuit in SCILAB software
Fig.5.14 Voltage and current waveforms for single phase AC voltage controller with R load 298
Fig.5.15 Schematic block diagram for the given Switch Mode Power Supply (SMPS) 301
Fig.5.16 Circuit diagram for the given Uninterruptable Power Supply (UPS) 303
(xxii)
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1 Symbols voltage/current rating and operating frequency of power 7
semiconductor Devices
Table 1.2 Switching on time, switching off time and on-state resistance of power 9
Semi-conductor devices.
Table 1.3 Enhancement and depletion type MOSFETs 39
Table 1.4 Comparison between Power MOSFET and Power BJT 51
Table 1.5 Comparison between Power MOSFET and Power BJT 66
Table 2.1 Differences between SCR and GTO 117
Table 2.2 Comparison between DIAC and TRIAC 134
(xxiii)
TABLE OF CONTENT
Foreword iv
Acknowledgement v
Preface vi
Outcome Based Education ix
Course Outcomes x
Guidelines for Teachers xi
Guidelines for Students xii
Abbreviations and Symbols xiii
List of Figures xviii
List of Tables xxiv
Unit-1 Power Electronic Devices 1-86

Unit Specifies 1
Rationale 1
Pre-requisites 2
Unit Outcomes 2
1.1 Introduction to power electronics 3
1.2 Development of power electronics devices 5
1.3 Power electronics devices 6
1.4 Power transistor 9
1.4.1 bipolar junction transistor (bjt) 10
1.4.2 Relation Between  and  12
1.4.3 Construction and Working Principle OF Power Bipolar Junction Transistor 16

1.4.4 V-I Characteristics of Power BJT 19
1.4.5 On state loss of Power BJT 26
1.4.6 Safe operating area (SOA) of power BJT 29
1.4.7 Series and parallel operation of Power BJT 32
1.4.8 Switching Characteristics of Power BJT 34
1.4.9 Uses of Power BJT 36
1.5 Power MOSFET 38
1.5.1 Construction and Working Principle of Power MOSFET 40
(xxiv)
1.5.2 V-I characteristics of Power MOSFET 42
1.5.3 ON state loss Power MOSFET 45
1.5.4 Safe operating area of power MOSFET 47
1.5.5 Series and parallel operation of POWER MOSFET 48
1.5.6 Switching characteristics of power MOSFET 49
1.5.7 Comparison between power BJT and power MOSFET 51
1.5.8 Uses of Power MOSFET 52
1.6 Insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) 53
1.6.1 Construction and Working Principle of IGBT 53
1.6.2 V-I characteristics of IGBT 57
1.6.3 ON state voltage drop in IGBT 59
1.6.4 Safe operating area of IGBT 61
1.6.5 Switching characteristics of IGBT 63
1.6.6 Comparison between power MOSFET and power BJT 66
1.6.7 Uses of IGBT 67
1.7 Concept of single electron transistor (SET) 68
1.8 Aspects of Nanotechnology 70
Exercise 72
Practical 79
Know more 84
Reference 85
Unit-2 Thyristor Family Devices 87-152

Unit Specifies 87
Rationale 88
Pre-requisites 88
Unit Outcomes 88
2.1 Introduction to Thyristor Family 89
2.2 Construction and operating principle of slilicon controlled rectifier (SCR) 90
2.3 V-I characteristics of SCR 91
2.3.1 Forward Blocking (FB) State 92
2.3.2 Forward Conduction (FC) State 93
(xxv)
2.3.3 Reverse Blocking (RB) State 93
2.4 Two Transistor Analogy of SCR 94
2.5 Switching Characteristics of SCR 96
2.5.1 Turn- on characteristics of SCR 96
2.5.2 Turn-off characteristics of SCR 98
2.6 Gate Characteristics 99
2.7 SCR Mounting and Cooling 104
2.8 Ratings of SCR 106
2.9 Types of Thyristors 109
2.10 LASCR (Light Activated Silicon Controlled Rectifier) 109
2.10.1 Construction of LASCR 109
2.10.2 Working Principle of LASCR 110
2.10.3 V-I Characteristics of LASCR 111
2.11 SCS (Silicon Controlled Switch) 112
2.11.1 Construction of SCS 112
2.11.2 Working Principle of SCS 113
2.11.3 V-I Characteristics of SCS 114
2.12 GTO (Gate Turn-off Thyristor) 115
2.12.1 Construction of GTO 115
2.12.2 V-I Characteristic of GTO 116
2.12.3 Operating Principle of GTO 118
2.12.4 Advantages of GTO over BJT 120
2.12.5 Advantages of GTO over SCR 120
2.12.6 Applications of GTO 120
2.13 UJT (Unijunction Transistor) 121
2.13.1 Construction of UJT 121
2.13.2 Working Principle and V-I characteristics of UJT 122
2.14 PUT (Programmable Unijunction Transistor) 123
2.15 DIAC 125
2.15.1 Construction of DIAC 125
2.15.2 Operating Principle and V-I Characteristics 126
2.16 TRIAC 128
(xxvi)
2.16.1 Construction of TRIAC 128
2.16.2 Operating Principle and V-I characteristic 129
2.17 Protection Circuits of Thyristor 135
2.17.1 Over-voltage Protection 135
2.17.2 Over-current Protection 136
2.17.3 Snubber Circuit 137
2.17.4 Crowbar Circuit 141
Exercise 141
Practical 147
Know More 151
Reference 152
Unit-3 Turn-on and Turn-off Methods of Thyristors 153-210

Unit Specifies 153
Rationale 153
Pre-requisites 154
Unit Outcomes 154
3.1 Introduction 155
3.2 Turn-on methods of Thyristors 155
3.2.1 High Forward Voltage Triggering 155
3.2.2 Thermal Triggering 155
3.2.3 Illumination or Optical Triggering 156
3.2.4 dV / dt Triggering 156
3.2.5 Gate Triggering 156

3.3 Gate trigger circuits for thyristors 157
3.4 Resistance Triggering Circuit 159
3.5 Resistance Capacitance Triggering Circuit 161
3.6 SCR Triggering Circuit Using UJT 165
3.7 PUT: Relaxation Oscillator 167
3.8 Synchronized UJT Circuit. 168
3.9 Pulse Transformer and Opto-coupler Based Triggering 171
3.9.1 Pulse Transformer Based Triggering 171
(xxvii)
3.9.2 Opto-coupler Based Triggering 172
3.10 SCR Turn-off Methods 174
3.10.1 Class A-Resonant Commutation Circuit 174
3.10.2 Class B - Shunt Resonant Commutation Circuit 177
3.10.3 Class C- Complimentary Symmetry Commutation Circuit 180
3.10.4 Class D – Auxiliary Commutation 183
3.10.5 Class E-External Pulse Commutation 187
3.10.6 Class F-Line or Natural Commutation 188
Exercise 192
Practical 200
Know More 209
Reference 210
Unit-4 Phase Controlled Rectifiers 211-272

Unit Specifies 211
Rationale 212
Pre-requisites 212
Unit Outcomes 212
4.2 Classification of single phase controlled rectifiers 213
4.3 Single Phase Half-Controlled Rectifiers with R Load 214
4.4 Single Phase Half-Controlled Rectifiers with R-L Load 218
4.5 Single Phase Half-Controlled Rectifiers with Free Wheeling Diode 225
4.5.1 Discontinuous mode of operation 225
4.5.2 Continuous mode of operation 226
4.6 Single Phase Full Wave Midpoint-Controlled Rectifiers 229
4.6.1 Single Phase Full Wave Midpoint Controlled Rectifier with R- Load 230
4.6.2 Single phase full wave controlled rectifier using centre tap transformer
with R-L Load 235
4.6.3 Single phase full wave midpoint controlled rectifier with R-L Load and
Free-wheeling Diode 240
4.7 Different Configurations of Bridge Controlled Rectifiers 243
4.7.1 Single phase fully controlled bridge rectifier with R load 244
(xxviii)
4.7.2 Single phase fully controlled bridge rectifier with R-L load 245
4.7.3 Single Phase Fully Controlled Bridge Rectifier With Free Wheeling
Diode DF and R-L Load 248
4.7.4 Single Phase Half Bridge Controlled Rectifier with R Load 251
4.7.5 Single Phase Half Bridge Controlled Rectifier with R-L Load 254
Exercise 258
Practical 264
Know More 270
References 272
Unit-5 Industrial Control Circuits 273-309

Unit Specifies 273
Rationale 274
Pre-requisites 274
Unit Outcomes 274
5.2 Burglar’s Alarm System 275
5.2.1 Equipment Required 276
5.2.2 Applications 277
5.3 Battery Charger using SCR 277
5.3.1 Drawbacks of Battery Charger Using SCR 279
5.4 Emergency Light System using SCR 280
5.5 Temperature Controller using SCR 282
5.6 Illumination control/fan control using TRIAC 284
(xxix)
5.7 SMPS (Switch Mode Power Supply) 286
5.7.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of SMPS 287
5.8 UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply): off-line and On-line 287
5.8.1 Off-line UPS 288
5.8.2 On-line UPS 288
5.9 SCR based AC and DC Circuit Breakers 289
5.9.1 SCR based AC Circuit Breakers 290
5.9.2 SCR based DC Circuit Breakers 291
Exercise 292
Practical 294
Know More 308
References 309
CO and PO Attainment Table 310
(xxx)
Power Electronic
1 Devices
UNIT SPECIFIES
Through this unit we have discussed the following aspects:
 Different Power electronic devices

 Power transistor: construction, working principle, V-I characteristics and uses.
 IGBT: Construction, working principle, V-I characteristics and uses.
 Concept of single electron transistor (SET)
 Aspects of Nano- technology.
The practical applications of the topics are discussed for generating further curiosity and creativity as
well as improving problem solving capacity of learners.
Not only a large number of multiple choice questions are incorporated in this chapter but also
questions of short and long answer types marked in two categories following lower and higher order
of Bloom’s taxonomy, assignments through a number of numerical problems. A list of references and
suggested readings are illustrated in this unit so that learners can go through them for practice and
get detailed knowledge. It is also be noted that some QR codes have been incorporated in different
sections of this unit for getting more information on various topics of interest.
After discussion the content related to theory, there is a “Know More” section at end of this unit which
is related to laboratory experiments. This section has been carefully designed so that the
supplementary information provided in this section becomes beneficial for the earners. Usually, this
section highlights the initial activity, examples of some interesting facts, analogy, and history of the
development of the power electrics devices focusing the salient observations and finding, timelines
starting from the development of the concerned topics up to the recent time, applications of the
subject matter for our day-to-day life, and industrial applications of power electronics devices.
RATIONALE
This unit on power electronics devices can be able to provide detail information regarding
construction, working principle, V-I characteristics of power semiconductor devices which are in wide
use in modern industry for the control and conversion of electrical power. This unit can help students
to get a primary idea about the construction, operating principle and applications of Power bipolar
junction transistor (Power BJT), Power metal oxide field effect transistor (Power MOSFET), and
Insulated gate bipolar transistor(IGBT). The comparison between Power BJT, Power MOSFET and IGBT
is incorporated in tabular manner so that students can able to differentiate the BJT, MOSFT and IGBT
very easily. Switching characteristics, safe operating area (SOA) and series and parallel operation of
2 | Fundamentals of Power Electronics
Power BJT, Power MOSFET and IGBT are also discussed in detail. The basic concept of single electron
transistor (SET) and some aspects of Nano-technology are also described in detail to help students to
know about the recent development of power semiconductor devices.
PRE-REQUISITES
Semiconductor physics
Analog and digital electronics
Electrical circuit theory
Electrical Machines and power system
UNIT OUTCOMES
List of outcomes of this unit is as follows:
U1-O1: To define power electronics
U1-O2: To list all power electronics devices
U1-O3: To learn about construction, working principle, V-I characteristics of power Transistors
U1-O4: To give a list of applications of power transistors
U1-O5: To discuss about construction, working principle, V-I characteristics of IGBT
U1-O6: To provide a list of applications of IGBT
U1-O7: To understand the concept of single electron transistor (SET)
U1-O8: To explain aspects of Nano- technology
Unit-1 EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES
Outcomes (1-Weak Correlation; 2- Medium Correlation; 3-Strong Correlation)
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5
U1-O1 3 - - - -
U1-O2 3 - - - -
U1-O3 3 3 2 3 -
U1-O4 3 2 2 - 3
U1-O5 3 3 2 - -
U1-O6 3 2 2 3 3
U1-O7 - - - - 2
U1-O8 - - - - 2
Power Electronic Devices | 3
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO POWER ELECTRONICS

Power Electronics is the technology which can be applied for conversion and control of electrical
power. In fact, the prime work of power electronics is to process and control the flow of electrical
energy by providing voltage and current in such a way that these parameters are optimally matched
with the consumer demand. This said conversion of electric power is called as power electronics
converter or power converter or switching converter or power modulator.
The schematic block diagram of basic structure of a power electronics converter based system consists
of power electronics converter and controller including the analogous measurement and interface
circuits (Fig.1.1). Usually power converters are used to convert electric power one form (AC or DC) to
another form (variable AC or DC) using power semiconductor devices and circuit elements like
inductance (L) and capacitance (C). Controllers are needed to generate control signals to turn on and
turn off of power switching devices. Consequently, the optimally required output voltage and current
at specified frequency will be available at output terminals.
Fig.1.1 Schematic block diagram of basic structure of a power electronic based system
Power Source: The source of electrical power is dc power (for example, dc generator, battery, and solar
photovoltaic cell) and ac power (for example, alternator and induction generator). The controlled
ac/dc power flows from source to load through a power converter.
Power Electronics Converter: The power electronics converters are used to convert electric power in
one form to another form as per requirement of load. The output of a power converter can be a
variable dc or a variable ac with variable voltage, current and frequency. Generally, the output of a
power converter depends on the nature of load. For example, if the load is induction motor, the
converter output must be variable ac voltage as well as frequency. When the load is dc motor, the
converter output will be variable dc voltage.
Controller: The controller input signals are feedback signals which are the measured parameters of
the load or source such as voltage, current, speed and position etc. Initially the command (reference)
signal is applied to the controller. Subsequently the feedback signals are compared with the command
signal and the control signals are generated by the controller to turn-on or turn-off the power
semiconductor devices of power converter. As a result, the required output will be available at the
particular load.
Usually, the controller generates triggering pulses for switching ON/OFF power semiconductor devices
of converter. A synchronizing circuit is required for dc to ac converter and ac to ac converter circuits.
Load: Electrical motors such as dc motors (separately excited, shunt, series and compound),
induction motors (squirrel-cage, wound rotor and linear), synchronous motors, brushless dc motors,
stepper motor and switched reluctance motors etc. are most commonly used as load in any a power
electronic based system.
Now a day, power electronics is one of the most active discipline in electrical power system
engineering and it is highly correlated with other engineering area such as solid state physics, analog
electronics, digital electronics, network analysis, analog and digital control system, digital signal
processing, electromagnetics, electrical machines and drives etc.
Due to rapid development in semiconductor technology, different power semiconductor devices such
as power diode, power transistor, power MOSFET, insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), SCR, LASCR,
SCS, GTO, UJT, PUT, DIAC and TRIAC etc. are developed to (i) fulfil the need of the consumer demand,
(ii) improve the system efficiency as well as energy saving and (iii) implement power conversion with
minimum volume, minimum weight, and less cost.
For more on
Introduction to
Power Electronics
1.2 DEVELOPMENT OF POWER ELECTRONICS DEVICES
The terminology “Power electronics” originated at the beginning of nineteenth century with
development of mercury-arc rectifiers which is used to convert high-voltage AC into DC
voltage. The mercury-arc rectifiers were generally used to provide dc supply in industrial
motors and drives, electric locomotives and high-voltage direct current (HVDC) power
transmission.
In 1900, initially the mercury-arc rectifiers with glass envelope were developed. Subsequently,
grid controlled mercury-arc rectifiers and mercury-arc rectifiers with metal envelope were
developed in 1903 and 1908 respectively.
In 1914, Thyratrons was developed by Langmuir. Thyratron is a type of gas filled tube which
is used as a high voltage electrical switch and a controlled rectifier. Generally, thyratron are
manufactured as triode, tetrode and pentode.
Selenium rectifier was developed without a glass tube in 1925 and it is also known as metal
rectifier. Copper oxide or selenium is used as semiconductor in selenium rectifier. The
selenium rectifier device can be used in controlled converters, inverters, cyclo-converters and
battery chargers.
In 1930, Rissik developed Cyclo-converters i.e. a variable frequency output voltage from fixed
frequency input voltage. In 1933, Lenz developed the ac voltage regulator or controller using
solid state power devices. The point-contact transistor was developed by W. H. Brattain, J.
Bardeen and W. Shockley in 1947.
In 1948, bipolar junction transistor (BJT) using germanium was invented and this development
was the beginning of new age of semiconductor electronics due to reduction in size, cost, and
power consumption of solid state power devices.
In 1953, high current rating about 100A germanium power diode was developed. A new
revolution in semiconductor electronics is in progress with the innovation of a four-layer silicon
PNPN device i.e. thyristor in 1956. The SCR was introduced by General Electric in late 1957
and the power electronics really began a new era.
In 1964, the power FET was developed by Zuleeg and Teszner. The development of power
FET has significant effect on the power semiconductor industry.
The insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), a three-terminal power-semiconductor device is

developed in early 1980 to combine high efficiency and fast switching. It consists of four
alternating layers PNPN that are controlled by a metal oxide semiconductor gate structure. It
can be used as electrical power switching applications such as automobiles, trains, air
conditioners, and refrigerators etc.
1.3 POWER ELECTRONICS DEVICES

In power electronics converter circuits, power semiconductor devices are used as switches in power
converter to convert the power one form to another and also control the electric power. Generally,
the following power semiconductor devices are manufactured and most commercially available in the
market for industrial use:
 Power diodes
 Power Transistors i.e. Power BJT, Power MOSFET
 Silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR)
 Asymmetrical SCR (ASCR)
 Bidirectional diode thyrisitor (DIAC)
 Bidirectional triode thyrisitor (TRIAC)
 Gate turn-off thyristor (GTO)
 Insulated –gate bipolar transistors (IGBT)
 Light-activated SCR (LASCR)
 Programmable unijunction transistor (PUT)
 Light-activated programmable unijunction transistor (LAPUT)
 Reverse-blocking diode thyristor (RBDT)
 Reverse-blocking tetrode thyristor (SCS silicon-controlled switch)
 Reverse-conducting diode thyristor (RCDT)
 Reverse-conducting triode thyristor (RCTT)
 Silicon bilateral switch (SBS)
 Silicon unilateral switch (SUS)
 Static Induction Transistor (SIT)
 Static Induction Thyristors (SITH)

 Reverse Conducting thyristor (RCT)
 MOS controlled thyristors (MCT)
From the above solid state power devices, the most commonly used power semiconductor devices
are power diodes, power BJT, power MOSFET, SCR, DIAC, TRIAC and IGBT etc. When these devices are
in ON state, switches are closed and these devices behave just like ordinary switches and current flows
from source to load through power semiconductor devices as well as load. In the same way, when
these devices operate in OFF state, switch is opened and no current flows from source to load. Power
semiconductor devices are available in wide range of voltage rating from few volts to several kV and
current rating from few amperes to several kA.
Power semiconductor devices should have the following essential properties: (i) breakdown voltage
should be very high, (ii) on state voltage drop must be low, (iii) on state resistance is low, (iv) turn-on
and turn-off process will be very fast and (v) power dissipation capacity is high. Table 1.1 shows the
symbol, voltage/current rating and operating frequency of power semiconductor devices. Switching
on time, switching off time and on-state resistance of power semiconductor devices are illustrated in
Table 1.2.
Table 1.1 Symbols voltage/current rating and operating frequency of power semiconductor devices
Device Symbol Voltage/current rating Operating frequency

Name
(maximum)
Power 5kV/5kA 100-300kHz

Diode
Power BJT 1400V/400A 10kHz
npn

Name
(maximum)
Power 1kV/50A 100kHz- 1MHz

MOSFET
Thyristors 10kV/5kA 1kHz

(SCR)
Light 6kV/3kA 1kHz

Activated
SCR
IGBT 3.3kV/1200A 50kHz
GTO 5kV/3kA 2kHz
or

Name
(maximum)
TRIAC 1200V/300A 0.5kHz
Table 1.2 Switching on time, switching off time and on-state resistance of power semiconductor
devices.
Device Name Switching on time (ton) Switching off time (toff) On-state resistance
Power Diode 50 to 100 s 50 to 100 s 0.3 to 0.6 milli-ohm
Power BJT 2 s 9 to 30 s 4 to 10 milli-ohm
Power MOSFET 0.1 s 1 to 2 s 1 to 2 milli-ohm
Thyristors 2 to 5 s 20 to 100 s 0.25 to .75 milli-ohm
IGBT 0.2 s 2-5 s 2 to 40 milli-ohm
GTO 3 to 5 s 10-25 s 2.5 milli-ohm
TRIAC 2 to 5 s 200 to 400 s 3.5 milli-ohm
For more on Power

Electronics Devices
1.4 POWER TRANSISTOR
Power transistors are fully controlled device as the turn-on and turn-off switching of power transistors
are controllable. Whenever a current signal is applied to the base of bipolar junction transistor (BJT),
this device will be turned on and operate in ON state as long as the control signal is present. If the
control signal is removed from the base of BJT, the power transistor will be turned off and operate in
off-state. In the same way, if a voltage signal is applied to gate of MOSFET, this device will be ON and
when a voltage signal is removed from gate, MOSFET operates in OFF state. In general, power
transistors are four types such as
 Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)

 Metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET)
 Insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) and
 Static induction transistor (SIT)
In this section, the construction, working principle, V-I characteristics, safe operating area, series and
parallel operation, switching characteristics and uses of power BJT are explained. The structure of
power MOSFET, working principle, V-I characteristics and uses are also discussed in this section. The
structure, operating principle, and V-I characteristics of IGBT are discussed elaborately. The concept
of single electron transistor (SET) and aspects of Nano- technology are also explained in this unit.
1.4.1 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT)
A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) has a silicon or germanium crystal in which a layer of n-type
semiconductor is sandwich between two layers of p-type semiconductor and it is called as p-n-p
transistor. In the same way, BJT consists of a layer of p-type semiconductor between two layers of n-
type semiconductor materials and this one is called as an n-p-n transistor. Actually the sandwich of
semiconductor is very small and sealed inside either a metal or plastic case to protect from moisture.
The construction of a p-n-p transistor and an n-p-n transistor are depicted in Fig.1.2 and Fig.1.3
respectively. It can be seen from Fig.1.1 that each BJT has three regions such as emitter (E), base (B)
and collector (C).
Fig.1.2 Construction of p-n-p transistors

Fig.1.3 Construction of n-p-n transistors
Emitter (E): The emitter region provides charge carriers either electrons or holes to the base and
collector regions. Always emitter region is heavily doped about 1019 per cm3 donor or acceptor atoms.
Base (B): The base region is placed in the middle of two “n” or “p” regions and hence forms two p-n
junctions in the transistor. Usually, the base of transistor is thin compared to emitter and collector
region and this region is lightly doped about 1016 per cm3.
Collector (C): The collector region is placed in the other end of the transistor which is opposite side to
the emitter. This region collects charge carriers either electrons or holes. The collector region is always
larger than the emitter region and base region of transistor. The doping level of collector is less
compared to the doping level of emitter, but more than the doping level of base region about 1017 per
cm3.
BJT has two p-n junction namely emitter-base junction (JE) and collector-base junction (JC). The junction
between emitter and base regions is known as emitter-base junction (JE). Correspondingly, the
junction between collector and base regions is called as collector-base junction (JC).
The symbols of p-n-p and n-p-n transistors are depicted in Fig.1.4 1nd 1.5 respectively. The arrow on
the emitter terminal represents the direction of current flow while the base emitter junction is
forward biased.
The emitter, base and collector currents are represented by IE, IB and IC respectively (Fig.1.4 and
Fig.1.5). The VBE represents the voltage drop across base to emitter of transistor. Consistently, VCB and
VCE are the voltage across the collector base and collector emitter respectively.
Fig.1.4 Symbol of p-n-p transistors
Fig.1.5 Symbol of n-p-n transistors
1.4.2 Relation Between  and 
The common base dc current gain (  ) is defined as the ratio of the collector current (IC) to the emitter
current (IE) and it is represented by  or hFB or  dc . The dc current gain  can be expressed as
IC
 (1.1)
IE
Since the collector current is always less than the emitter current, the dc current gain  is always less
than unity. Usually the value of  is about 0.98. The dc current can be closer to unity by controlling
the width and doping level of base region as small as possible. Practically,  varies in between 0.95
to 0.998.
The common emitter dc current gain (  ) is defined as the ratio of the collector current (IC) to the base
current (IB). It is represented by  or hFE or  dc and it can be expressed as
IC
 (1.2)
IB
The common emitter dc current gain  of a transistor is called as large signal common emitter current
gain. Since the collector current of bipolar junction transistor is always greater than the base current,
the value of dc current gain (  ) must be greater than unity. For example, if the collector current IC is
equal to 5mA and the base current IB is 0.05-mA, the common emitter dc current gain  is equal to
100. Consequently, the collector current is 100 times that of base current. Generally,  varies in the
range from 20 to 250.
The emitter current (IE) of a transistor is sum of the base current (IB) and collector current (IC) and it
can be expressed as
I E  I B  IC (1.3)
After dividing the both sides of the equation (1.3) by IC, we get
IE IB
 1 (1.4)
IC IC
IC I
As the current gain   and the current gain   C , the equation (1.4) can be expressed as
IE IB
1 1 1 
 1  (1.5)
  

The equation (1.5) can be expressed as   (1.6)
 1
The equation (1.6) can also be written as
   (   1)    

Thus,  (1.7)
1
Example 1.1 A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) has an  of 0.97. Determine the value of 
Solution
 0.97
The value of   = = 32.33 ( as  =0.97 )
1   1  0.97
Example 1.2 A BJT has a  of 99. Find the value of  .
Solution
 99
The value of   = = 0.99 (as  =99)
  1 99  1
Example 1.3 The collector current of a bipolar junction transistor is about 90 mA and it’s  is 99.
Calculate the value of base current and emitter current.
Solution
 99
The value of   = = 0.99 (As  =99 )
  1 99  1
IC
Since the current gain   , the emitter current is equal to
IE
I E  I C = 0.99  90 mA=89.1 mA
IC
As the current gain   , the base current is equal to
IB
I C 90
IB   mA=0.909 mA
 99
Example 1.4 A BJT has  =95 and the emitter current is 80 mA. Compute the value of base
current and collector current.
Solution
 95
The value of   = = 0.989 ( As  =95)
  1 95  1
IC
Since the current gain   , the collector current is
IE
IC  I E  0.989 80 mA=79.12 mA (As I E  80 mA)
IC
As the current gain   , the base current is equal to
IB
I C 79.12
IB   mA= 0.879 mA
 90
Example 1.5 The bipolar junction transistor has a base current IB=125µA and the collector current (IC)
is equal to 15mA. (a) Calculate the value of  ,  and emitter current. (b) if the base current changes
by 25µA and the corresponding collector current change is 0.5mA, determine the new value of  .
Solution
3
IC 15  10
(a) The current gain   = = 120 (As IB=125µA and IC =15mA)
I B 125  106
 120
The value of   = = 0.99
  1 120  1
The emitter current is
I E  I B  I C = 125 µA+15mA=5.125 mA
(b) When the change in base current is I B =25µA, the change in collector current is equal to
I C =0.5mA
Therefore, the new base current is I B=125µA+25µA=150 µA
and the new collector current is equal to IC =15mA+0.5mA= 15.5mA
The new value of  is
3
I C 15.5  10
 = = 103.33
I B 150  106
Example 1.6 The common base dc current gain of a transistor is 0.98. If the emitter current is
100mA, determine the base current and collector current.
Solution
IC
The common-base dc current gain is equal to  
IE
Therefore, the collector current is IC  I E = 0.98100mA = 98mA (As   0.98, and IE = 100 mA)
 0.98
The value of   = = 49
1   1  0.98
I C 98
Hence, the base current is equal to I B  = = 2mA
 49
1.4.3 CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING PRINCIPLE OF POWER BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
NPN power transistor consists of four-layer n+ p n- n+ structure as depicted in Fig.1.6. This transistor
has three terminals such as base (B), emitter (E) and collector (C). Base is used as an input terminal
and collector is used as the output terminal. In common emitter (CE) configuration, emitter is common
between input and output terminals.
Fig.1.6 Structure of n-p-n type power BJT
It is clear from Fig.1.6 that the width of emitter, n+ layer is about 10 m and its doping intensity is
19 3
about N A  10 cm . Generally, the base thickness of p layer is about 5 to 20 m and the doping
16 3
density of p type semiconductor materials is moderate and its value is about N D  10 cm . The
width of collector drift region, n- layer varies from 50 m to 200 m and the doping density is
14 3
minimum in drift region and its value is about N A  10 cm . The width of n+ collector region is
maximum and it is 250 m . The doping density of n+ type semiconductor layer is about
N A  1019 cm3 . The doping density of semiconductor materials and width of each layer of power BJT
are shown in Fig.1.6.
The base thickness of BJT is small to provide better amplification capability. Due to very small base
thickness, the breakdown voltage capability of BJT has been reduced. Consequently, the base
thickness of power transistors should be more compared to the logic level transistors to increase
breakdown voltage capability. In case of power BJTs, the base thickness of power transistors should
vary with in few tens of micrometres. Actually, the breakdown voltage of the power transistors
depends on the thickness of the collector drift region. Consequently, the thickness of collector drift
region varies from 50 m to 200 m depending upon the break down voltage.
In general, the vertical structure of power transistors provides the maximum cross-sectional area
through which the current flows with in the device and the current density per unit area becomes
minimum. As a result, the on-state resistance and the power loss of power transistors can be
minimized. Due to large cross sectional area, the thermal resistance of power transistors is low and
the power dissipation problems can be reduced significantly.
In case for a p-n-p transistor, the four-layer structure of power transistors consists of p+ n p- p+ and
the doping level will be opposite of n-p-n transistor. In power electronics converter circuits, n-p-n
transistors are used as power semiconductor switches.
IC
The current gain of a power transistor is represented by   and the value of  is small and it
IB
varies in the range 5 to 10. Darlington pair of power BJTs is used to increase the current gain. The
monolithic design of a Darlington pair of power BJTs is depicted in Fig.1.7.
Fig.1.7 Darlington pair of power BJTs

In Fig.1.7, “A” represents the auxiliary transistor, “M” stands for the main transistor, I BA is base
current of auxiliary transistor, I CA is collector current of auxiliary transistor, I EA is emitter current
of auxiliary transistor, I BM is base current of main transistor and I CM is collector current of main
transistor. The relationship between collector current I CA and base current I BA of the auxiliary
transistor is equal to
I CA   A I BA (1.8)
where,  A is current gain of auxiliary transistor.
It is clear from Fig.1.8 that the emitter current of auxiliary transistor I EA is equal to the base current
I BM of the main transistor and I BM is equal to
I BM  (1   A )I BA (1.9)
The collector current of main transistor is
I CM   M I BM   M (1   A ) I BA (1.10)
where,  M is current gain of main transistor and I BM  (1   A ) I BA
The total load current I C is sum of collector current of auxiliary transistor I CA and collector current
of main transistor I CM .
Subsequently, I C  I CA  I CM   A I BA   M (1   A ) I BA (1.11)
 ( A   M   M  A )I BA (1.12)
IC
As a result, the new current gain   can be expressed as
I BA
  M  A  M   A (1.13)
where,  A is current gain of auxiliary transistor and  M is current gain of main transistor.
As the values of  M and  A are reasonably large, the product  M  A can be very large compared
to  M and  A . Consequently the estimated value of  is about  M  A i.e. the product of the
current gains of auxiliary and main transistors. As a result, the darlington pair of power BJTs needs
very much smaller current control for its operation compared to single power transistor but the
switching time of the darlington pair of power BJTs is more than the switching time of a single power
BJT. The darlington pair of power BJTs with diodes D1 and D2 is shown in Fig.1.8. The diode D1 is used
to turn-off the main transistor firstly and the diode D2 is used for half-bridge and full-bridge inverter
circuits.
Fig.1.8 Darlington pair of power BJTs with diodes D1 and D2
1.4.4 V-I Characteristics of Power BJT
There are three possible configurations of power BJT such as common collector, common base and
common emitter. The common emitter configuration is most commonly used in switching
applications. Fig.1.9 shows the circuit diagram of common emitter configuration where BJT is used as
a switch. The power BJT has three characteristics namely input characteristics, output characteristics
and transfer characteristics.
Fig.1.9 BJT is used as a switch
1.4.5.1 Input characteristics: The input characteristics of base current I B with respect to base emitter
voltage VBE are depicted in Fig.1.10.
VCE2
Fig.1.10 Input characteristics of a bipolar junction transistor
1.4.4.2 Output characteristics: The output characteristics of a n-p-n power BJT are the plot of
collector current iC versus collector emitter voltage VCE and Fig.1.11 shows the V-I output
characteristics of power transistor. The V-I characteristics of power transistor consists of three regions
such as cut-off region, active region and saturation region. When the base current is not enough to
turn it on, both the junctions are reverse biased and the transistor is in the off state and it operates in
cut-off region. Transistor acts as an amplifier in the active region when the base current is amplified
by a gain and collector-emitter voltage decreases with base current. The collector base junction is
reverse biased and the base emitter junction is forward biased. When the base current is significantly
high so that the collector-emitter voltage is low in saturation region and the power transistor acts a
switch. In this case, both collector base junction and base emitter junction are forward biased.
However, the major difference between V-I characteristics of a power transistor and logic level
transistor is the quasi-saturation which is present in power transistors. The quasi saturation is
occurred due to the lightly doped collector drift n  region in the structure of power transistors.
Fig.1.11 V-I characteristics of an npn power BJT
1.4.4.3 Quasi Saturation
To explain the quasi-saturation, a collector drift region (N-) has been incorporated in the structure of
power BJT as shown in Fig.1.12. At first, the transistor operates in the active region and the base
current starts to increase. Due to increase in the base current, the collector current increases and the
collector emitter voltage (VCE) reduces as voltage drop across the collector load resistance, RL
increases. Accordingly, the voltage drops in the drift region increases. Subsequently the ohmic
resistance drop also increases as the collector current (IC) increases. Thus, the reverse bias voltage
across collector base (n-p) junction becomes smaller and the junction gets forward biased at several
points.
Fig. 1.12 Biasing of npn power BJT
As soon as n-p junction is forward biased at different points, holes are injected from the base to the
collector n  drift region. For maintaining the space charge neutrality, electrons must be injected into
the drift region and number of electrons must be equal to the number of holes. In fact, the large
numbers of electrons are supplied to the collector-base junction through injection from the emitter
and following diffusion across the base. Consequently, the excess carriers can build up in the drift
region and afterward the quasi-saturation region is developed in V-I characteristics of an n-p-n power
BJT.
If the ohmic resistance of the n  drift region is Rd , the collector current is
VCE
IC  (1.14)
Rd
Therefore, the double injection can be take place in the drift region in quasi saturation. The charge is
accumulated in the n  drift region from one side of drift region that is the collector-base pn- junction.
The electron injection across the n-n+ junction is less measurable as there is much more abundant
electrons at the pn- junction. When the injected carriers increase, the n  drift region is shorted
progressively and the voltage across the drift region is reduced even if the collector current (IC) is large.
Fig.1.13 (a) Storage charge in the base region during operate in active mode
(b) Storage charge in the base region during operate in quasi-saturation
(c) Storage charge in the base region during operate in hard saturation

It is depicted in Fig.1.13(b) that the hole injection from the base to the collector-base pn junction
has been introduced, the virtual base thickness is increased. Consequently, the effective value of 
decreases and the magnitude of collector current for a specified base current should be decreased.
The n  drift region cannot be completely shorted out through high-level injection in the quasi-
saturation. Therefore, the power dissipation of BJT in the quasi-saturation is greater larger than the
power dissipation during hard saturation.
1.4.4.4 Hard saturation
The hard saturation is occurred whenever the excess carrier density reaches the end of n+ drift region.
In hard saturation, it needs a minimum amount of stored charge Q1 in the virtual base region as
depicted in Fig.1.13(c). At that time the effective base thickness is increased and it is the sum of the
normal base thickness and the length of the n  drift region. It is also clear from Fig1.13(c) that the
additional stored charge Q2 is able to drive the transistor into hard saturation. In hard saturation, the
voltage drop across the n  drift region is small and the on-state power dissipation is minimized
compared to quasi saturation of power transistor.
Once the transistor operates in the saturation region, the collector current I CS is
VCC  VCES
I CS  (1.15)
RC
and the minimum base current required to operate transistor in saturation is equal to
I CS
I BS  (1.16)

If the base current is less than I BS , the transistor operates in active region. When base current I B is
very high ( I B > I BS ), the collector current is equal to
VCC
I CS  (as VCES  0 ) (1.17)
RC
When the base current is high, transistor can be operating in hard saturation. The ratio of I B and I BS
is called as overdrive factor (ODF) and it is equal to
IB
ODF  (1.18)
I BS
The value of ODF varies from 4 to 5. The forced current gain  f is the ratio of I CS to I B and the
value of  f is always less than  .
The total power loss in two junctions of power BJT is equal to
PTotalloss  VBE I B  VCE I C (1.19)
The important features of V-I characteristics of power transistors are VCE | SUS , VCE0 , VCB0 , primary
breakdown and second breakdown.

VCE| SUS : Whenever a sustainable collector current flows through power BJT, the said device will be
able to withstand or sustained up to a maximum collector-emitter voltage. This maximum voltage
across collector-emitter of power BJT is indicated by VCE |SUS .
VCE 0 : When the base of power BJT become open circuit, the base current is zero ( I B  0 ). The device
operate in cut-off region and the power BJT can able to sustain up to a maximum collector emitter
voltage VCE0 . The voltage VCE0 is known as collector emitter breakdown voltage at I B  0 .
VCB0 : It is collector-base break down voltage when the emitter is open circuit. The value of VCB0 is
greater than VCE0 . Fig.1.10 shows the VCE | SUS , VCE0 and VCB0 .
In the common emitter configuration, the breakdown voltage VCE0 is smaller than the breakdown
voltage VCB0. The VCE0 is function of VCB0 and  and it is equal to
VCBO
VCEO  1
(1.20)
n

where, n=4 for n-p-n power BJT and n=6 for p-n-p transistors.
The transistor with high breakdown voltage has small value of beta. The value of beta for high voltage
n-p-n transistors varies between 10 to 20.
If   15 and n=4 for a typical n-p-n transistor,
VCBO VCBO
VCEO  1
 (1.21)
4
1.967
15
and the value of VCEO is approximately one-half of VCBO .
Primary Breakdown
The primary breakdown of a power BJT is equivalent to conventional avalanche breakdown of

collector-base junction due to large current flow. The primary breakdown can be avoided due to large
power dissipation with in the device. The primary breakdown is well-known as first breakdown. In fact,
the primary breakdown is the limit of collector emitter voltage at which power BJT can withstand or
sustain with high collector current. If the junction temperature within the safe limit, transistor cannot
be damaged and the device can return back to its original position when both collector current and
collector-emitter voltage are reduced.
Secondary Breakdown
If the power BJT operates in an active region with a large collector current, there is a voltage drop
across collector-emitter junction. When all of a sudden collector current increases considerably, there
is large power dissipation within the power BJT. As the power dissipation is non-uniformly spread over
the entire volume of the power BJT, local hot-spots are developed within the device and the
transistor’s breakdown occurs and the device can be completely damaged. This breakdown is known
as secondary breakdown. By using the snubber circuit, maintaining the instantaneous voltage and
current within forward biased safe operating area, and controlling the overall power dissipation within
the device, the second breakdown can be avoided.
1.4.5 ON STATE LOSS of Power BJT
It is assumed that the power bipolar junction transistor operates at low and medium operating
frequency and the power dissipation within the device is equal to the power loss during ON state. To
compute on-state loss, usually we consider that the device operates in hard saturation region. Then
power dissipation of BJT is equal to
P  VCE I C (1.22)
Where, VCE is collector-emitter saturation voltage during hard saturation and I C is collector
current
The different internal voltage drops in a power transistor is shown in Fig.1.14. The voltage drops across
forward biased base emitter junction VBE, voltage drops across forward biased collector-base junction
VBC, voltage drop across collector drift region VD can be used to determine the on state voltage drop
across collector emitter of power BJT and the VCE is equal to
VCE  VBE  VBC  VD  I C ( RE  RC ) (1.23)

Fig.1.14 ON- state collector-emitter voltage of a power BJT
The difference between VBE and VBC voltages is about 0.1V to 0.2V. The collector base junction has very
large area compared to the base-emitter junction. The doping levels across the collector-base junction
are very low compared to the doping levels across the base-emitter junction. The voltage difference
VBE  VBC does not dependent on collector current.
RE is the ohmic resistance of the heavily doped emitter and RC is the ohmic resistance of the heavily
doped collector region. When collector current is reasonably low, the voltage drops across RE and RC
are insignificant. If a large current flows though the device, the voltage drops across RE and RC are
significant. VD is the voltage drop across the collector drift region. The value of VD is low due to
conductivity modulation and it does not depend on collector current.
Example 1.7 A bipolar transistor as shown in Fig.1.15 has   30 and the load resistance RC  15
. The dc supply voltage VCC  200V and the input voltage to base is VB  10V . When
VCE ( saturation)  1.2V and V BE ( saturation)  1.5V , determine (a) the value of resistance R B so that
transistor operates in saturation and (b) power loss in the transistor.

Fig.1.15: Bipolar transistor
Solution:
We know that  f  30 , RC  15 , VCC  200V , VB  10V , VCE ( saturation)  1.2V ,
V BE ( saturation)  1.5V
(a) When the transistor operates in saturation, load current is
VCC  VCE ( saturation) 200  1.2

I CS   =13.253A
RC 15
The base current that drives the transistor in saturation is equal to
I CS 13.253
I BS   =0.4177A
f 30
The value of resistance R B so that transistor operates in saturation is equal to
VB  VBE ( saturation) 10  1.5

RB   = 20.349 
I BS 0.4177
(b) The power loss in transistor is
PTotalloss  VBE I B  VCE I C  V BE ( saturationm ) I BS  VCE ( saturation) I CS
 1.5  0.4177  1.2  13.253 Watt=16.53 Watt
Example 1.8 A bipolar transistor as depicted in Fig.1.14 has  in the range 10 to 40 and the load
resistance RC  10 . The dc supply voltage VCC  150V and the input voltage to base is VB  12V
. When VCE ( saturation)  1.0V and V BE ( saturation)  1.25V , determine (a) the value of resistance R B so
that transistor operates in saturation with ODF  4 (b) forced current gain (c) power loss in the
transistor.
Solution:
Given:  min  10 ,  max  40 , RC  10 , VCC  150V ,
VB  12V , VCE ( saturation)  1.0V , V BE ( saturation)  1.25V
(a) When the transistor operates in saturation, load current is
VCC  VCE ( saturation) 150  1.0

I CS   =14.9A
RC 10
The base current that drives the transistor in saturation is equal to
I CS 14.9
I BS   =1.49A
 min 10
The base current with ODF  4 is
I B  ODF  I BS  4 1.49 A= 5.96A
The value of resistance R B so that transistor operates in saturation with ODF  4 is equal to
VB  VBE ( saturation) 10  1.5

RB   = 1.426 
I BS 5.96
I CS 14.9
(b) Forced current gain is  forced   =2.5
I B 5.96
(c )The power loss in transistor is
PTotalloss  VBE I B  VCE I C
 1.5  5.96  1.0  14.9 Watt = 23.84 Watt
1.4.6 SAFE OPERATING AREA (SOA) OF POWER BJT
The safe operating area (SOA) indicates the maximum values of collector current IC and collector
emitter voltage VCE at which the power BJT can be operated safely. According to manufacture
datasheet related to the detail specification of power BJT, there are two types of safe operating areas
such “Forward bias safe operating area (FBSOA)” and “Reverse bias safe operating area (RBSOA)”.
1.4.6.1 Forward bias safe operating area (FBSOA)
The SOA corresponding to the turn-on of power BJT is called as the Forward bias safe operating area
(FBSOA). Fig.1.16 shows the FBSOA of power transistor where collector current I C and collector
emitter voltage VCE are denoted by log scale. During forward biased state, the base-emitter junction
is forward biased and base current flows from power supply to base.
The boundary of the FBSOA is limited by four factors such as maximum collector current ICmax, VCEo,
junction temperature Tjmax and second breakdown. The FBSOA depends on the operation in
continuous dc signal and a pulse signal at different frequency. When the power transistor operates
with dc signal, the boundary of the FBSOA is A-B-C-D-E. Boundary A-B indicates the maximum limit of
collector current ICmax with VCE is less than 100V. Whereas the collector emitter voltage VCE is
more than 100V, the collector current IC has been reduced as represented by boundary B-C.
Subsequently the operating junction temperature of power BJT should be less than the maximum
operating junction temperature Tjmax. It is clear from Fig.1.16 that for high value of VCE , the collector
current is further reduced to avoid the second breakdown of power transistor and the operating
boundary of power BJT is denoted by CD. The Boundary D-E denotes the maximum voltage capability
of power transistor, VCEo.
Fig.1.16 Forward bias safe operating area (FBSOA) of power BJT

If the power BJT operates as a switch and it is driven by pulse signal at different frequency, the
boundaries of the FBSOA of the device is extended as depicted in Fig.1.16. Hence, the extension of
the FBSOA is only possible for switch mode operation. In fact, power transistor has a specified thermal
capacitance due to use of specified silicon wafer and its proper packaging. Therefore, power transistor
has an ability to absorb a limited amount of energy without increasing the junction temperature
excessively.
While the power BJT turns on for a few microseconds, the device can absorb very small amount of
energy and the junction temperature rise is low and the boundary of FBSOA will be increased. When
the pulse width is 10 1 s, the FBSOA is more than the boundary A-B-C-D-E. When the pulse width of
signal is more reduced and its approximate value is 10 6 s, the FBSOA is greater than the boundary
with pulse with 10 1 s. Therefore, the FBSOA increases with the decrease of pulse-width of signal.
1.4.6.2 Reverse bias safe operating area (RBSOA)
The safe operating area corresponding to turn off of power BJT is called as reverse bias safe operating
area (RBSOA). In reverse biased condition, the base-emitter junction is reverse biased and base
current flows in reverse direction. During turn-off of power BJT, the base–emitter junction is extremely
reverse biased and the transistor should able to withstand at high current. The RBSOA is a plot of
collector current IC with respect to collector emitter voltage VCE as shown in Fig.1.17. If the base
current IB=0, power transistor can able to sustained at voltage VCE0 . When the base-emitter junction
is reverse biased, the power transistor can able to withstand up to collector-base breakdown voltage
VCB0 along with low collector current.

Fig.1.17 RBSOA of a power BJT
1.4.7 SERIES AND PARALLEL OPERATION of Power BJT
Power BJTs are connected in series to increase the voltage-handling capability. During series
connection of transistors, the series-connected power transistors must be turned-on and turned-off
simultaneously. If the series-connected transistors are not turned-on and turned-off simultaneously,
the slowest transistor can be at turn-on state while the fastest transistor will be at turn-off state.
Therefore, the turned-off transistor should be able to withstand at full voltage of the collector-emitter.
When the transistor cannot able to withstand at high voltage, the device will be completely damaged.
Consequently, the power BJTs should have same gain, on-state voltage, turn-on time, turn-off time,
and base drive circuit during series connection of transistors.
Power BJTs are connected in parallel when one power transistor cannot able to handle the load
current. For the equal current sharing between power transistors, the power BJTs should have same
turn-on time, turn-off time, gain, saturation voltage, and transconductance. The parallel connections
of two power BJTs is shown in Fig.1.18. Here, total current I T is shared by transistors T1 and T2 .
Actually current I E1 flows through transistor T1 and current I E 2 flows through transistor T2 .
From Fig.1.18, we can write
I T  I E1  I E 2 (1.24)
and VCE1  I E1 RE1  VCE 2  I E 2 RE 2 (1.25)
After substitute the equation (1.24) in equation (1.25) we obtain
VCE1  I E1 RE1  VCE 2  ( I T  I E1 ) RE 2 (1.26)
VCE 2  VCE1  I T RE 2
Therefore, I E1  (1.27)
RE1  RE 2
Almost 45% to 55% current can be shared by connecting resistance in series with transistors. In fact,
resistances are very useful for current sharing under steady-state condition. Under dynamic condition,
current can be shared by connecting coupled inductors in place of resistances.
Fig.1.18 Parallel connection of transistors with current sharing at steady-state condition
Example 1.9 Two power bipolar junction transistors are connected in parallel to share a load current 30A.
Calculate the emitter current of each transistor and the difference of current sharing when the current sharing
series resistance are (i) RE1  0.2  and RE 2  0.3  (ii) RE1  0.5  and RE 2  0.5  . Assume that the
collector to emitter voltage of T1 and T2 are 1.5V and 1.6V respectively.
Solution:
We know that IT  30 A , VCE1  1.5V , VCE 2  1.6V ,
(i) When RE1  0.2  and RE 2  0.3 
VCE 2  VCE1  I T RE 2 1.6  1.5  30  0.3

I E1  =  18.2 A
RE 1  R E 2 0.2  0.3
I E 2  IT  I E1 =30-18.2=11.8A
I  I E1  I E 2  (18.2  11.8) A  6.4 A
(ii) When RE1  0.5  and RE 2  0.5 
VCE 2  VCE1  I T RE 2 1.6  1.5  30  0.5

I E1  =  15 .1A
R E1  R E 2 0.5  0.5
I E 2  I T  I E1 =30-15.1=14.9 A
I  I E1  I E 2  (15.1  14.9) A  0.2 A
1.4.8 Switching Characteristics of Power BJT
The npn Power BJT can be used as a switch as shown in Fig.1.19 whenever a square pulse input voltage
is applied to the base of transistor, the base current is equal to
Vi  VBE
IB  (1.28)
RB
and the collector emitter voltage VCE  VCC  I C RC
The output voltage of transistor is Vo  VCE . The switching waveforms of an npn transistor are given
in Fig.1.20.
Fig.1.19 n-p-n Power BJT as a switch
Assume that the input voltage Vi varies between -V1 to +V2. At time t  t 0 , -V1 voltage is applied as
input voltage at the base of power transistor and emitter-base junction is reverse biased.
Subsequently transistor operates in OFF state since base current I B  0 and the collector current IC
=0 and the output voltage is Vo  VCE  VCC .
At t  t1 , voltage increases slowly from -V1 to +V2 and the collector current I C increases gradually
from zero and the collector-emitter voltage VCE starts to fall from VCC . Consequently, the transistor
changes its state from cut-off to saturation progressively and the maximum steady state current
VC
IC  flows through transistor.
RC
Fig.1.20 The switching waveforms of an npn transistor

delay time ( td ) : The delay time ( td ) is the time required for collector current iC to reach 10% of the
steady state current IC and the collector emitter voltage v CE falls from VCC to 90% of VCC .
rise time ( tr ): The rise time ( tr ) is the time required for collector current iC to increase from 10% of
the steady state current IC to 90% of IC and the collector emitter voltage v CE falls from 90% of VCC to
10% of VCC .
turn on time ( t turnon ): The turn on time ( t turnon ) is the sum of the delay time ( td ) and the rise time (
tr ) and it can be represented by t turnon  t d  t r . The turn-on time of power BJTs is about 30 to 300
ns. While the power transistor is ON, it operates in saturation region providing input voltage is equal
to V 2 .
storage time ( t s ): At t  t 2 , once again the input voltage changes from +V2 to –V1 and base current
I B changes from I B 2 to I B1 slowly. As the base I B1 becomes negative and the excess carriers can
be removed from the base region. Though collector current cannot be changed instantly and it is
gradually reduced to zero. The time interval between the instant of change of input voltage from +V2
to –V1 to the instant collector current iC falls to 90% of the steady state current IC is called the storage
time ( t s ). Throughout the storage time t s , the collect emitter voltage increases from VCE(saturation) to
10% of VCC and all excess carriers must be removed. The rate of removal of excess carriers from
base region increases with negative applied voltage (–V1 ) and consequently the storage time as well
as turn-off time is reduced.
fall time ( t f ) ; It is the time during which the collector current iC falls from 90% of steady state current
IC to 10% of steady state current IC and the collect emitter voltage increase from 10% of VCC to 90%
of VCC . Actually turn off time is the sum of storage time ( t s ) and fall time ( t f ) and it can be expressed
as tturnoff  t s  t f . The turn-off time of power BJT is about 60 ns.
1.4.9 Uses of Power BJT
Power BJTs have a wide spectrum of applications in house hold products, industrial and commercial
applications, transportation and utility systems, telecommunications, aerospace and defence
applications etc., Some of the uses are given below:
 Lighting control  Protection Relay and Drivers
 Micro-oven  DC to AC inverter
 Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS)  audio amplifier in the stereo system
 DC and AC motor speed controller  Battery chargers
 Power Amplifier  Washing machines
Example 1.10 Fig 1.21 shows the switching waveforms of a power BJT where VCC  220V ,
VCE ( saturation)  1.5V , I CS  100A , t d  0.25s , t r  1.25s , ton  40s , t s  2 s , t f  1.5s .
Calculate (a) energy loss during delay time (b) energy loss during rise time (c) energy loss during
conduction time t on (d) average power loss of power transistor during turn-on when switching
frequency is 10kHz and I EO  5mA .
Fig.1.21 Switching waveforms of a power BJT
Solution:
We know that VCC  220V , VCE ( saturation)  1.5V , I CS  100A , t d  0.25s , t r  1.25s ,
ton  40s , t s  2s , t f  1.5s , f s  10kHz and I EO  5mA
(a) Energy loss during delay time t d is equal to
Wdelay  VCC I CEOtd  220  5 103  0.25  106 Watt second = 0.275  10 6 Watt second
(b) For the period of rise time tr the voltage v and current i waveforms are expressed by
t t
vCE (t )  [VCC  (VCC  VCES ) ] and iC (t )  I CS as I CEO  I CS
tr tr
t t
So, the instantaneous power is p  v CE (t )iC (t )  [VCC  (VCC  VCES ) ] I CS
tr tr
tr tr
t t
The energy loss is Wrise   pdt   [VCC  (VCC  VCES ) ]I CS ) dt
0 0
tr tr
1 1
=  VCC  VCC  VCES  I CS tr
2 3 
1 1 
   220  220  1.5  100  1.25  106 Watt second =4645.83  106 Watt second
2 3 
(c) Energy loss during on time t on is equal to
Won  VCES ICS ton  1.5  100 40 106 Watt second = 6000  10 6 Watt second
(d) Average power loss of power transistor during turn-on is
1 1 
VCC I CEOt d f s +  VCC  VCC  VCES  I CS t r f s
 2 3 
1 1 
 220  5  10 3  0.25  10 6  10  103    220  220  1.5  100  1.25  10 6  10  103
2 3 
= 46.46 Watt
1.5 POWER MOSFET
Power BJT is a minority carrier device and it is also a current controlled device. When a base current
(IB) flows, the transistor operates in the ON state. If the base current (IB) is equal to zero, the power
BJT is in the OFF state. Since collector current (IC) depends on base current, the current gain of power
BJT depends on the junction temperature. Power BJT is most commonly used as switching devices in
power electronics circuits.
Another popular power transistor is power MOSFET. The MOSFET operation depends on the control
of current by an applied electric field. Consequently, MOSFET is a voltage controlled device and it
requires a very small input current. Unlike the power BJT, power MOSFET is a majority carrier device
and this device has three terminals such as gate (G), drain (D) and source (S). The MOSFET has many
advantages over BJT such as
i. It requires very small area on an integrated circuit (IC)

ii. Digital circuits can be designed using MOSFET only
iii. High density VLSI circuits such as microprocessors, microcontrollers and memory ICs can be
manufactured using MOSFET
iv. MOSFET can be used in analog circuits as switching device and amplifier
In MOSFET, field effect principle is used for proper operation of this device. In this device, the current
is controlled by an applied electric field perpendicular to both the semiconductor surface and to the
current direction. Generally, there are two types of MOSFET such as depletion-type MOSFET and
enhancement-type MOSFET. Again each type MOSFET is classified as n-channel and p-channel
MOSFET. The basic structure, output characteristics and transfer characteristics of depletion-type and
enhancement-type MOSFET is illustrated in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3 Enhancement and depletion type MOSFETs
Type Cross-section Drain or output characteristics Transfer characteristics
n-channel
enhancement
type
MOSTFET
(Normally
OFF)
p-channel
enhancement
type
MOSTFET
(Normally
OFF)
n-channel
depletion
type
MOSTFET
(Normally
ON)
Type Cross-section Drain or output characteristics Transfer characteristics
p-channel
enhancement
and
depletion
type
MOSTFET
(Normally
ON)
1.5.1 Construction & Working Principle of Power MOSFET
The construction details of a vertically oriented enhancement mode n-channel power MOSFET is
depicted in Fig.1.22. The power MOSFET is a four-layer n+ p n- n+ semiconductor structure. In reality, a
power MOSFET consists of a parallel connection of many MOSFET cells in a single chip of silicon i.e.
integrated circuit (IC).
Fig.1.22 Structure of a n channel power MOSFET

Three are two n+ end layers in a power MOSFET. The doping density in the n+ end layers of power
19 3
MOSFET is quite large and its value is about 10 cm . One end is called as source (S) and the other
  
end n substrate is known as drain (D). The thickness of n substrate is about 100µm and on the n

substrate, the n layer is grown epitaxially. After that p type semiconductor is diffused in the
 
epitaxially grown n layer and subsequently p region developed. Then n semiconductor is diffused

in the p region and the n region is developed.
The n- layer is known as drain drift region and the doping density in n- drain drift region layer is low
14 3 15 3
and its value is about 10 cm to 10 cm . The thickness of n- drift region determines the
breakdown voltage of the device. Usually the thickness of n- drift region is about 60 to 70µm. It is clear
from Fig.1.22 that the p layer is the region where the channel is established between source and drain.
As a result, p region is called as the body of power MOSFET. The doping density of p region is about
1016 cm3 and the thickness of p-type body is about 5 to 5.5µm. This structure is called as vertical
diffused metal oxide semiconductor (VDMOS) power MOSFET. In the same way, a four-layer p-channel
power MOSFET can also be manufactured while the doping density of different region of p-channel
MOSFET is the opposite doping density of n-channel MOSFET.
 
Two pn junctions such as drain to body ( n p ) junction and body to source ( pn ) junction are
developed with in the structure. If gate to source voltage VGS  0 and VDD is present, the drain current

( I D ) does not flow from drain to source of power MOSFET because n p junction is reverse biased
by the input voltage VDD . The gate is isolated from the p type body region by a layer of silicon dioxide
SiO2 . The thickness of silicon dioxide layer is about 1000 A o . As silicon dioxide is used as very good
insulator, the minority carriers cannot be injected into p region through gate terminal.
When gate is positive with respect to source, an electric field is developed and an n-channel is formed
in the p region as shown in Fig.1.22. Subsequently source is connected with drain through n channel
and drain current ( I D ) flows from drain to source. As length of n-channel can be controlled, on-
resistance can be low by using n-channel of short length. If the gate to source voltage is further
increased, the drain current ( I D ) increases. Drain current I D depends on the thickness of silicon
dioxide, width of gate and number of parallel connected gate and source regions with in the single
chip.
It revels from Fig.1.22 that a parasitic n-p-n bipolar junction transistor exists between the source and
 
drain. The p-type body region acts as the base, n region as emitter and n drain drift region as
collector of parasitic BJT. Source is connected with base and emitter of parasitic BJT as p-type body
region is shorted with source region due to overlapping source metallization on the p-type body
region. As a result, potential difference between base and emitter of parasitic BJT is zero and the
parasitic BJT operates in cut-off region.
Fig.1.22 shows the parasitic diode also. In parasitic diode, source is acting as anode and drain acts as
cathode. This inbuilt body diode can be used in half-bridge and full-bridge inverter circuits. The n-
channel power MOSFET has three terminals such as gate(G), drain (D) and source (S). The circuit
symbol of n channel power MOSFET and p channel power MOSFET are illustrated in Fig.1.23.
(a) (b)
Fig.1.23 (a) Symbol of n-channel power MOSFET (b) Symbol of p-channel power MOSFET
1.5.2 V-I CHARACTERISTICS of Power MOSFET
The circuit diagram of a n-channel power MOSFET is shown in Fig.1.24 where VGS is applied voltage
across gate to source and VDS is the output signal obtained from drain. The drain current I D flows
from drain to source and it is controlled by gate signal.
Fig.1.24 Circuit diagram of n channel power MOSFET

Transfer Characteristic: The transfer characteristic of an n-channel power MOSFET shows the
variation of drain current I D as a function of gate to source voltage VGS (Fig.1.25). Threshold voltage
VGS (th ) is an important parameter of power MOSFET. The value of VGS (th ) for power MOSFET is about
2 to 3V. If gate to source voltage is less than threshold voltage VGS (th ) , the current I D flow from drain
to source is zero. As I D = 0, drain to source is open circuit and the device can able to with stand at
supply voltage VDD .
Fig.1.25 Transfer characteristics of power MOSFET

Output Characteristics:
Fig.1.26 shows the output characteristics of a power MOSFET. The drain current I D is a function of
drain to source voltage VDS with constant gate to source voltage VGS. For low values of VDS, the relation
between VDS and I D is almost linear and the device has a constant value of on-resistance RDS =VDS/ID.
When VDS is increased, output characteristic is relatively flat means the drain current is nearly
constant.
Fig.1.26 Output characteristics of Power MOSFET
The output characteristics consist of three regions such as cut-off, active and ohmic regions.
Ohmic region: While the drain to source voltage is small, the relation between I D and VDS is linear
and power MOSFET operates in the ohmic region. The device operates in the ohmic region if
VGS  VGS (th ) and VDS  0 . The power dissipation should be within a limit and its value must be
minimum with small drain to source voltage VDS(on) through large drain current I D flows from drain to
source.
If power MOSFET is used as a switch to control the flow of load current, I D - VDS characteristics must
be traversed from the cut-off region to the ohmic region through the active region. The device is
turned off in the cut-off region and turns on in the ohmic region.
Active region: During active region, drain current I D does not depend on drain to source voltage VDS
although it varies with gate to source voltage VGS. Since current I D is called as saturated current, this
region is known as saturation region. The drain current is equal to
I D  K [VGS  VGS (th) ]2 (1.29)

Where, K is a constant and it depends on the device parameters.
At transition point between the active region and ohmic region, [VGS  VGS (th ) ] = VDS . Therefore, the
equation (1.29) can be expressed by
2
I D  KVDS (1.30)
Drain to source breakdown voltage VDSS must be greater than VDD to keep away from device
breakdown. When drain to source voltage is larger than VDSS , power MOSFET can be breakdown due

to avalanche breakdown of drain to body n p junction.
VGS(max): This is the maximum allowable gate to source voltage VGS(max). Whenever a voltage is applied
across gate to source, an electric field can be developed. VGS(max) is the maximum voltage across gate
to source when gate oxide cannot be broken due to large electric field. Typically silicon dioxide can
break at electric field about 5  10 Mega Volt/cm. If the thickness of silicon dioxide is about 1000 A o
, VGS(max) is equal to 20-30V.
VDSS : This is the maximum allowable drain to source voltage at which power MOSFET can sustained

without avalanche breakdown of the drain to body n p junction. For high breakdown voltage, the
n drift region must be lightly doped. The value of VDSS is about few hundred volts.
The output characteristics for a p-channel power MOSFET should be same as the output characteristics
for an n-channel power MOSFET, however voltage and current polarities are reversed.
1.5.3 ON STATE LOSS Power MOSFET
RDS (on ) is the on-state resistance of power MOSFET and it is sum of drain resistance, n drift region
resistance RD , accumulation layer resistance, channel resistance and source region resistance as
shown in Fig.1.27. When breakdown voltage is low, all resistance components contribute equally to
determine on-state resistance of power MOSFET. If the breakdown voltage VDSS is more than few

hundred volts, the n drift region resistance RD contributes maximum value of on-state resistance
RDS (on ) .
Fig.1.27 On-state resistances of n-channel enhancement mode MOSFET
As RD depends on the breakdown voltage VDSS , RD increases with increasing the breakdown voltage
for power MOSFET. The on-state resistance also depends on the junction temperature Tj. Actually, the
on-state resistance of power MOSFET increases with increasing junction temperature.
When the device operates in on-state, the power dissipation is equal to
Pon  I D RDS (on ) (1.31)
where, I D is current flow from drain to source and
RDS (on ) is total on-state resistance and its value is about 9 to 100 mΩ.
1.5.4 SAFE OPERATING AREA OF POWER MOSFET
The safe operating area (SOA) is the locus of I D -VDS points represent the boundary between safe and
unsafe operation. As per datasheet related to specification of power MOSFET, the safe operating area
(SOA) depends on (i) maximum drain current I D (max) (ii) internal junction temperature T j (iii)
breakdown voltage VDSS and (iv) maximum power dissipation PD (max) .
The safe operating area (SOA) of power MOSFET is depicted in Fig.1.28 where drain current I D and
drain to source voltage VDS are represented in log scale. If VDS is low value, the maximum drain
current I D (max) is limited by the power dissipation. The maximum power dissipation PD (max) can be
limited by the maximum tolerable internal junction temperature T j . At low drain current, the

breakdown voltage VDSS is limited to avoid the avalanche breakdown of n p junction.
If power MOSFET operates with dc signal, the boundary of SOA is A-B-C-D as shown in Fig.1.28. As
input signal is dc, continuous power dissipation takes place within device and the junction
temperature increases significantly. The boundary A-B indicates the maximum limit of drain current
IDmax with VDS is less than 30V. While VDS is more than 30V, the drain current decreases as per
boundary B-C so that the operating junction temperature of power MOSFET is less than the maximum
operating junction temperature Tj. The maximum voltage capability of a power MOSFET is represented
by boundary C-D.
Fig.1.28 SOA of a power MOSFET

Whenever power MOSFET is driven by a pulse signal and operates as a switch, the boundaries of SOA
are extended as shown in Fig.1.28. This is only possible when power MOSFET operates in switch mode
operation. In fact, the silicon wafer and its proper packaging of power MOSFET has a specified thermal
capacitance and it has an ability to absorb specified amount of heat energy without increasing junction
temperature tremendously. If the device turns-on for a few microseconds, power dissipation will be
low and junction temperature rise will also be low and subsequently boundary of SOA will be
increased. The SOA increases with the decrease of pulse-width as depicted in Fig.1.28. When the pulse
1
width is about 10 s, the SOA is more than the boundary A-B-C-D. While the pulse width is reduced
6 3
to about some 10 s, SOA is larger than the boundary with pulse with 10 s.
1.5.5 SERIES AND PARALLEL OPERATION of POWER MOSFET
Power MOSFETs are connected in series to increase voltage-handling capability. It is most vital that
series-connected power MOSFETs should be turned-on and turned-off simultaneously. If series-
connected power transistors are not turned-on and turned-off at the same time, the slowest device
can be operating at turn-on state but the fastest device operates at turn-off state. As a result, the
turned-off power MOSFETs must be able to withstand at full drain-source voltage. When the device
can not able to withstand at high voltage, the device can be damaged completely due to very high
drain-source voltage. Therefore, power MOSFETs should have same gain, on-state voltage,
transconductance, threshold voltage, turn-on time, turn-off time, and gate drive circuit for proper
series operation of transistors.
When a power MOSFET individually cannot able to bear load current, transistors must be connected
in parallel. For the equal current sharing between power MOSFETs, transistors should have same turn-
on time, turn-off time, gain, threshold voltage and transconductance. The parallel connections of two
power MOSFETs is shown in Fig.1.29 where total current I T is shared by transistors T1 and T2 . Current
I D1 flows through transistor T1 and current I D2 flows through transistor T2 .
The total current IT  I D1  I D2 (1.32)
and VDS1  I D1RS1  VDS 2  I D2 RS 2 (1.33)
After substituting the value of I D2 in equation (1.33), we get
VDS1  I D1RS1  VDS 2  ( IT  I D1 ) RS 2 (1.34)

VDS 2  VDS 1  I T RS 2
Therefore, I D1  (1.35)
RS 1  RS 2
Fig.1.29 Parallel connection of power MOSFETs with current sharing at steady-state condition
Fig.1.29 shows that about 45% to 55% current can be shared by connecting resistance in series with
power MOSFETs. In fact, resistances are used for current sharing under steady-state condition. Under
dynamic condition, current can be shared by connecting coupled inductors.
1.5.6 SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS OF POWER MOSFET
A circuit diagram of Power MOSFET acts as switch is shown in Fig.1.30. The switching characteristics
of power MOSFET are affected by the internal capacitance of the device and the internal impedance
of gate drive circuit. If a pulse input voltage is applied to the gate of power MOSFET, the device will
be turn-on when gate to source voltage VGS is greater than threshold voltage VGS (th ) . The switching
waveforms of a Power MOSFET are depicted in Fig.1.31.
Fig.1.30 Power MOSFET as a switch

Fig.1.31 The switching waveforms of a Power MOSFET
At t  t 0 , input voltage at the gate of power MOSFET is Vg = 0 . Since the gate to source voltage VGS
is less than threshold voltage VGS (th ) , the device operates in OFF state and the drain current ID is zero
and the output voltage is Vo  VDS  VDD .
At t  t1 , voltage Vg increases from 0 to V1 and the input capacitance C gs starts to charge. During
turn-on delay time td , capacitance C gs is charged to gate threshold voltage VGS (th ) . There is a further
delay in turn on of power MOSFET and it is known as rise time tr . During tr the gate to source voltage
VGS increases from gate threshold level VGS (th ) to full gate voltage, VGSP and the transistor operates
in linear region. For the period of t r , drain current increases from 0 to I D . The total turn-on time of
power MOSFET is sum of delay time td and rise time t r .
delay time td : It is the time required to charge the input capacitance from its initial value to gate
threshold voltage VGS (th ) .
rise time tr : It is the time required to charge the input capacitance C gs from gate threshold level
VGS (th ) to the full gate voltage, VGSP .
turn on time t turnon : \The turn on time is the sum of the delay time td and the rise time tr and it is
tturnon  t d  t r . The turn on time of power MOSFET is about 1.6  s .
Since power MOSFET is a majority carrier device, the turn-off process is initiated after removal of gate
voltage V g at t  t 2 and the input capacitance starts to discharge from gate voltage V1 to VGSP . VGS
must be decreased significantly so that VDS starts to increase. The turn off delay time t df is the time
during which the input capacitance discharges from gate voltage V1 to VGSP . The fall time t f is the
time during which the input capacitance discharges from gate voltage VGSP to VGS (th ) and the drain
current becomes zero. Turn-off time is the sum of the turn off delay time ( t df ) and fall time ( t f ) and
it can be expressed by t turn  off  t df  t f . Usually, turn off time of power MOSFET is about 30 to 300
ns.
Average power loss if the power MOSFET in off state is equal to
Poff  state  V DS I DSS t off f s Watt (1.36)
Average power loss during turn-on is
1
Pturnon  VDS I D t r f s Watt (1.37)
6
Average power loss during turn-off is expressed by
1
Pturn off  V DS I D t f f s Watt (1.38)
6
Average power loss in on state of device is equal to
2
Pon  state  I D R DS ( on ) t on f s Watt (1.39)
1.5.7 COMPARISION BETWEEN POWER BJT and POWER MOSFET
The comparison between Power BJT and Power MOSFET is shown in Table 1.4
Table 1.4 Comparison between Power MOSFET and Power BJT
POWER BJT POWER MOSFET
It is a bipolar device It is a unipolar device
It is a current controlled device It is a voltage controlled device

POWER BJT POWER MOSFET
It is a majority and minority carrier device It is a majority carrier device
Input impedance of Power BJT is low Input impedance of Power MOSFET is very
compared to Power MOSFET high compared to Power BJT
Secondary breakdown occurs in Power BJT Secondary breakdown does not occur in power
MOSFET
Operating frequency of Power BJT is low about Operating frequency of Power MOSFET is high
10kHz about 100kHz
Power BJT has high switching loss but Power MOSFET has low switching loss but
conduction loss is less. conduction loss is more due to high on-state
resistance
On state voltage of Power BJT is low compared On state voltage of Power MOSFETs is high
to power MOSFETs compared to power BJTs
Powers BJT are available with high current Powers MOSFET are available with low current
rating compared to Power MOSFET. Current rating compared to Power BJT. Current rating
rating of power BJT is about 800A of power MOSFET is about 140A
Power BJTs are less sensitive to voltage spikes Power MOSFETS are very sensitive to voltage
compared to power MOSFETs spikes compared to power BJTs
1.5.8 Uses of Power MOSFET
The main applications of Power MOSFETs I are given below:
 DC to DC converters or Switched  Solar inverters

mode power supplies
 Uninterruptible Power Supplies  Automotive applications

(UPS)
 AC and DC drives  Power amplifiers for public address
systems
 Battery charger  Induction heating, Electric dryer

 Office equipment  Power supply of wireless
communication
 VLF transmitters, radars  Non-conventional energy sources

1.6 INSULATED GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR (IGBT)

An insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) has been developed by combining into all advantages of
both power BJT and power MOSFET. Therefore, an IGBT has high input impedance like a power
MOSFET and has low on-state power loss as in a power BJT. IGBT is free from second breakdown which
is present in power BJT. It is also called as metal oxide insulated gate transistor (MOSIGT), insulated
gate transistor (IGT) or conductivity modulated field effect transistor (COMFET). Now a-days, IGBTs
are extensively used in industrial power electronics circuits due to its different advantages.
1.6.1 Construction and Working Principle of IGBT
IGBT is a multi-layer semiconductor structure with p-type and n-type doping. Fig.1.32 shows a

vertically oriented n-channel IGBT which consists of a p+ n+ n- p n+ structure. Firstly n layer is
epitaxially grown on the p  substrate and a p+n+ junction J1 is developed. In this device, p  substrate
is used as drain and minority carriers are injected through drain region. As a result, p  is called
19 3
injecting layer. The doping density in the p  and n+ layers is about 10 cm . The thickness of p 
injecting layer is about 100µm. Highly doped p  and n+ regions are the two end layers of a vertically

oriented IGBT. n region is used as source and p  region is used as drain as shown in Fig.1.32.
Fig.1.32 Structure of a n channel IGBT

 
The n layer is also epitaxially grown on the n substrate. Subsequently p-type semiconductor is
 
diffused in the epitaxially grown n layer and the p region is formed. Lastly n type semiconductor is

diffused in the p region and the n region is created.

The n region which is developed above p  substrate is called as buffer layer. The thickness of n+
buffer layer is about 50µm. The n- layer is known as drain drift region and the doping density of n- layer
14 3 15 3
is about 10 cm to 10 cm . The thickness of n- drain drift region is about 60-62 µm which
determines the breakdown voltage of IGBT. The p type semiconductor layer is the region where the
channel is established between source and drain. Therefore, p region is called as body of an IGBT. The
16 3 17 3
doping density of p region is about 10 cm to 10 cm and the thickness of body region is about 5-
5.5 µm.

Fig.1.32 shows that there are three p-n junctions such as drain to buffer layer p  n junction J1,

drain drift region to body n  p junction J2 and body to source pn junction J3. When n buffer layer

exist in between p+ injecting layer and n- drift layer and doping density and thickness of n buffer layer
are selected appropriately, the operating performance of the IGBT can be improved significantly.
It is clear from Fig.1.32 that a parasitic pnpn thyristor is developed between the source and drain

contacts. The p-type body region acts as gate, n region as cathode and p  drift injecting as anode
of parasitic thyristor. Generally, p-type body region is shorted to source region due to overlapping of
source metallization on the p-type body region. Since potential difference between gate and cathode
of parasitic thyristor is about zero, parasitic thyristor always operates in cut-off region. Essentially
turn-on of this thyristor is undesirable. However, body and source are shorted within IGBT to minimize
the possibility of turn-on of parasitic thyristor.
The IGBT structure is somewhat similar to the structure of power MOSFET except p  injecting layer.
The n-channel IGBT has three terminals namely gate (G), drain (D) or collector (C) and source (S) or
emitter (E). Fig.1.33 shows the circuit symbols of n channel IGBT. To construct a p-channel IGBT, the
structure of IGBT can be implemented by changing the doping type in each layer and thus p channel
IGBT will have n+ p+ p- n p+ structure. Circuit symbol of p-channel IGBT is depicted in Fig.1.34.
Fig.1.33 Circuit symbol of n-channel IGBT
Fig.1.34 Circuit symbol of p-channel IGBT
When the gate is positive with respect to source/emitter by voltage VG, the electric field across the
dielectric develops negative charge and accumulates near gate on the p-type body region. It behaves
like a space charge capacitance. This n channel can develop short circuit the n- and n+ regions near the
dielectric. Due to biasing of the drain/collector terminal, n- drift region is positively biased. Therefore,
current ID flows from drain to source. Holes from the p+ substrate moves into n- drift region and some
of the holes can recombine with the electron exist in n- drift region.
The principle of operation of IGBT can be divided into parts such as (i) creation of inversion layer and
(ii) conductivity modulation.
Creation of inversion layer: Fig.1.35 shows the creation of an inversion layer in IGBT. When the gate
to source voltage VGS is greater than threshold voltage VGS(th), n-type inversion layer is created under
the layer of silicon dioxide. Due to formation of n type inversion layer in the p type body, an n+ n n-
channel is formed and a current flows from drain to source through this channel.
Fig.1.35 Creation of an inversion layer in IGBT
Conductivity modulation: The conductivity modulation in the n- drift layer of IGBT is shown in Fig.1.35
and Fig.1.36. When the forward bias voltage is applied in between drain (collector) and source
(emitter), the junction J1 is forward biased. Due to the formation of inversion layer, electrons are
injected from source into the n- drift region via n+ p n- channel. Since J1 is forward biased, it will inject
holes in the n+ buffer region. The electrons injected in the n- drift region create a space charge which
can attract hole from the n+ buffer region which is injected from p+ region. Thus double injection takes
place into the n- drift region. Consequently, the conductivity of drift region increases and as resistance
becomes minimum, the conductivity modulation can reduce the on state voltage drop across IGBT.
Fig.1.36 Conductivity modulation in IGBT

1.6.2 V-I CHARACTERISTICS of IGBT
The circuit diagram of n-channel IGBT is shown in Fig.1.37 where the input signal VGE is applied across
gate to emitter and the output signal VCE is obtained from the collector terminal. The emitter terminal
is common between the input and output of an IGBT. The current IC flows from collector to emitter
and it is controlled by gate signal VGE.
Fig.1.37 n-channel IGBT circuit
The transfer characteristic of an n-channel IGBT is a plot of VGE vs IC as shown in Fig.1.38. The collector
current IC is a function of gate to emitter voltage VGE and the curve is almost linear in most of the
collector current IC when gate to emitter voltage is greater than threshold voltage VGE (th ) . When the
collector current IC is low and the gate to emitter voltage is approaching the threshold voltage VGE (th )
, the nature of curve is nonlinear. If gate to emitter voltage is less than threshold voltage VGE (th ) ,
current flows from collector to emitter is about zero. The approximate value of VGE (th ) is about 2 to 3
volts. When I C =0, the collector to emitter is open circuit and IGBT operates in off-state and it can
able to hold the supply voltage VCC .
Fig.1.38 Transfer characteristic of an n-channel IGBT

Whenever gate to emitter voltage is less than threshold voltage VGE (th ) , inversion layer is not
developed to connect the collector to the emitter. As a result, collector to emitter is open circuit.
Subsequently applied voltage is dropped across the junction J2 and very small leakage current flows.
Therefore, IGBT operates in off-sate.
The collector to emitter breakdown voltage VCE (max) should be greater than VCC to keep away from
the device breakdown. When collector to emitter voltage is greater than VCE (max) , IGBT will be
breakdown due to avalanche breakdown of drain to body junction.
Fig.1.39 shows the output characteristics of an n channel IGBT. The collector current IC is a function
of collector to emitter voltage VCE when gate to emitter voltage VGE is constant. The output
characteristics have three regions such as cut-off region, active region and ON regions.
The V-I characteristics of IGBT are analogous to V-I characteristics of a bipolar junction transistor (BJT).
In BJT, the controlling parameter is base current but the controlling parameter of IGBT is gate to
emitter voltage VGE . The V-I characteristics of p-channel IGBT is same V-I characteristics of n-channel
IGBT however the polarities of voltages and currents must be reversed.
If IGBT operates in off-state, junction J 2 blocks the forward voltages. The IGBT has also reverse
voltage blocking capability. The reverse blocking voltage of IGBT is equal to the forward blocking

voltage when IGBT is manufactured without n buffer layer. In reverse bias condition, junction J1

behaves as reverse blocking junction. When n buffer layer is present within the device, the
breakdown voltage of J1 junction can be reduced drastically and it is about few tens of volts due to
presence of highly doped semiconductor material on both sides of J1 junction. If the applied reverse
voltage is greater than the breakdown voltage of J1 junction, IGBT lost its reverse blocking capability.
VBR is the reverse breakdown voltage of IGBT as shown in Fig.1.39. IGBT can be used in ac circuits
due to reverse voltage blocking capability.
Fig.1.39 Output characteristic of an n-channel IGBT
1.6.3 ON STATE VOLTAGE DROP in IGBT
An inversion layer is created just below the gate of the IGBT when the applied gate to source voltage
VGS is greater than the threshold voltage VGS (th ) . The developed inversion layer can able to
 
interconnect n drift region and n drift region and then electron current flows through this inversion

layer. In this instant, holes are injected from p  drain region to n drift region. The injected holes

come across the n drift region using drift and diffusion methods and can able to reach to p-type body
region. When holes enter in the p-type body region, these holes can attract electrons from the source
and excess holes are recombined with electrons.
Fig.1.40 shows the formation of MOSFET, pnp and npn transistors with in the structure of IGBT. The
equivalent circuit of IGBT is depicted in Fig.1.41. The IGBT can be represented by a Darlington circuit
with the pnp transistor (main transistor) and the MOSFET as the driver device. An approximate
equivalent circuit of Fig.1.41 for normal operating condition is shown in Fig.1.42. The resistance of

the n drift region is the resistance between p-n-p base and MOSFET drain and it is denoted by Rdrift
.
Fig.1.40 Formation of MOSFET, pnp and npn transistors within structure of IGBT
(a) (b)
Fig.1.41 (a) Equivalent circuit diagram of an IGBT (b) Darlington representation of MOSFET and p-n-p
transistor
Fig.1.42 Approximate equivalent circuit diagram of an IGBT
The on state voltage across drain to source is VDS(on) and it is equal to
VDS ( on )  VJ 1  Vdrift  I D RChannel (1.40)
Where, V J 1 is the forward biased voltage drop across the junction J1 and its value is about 0.7V
to 1.0V; Vdrift is the voltage drop across the drift region; I D RChannel is voltage drop across the channel
due to the channel resistance. The value of Vdrift voltage is less in the IGBT than in the MOSFET due to
the conductivity modulation of the drift region.
1.6.4 SAFE OPERATING AREA OF IGBT
The safe operating area (SOA) of IGBT states the maximum values of voltage and current at which the
device can withstand safely. According to manufacturer datasheet related to the specification of IGBT,
the safe operating area (SOA) depends on (i) maximum drain current I D (max) or maximum collector
current I C (max) (ii) maximum permissible internal junction temperature T j (max) (iii) forward blocking
voltage in FBSOA VDSS or VCE (max) (iv) Reverse breakdown voltage in RBSOA VBR (v) maximum power
dissipation PD (max) and (vi) maximum gate voltage VGE (max) .
I C (max) is the maximum permissible collector current of IGBT and its value is about 200A to 400A.
VGE (max) is the maximum gate voltage and it is determined by the breakdown of the silicon dioxide (
SiO2 ) layer. VCE (max) is the maximum collector to emitter voltage which is represented by breakdown
voltage of transistor T2. IGBT are available with 1700V blocking capability for industrial applications.
T j (max) is maximum permissible internal junction temperature about 150 C.
The safe operating area (SOA) of IGBT is shown in Fig.1.43 where drain current I D and drain to source
voltage VDS are in log scale. When VDS is low, maximum drain current I D (max) is limited by power
dissipation. The maximum power dissipation is restricted by the maximum tolerable junction
temperature T j (max) . At low drain current, breakdown voltage VDSS is limited to avoid the avalanche
breakdown of the drain drift to body n  p junction.
If IGBT operates with dc signal, the SOA boundary is A-B-C-D and continuously power will be dissipated
within device and junction temperature increases considerably. Boundary A-B indicated the maximum
limit of drain current IDM when VDS is less than 100V. If VDS is more than 100V, drain current
decreases as shown in boundary B-C when the operating junction temperature of IGBT is less than the
maximum operating junction temperature. The maximum voltage capability of IGBT is denoted by
boundary C-D.
Fig.1.43 FBSOA of a IGBT

When IGBT operates as a switch and it is driven by pulse signal, SOA can be extended as depicted in
Fig.1.43. The extension of SOA is possible during switch mode operation only.
If IGBT turned-on for a few microseconds, the device can absorb very small amount of energy and
2
junction temperature rise will be low and SOA will be increased. When pulse width is about 10 s,
SOA is greater than the boundary A-B-C-D. If pulse width of signal is further reduced to about some
106 s, SOA is greater than the boundary with pulse width 102 s. Thus SOA can be increased with
decrease of pulse-width of signal.
Reverse bias safe operating area (RBSOA) of IGBT is dissimilar from FBSOA of IGBT. With the increase
of the rate of change of drain to source voltage dVDS / dt , the upper right hand corner of RBSOA of
IGBT is cut out gradually and RBSOA of IGBT decrease significantly as shown in Fig.1.44.
Fig.1.44 RBSOA of a IGBT
1.6.5 SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS of IGBT
There are two types switching characteristics of IGBT such as turn-on and turn-off. Fig.1.45 shows the
turn-on switching characteristics of IGBT. Turn-on delay time t d (on ) is the required time to fall the
collector-emitter voltage from VCE to 0.9VCE . t d (on ) is also the time required for collector current to
increase from its initial value to 10% of rated collector current, 0.1IC . The rise time tr is the required
time to increase collector current from 10% of rated collector current 0.1I C to rated current IC and
collector-emitter voltage falls from 90% of VCE to 10% of VCE . Therefore total turn-on time ton is sum
of delay time and rise time and it is equal to ton  td ( on )  tr . Just after turn-on, the collector-emitter
voltage of IGBT falls to small value which is called on-state voltage drop VCES .
Fig.1.45 Turn on switching characteristics of IGBT
The turn off switching characteristics of IGBT is shown in Fig.1.46. The total turn-off time t off consists
of three time intervals such as delay time td (off ) , first fall time t f 1 and final fall time t f 2 and it can be
expressed as toff  td ( off )  t f 1  t f 2 . The delay time td (off ) is the required time during which the gate-
emitter voltage falls from VGE to the threshold voltage VGE (th ) . As gate-emitter voltage decreases to
VGE (th ) during td (off ) , the collector current decreases falls from rated current IC to 90% of rated
collector current (0.9 I C ) . At the end of delay time td (off ) , the collector-emitter voltage starts to
increase.
The first fall time t f 1 is the time interval during which the collector current falls from the 90% of rated
collector current (0.9 I C ) to 20% of rated collector current (0.2 I C ) and it is also the interval time
during which the collector emitter voltage rises from VCES to 10% of VCE . The final fall time t f 2 is the
time interval during which the collector current falls from 20% of rated collector current (0.2 I C ) to
10% of rated collector current (0.1I C ) or time interval during which the collector emitter voltage
rises from 10% of VCE to final value of VCE .
The switching characteristics of IGBT are similar to that of a Power MOSFET but the major difference
is that IGBT has a tailing collector current due to stored charge in n- drift region. The tail current
increases the turn-off loss. To reduce switching losses, IGBT will be turned off by applying a negative
voltage about -15V at gate.
Fig.1.46 Turn off switching characteristics of IGBT
During turn-on process of IGBT, the energy loss in the device is
1
Won  VCE max I C max ton (1.41)
6
The average power loss during turn-on process of IGBT is

1
Pon ( average)  Won f s  VCE max I C max ton f s (1.42)
6
where, f s is the switching frequency
During turn-off process of IGBT, the energy loss with in the device is
1
Woff  VCE max I C max toff (1.43)
6
Then the average power loss during turn-off process of IGBT is
1
Poff ( average )  Woff f s  VCE max I C max toff f s (1.44)
6
For more on Power

BJT. MOSFET, IGBT
1.6.6 COMPARISION BETWEEN POWER MOSFET and POWER BJT
The comparison between Power MOSFET and Power BJT is given in Table 1.5
Table 1.5 Comparison between Power MOSFET and Power BJT
POWER MOSFET IGBT
It is a voltage controlled device. It is a voltage controlled device.
It has three terminals namely gate(G), drain(D) It has three terminals namely gate(G), drain(D)
and source(S). or emitter(E) and source(S) or collector (C).
Input impedance of Power MOSFET is very high. Input impedance of IGBT is very high.
POWER MOSFET IGBT
Power MOSFET has positive temperature IGBT has positive temperature coefficient. With
coefficient. With increase in temperature, on- increase in temperature, on-state resistance
sate resistance increases compared to IGBT. increases but rate of increment is less than
increase in MOSFET.
On-state voltage drop of MOSFET is large IGBT has a very low on-state voltage drop due
to conductivity modulation. So smaller chip
compared to on-state voltage drop of IGBT.
size is possible and the cost can be reduced.
The on-state voltage drop of MOSFET increases The increment of on-state voltage drop of IGBT
by 3 times for temperature rise from room is very small.
temperature to 200C .
Current sharing between parallel connected Current sharing between parallel connected
MOSFETs is poor compared to IGBTs. IGBTs is better compared to MOSFETs.
At high ambient temperature, maximum At high ambient temperature, IGBT is well

current rating reduces. suited.
Switching speed of Power MOSFET is superior Switching speed of IGBT is inferior compared to
to that of a IGBT. Power MOSFET.
FBSOA is wide. Wide FBSOA and RBSOA. It also has

excellent forward and reverse blocking
capability.
Power MOSFET has a parasitic BJT as an integral IGBT has a parasitic thyristor as an integral part
part of its structure. of its structure.
1.6.7 Uses of IGBT
IGBTs have a wide spectrum of applications in house hold equipment, industrial applications,
transportation systems, telecommunications, aerospace and defence applications, and Space
technology. The some of the uses of IGBT are given below:
 Inverter circuit  Refrigerators

 Aircraft power system  Power quality control
 Air conditioners  Industrial drives
 Washing machines  Traffic-signal control
 Industrial Robot and Elevator  Automotive electronics
 Static VAR compensation  DC power supply and UPS
1.7 CONCEPT OF SINGLE ELECTRON TRANSISTOR (SET)
Single-electron transistor (SET) is a very sensitive electronic device which works based on the coulomb
blockade effect. In this device, electrons flow through the tunnel junction between source to
a quantum dot (conductive island) and the tunnel junction between drain to a quantum dot. Actually,
electrical potential of the island can be tuned by a third electrode, called as gate, which is capacitive
coupled to the island. Fig.1.47 shows the construction of SET. The conductive island is sandwiched
between two tunnel junctions as shown in Fig.1.47 and tunnel junctions can be modeled by a capacitor
CD and CS and a resistor RD and RS in parallel (Fig.1.48). The first single-electron transistor (SET) based
on the Coulomb blockade was developed by K. K. Likharev and D. V. Averin in 1986.
Island
Fig.1.47 Construction of a basic SET

Fig.1.48 Schematic diagram of a basic SET
Basically SET is a three terminal (gate, source and drain) device which can transfer electrons from
source to drain one by one. The purpose of SET is to control the tunnelling of electron into or from the
quantum dot. Structure of SET is similar to field effect transistor (FET) excluding (i) SET has tunnelling
junction instead of p-n junction and (ii) SET has quantum dot in the place of channel region of FET.
SET structure consist of (i) quantum dot, (ii) two tunnel junctions, (iii) a gate electrode and (iv) gate
capacitor.
Operating Principle of SET:
To control tunnelling, voltage bias is applied to the gate electrode. A separate voltage bias is applied
between source and drain electrode so that the current flows from source to drain through tunnel
junctions. The gate bias voltage must be significantly large to overcome coulomb blockade energy and
the current will start to flow. Single electron flow in SET is given in Fig.1.49.
Fig.1.49 Single electron flow in SET
The energy need to move charge Q inside quantum dot is equal to
E=VQ where, Q=e
E Wc
V  as E  Wc
e e
e 2 / 2C e
Since Wc  e 2 / 2C , V   (1.45)
e 2C
When the voltage V applied to the quantum dot, an electron can tunnel through quantum dot. If the
gate voltage Vg is zero, no current flows. For single electron tunnelling, Vg=Vcoulomb. When gate voltage
Vg=Coulomb + e/2C, two electrons can be moved on the quantum dot at a time. If gate voltage Vg=Vcoulomb
+ e/2C + e/2C, then three electrons can be moved on the quantum dot at time. Therefore, number of
electrons in the quantum dot is controlled using the gate voltage. A single electron transistor is similar
to a normal transistor except (i) the channel is replaced by a small dot and (i) the dot is separated from
source and drain by thin insulators. Here an electron tunnels in two steps such as (i) source to quantum
dot and (ii) quantum dot to drain. SET are used in supersensitive electrometer, single-electron
spectroscopy, DC current standards, temperature standards, detection of infrared radiation, voltage
state logics, charge state logics, and programmable single electron transistor logic etc.
For more on single

electron transistor
1.8 ASPECTS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY

Nanotechnology is the study of phenomenon at atomic, molecular and macromolecular scale.
Nanotechnology is also defined as the study of semiconductor structures at the size of 1 nm to 100
nm. It deals with dimensions at the nanometre (10-9 meter) scale and it is a fast growing scientific field
with applications in many different areas including power electronics.
Nanotechnology is used to develop new circuit materials, new processors, new memory devices for
storing information and telecommunication technology for transferring information in new way. This
technology can improve the capability of electronic components such as reducing the size of transistor
used in an IC and increasing memory density to about one tetra-byte (TB) per square inch.
A nano-transistor is a transistor where the semiconductor components act as an electronic signal

switch or amplifier in nano-scale. It has a gate of controlled electrode about 70 nm width and a gate
oxide which separates the control electrode from the current carrying channels, thin about 1 nm.
Usually semiconductor manufacturers manufactures logic circuits that incorporate more than 40
million MOSFETs in a single IC but now a days they develop logic circuits with nearly a half billion
nanometre scale MOSFET, packing about 5-10 nanotransistors per micrometre square which improves
the reliability, reduce the cost and the power consumption. Nanotransistors are billion times faster,
pairs of metal contacts lie on a top printed carbon nanotubes, forming transistors visible only in the
electron microscope image.
Field Effect Transistors, the most commonly used transistors, when made with carbon nanotubes
(CNT), have shown a significant speed improvement compared to same-sized silicon-based transistors.
Also, they can be fabricated at near-room temperatures, while silicon-based transistors need 450 to
500ᵒC during the fabrication process. This means that CNT FET (carbon nanotube-based field-effect
transistor) based circuits can be built, on top of a previously fabricated one. For example, logic circuits
can be built on top of memory circuits. These cannot be done currently with the silicon-based process
because, at 450 to 500 ᵒC, the top layer will melt the bottom layer.
Flexible and printable electronics are another aspect of nanotechnology. Conductive ink made of
nanomaterial, such as silver nanowires (AGNW), is used to print circuits using home printers on flexible
surfaces. Devices such as smart phones and laptops don't need to be rigid anymore.
Carbon nanotube (CNT) based Nanotube Emissive Displays (NED) provide higher colour contrast,
better resolution and better brightness than LED. The viewing angles of this type of display are
unrestricted. They are also low-cost, lightweight and thin.
Sensors made out of nanomaterials such as Palladium, Carbon Nanotubes and Zinc coated nanowires
are much more sensitive than currently used sensors. Their extremely-high surface area per unit
volume allows them to be very sensitive. Gas sensors or chemical sensors made of nanomaterials can
detect a single atom of gas or chemical.
Photovoltaic cells made of nanomaterials such as carbon nanowires cost less and are more efficient.
Nanotechnology is used to make paper battery which is flexible, ultra-thin energy storage and
production device formed by two things- carbon nanotubes and nanocomposite paper.
Nanocomposite paper is a hybrid energy storage device made of cellulose. It has the high energy
storage capacity and high energy density of the super capacitor. E-Tattoos made of nanomaterials can
monitor your health remotely and send the data to your phone wirelessly.
E-Textiles made of graphene-coated polypropylene can sense your body temperature. They are also
washable and show good mechanical stability. E-Textiles made of nanomaterials can check your blood
pressure and sugar levels and monitor your heartbeat. They can also change colour according to your
mood and the environment. In this way, nanotechnology can amplify the positive aspects of
electronics.
EXERCISE
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1.1 Match the following devices on the left hand with circuit symbols on the right hand side
(A) BJT
(1)
(B) IGBT
(2)
(C) MOSFET
(3)
(a) A  1, B  2, C  3 (b) A  2, B 1, C  3
(c) A  2, B  3, C  1 (d) A  3, B  2, C  1
1.2 The V-I characteristics of ____________ is shown in Fig.1.50

Fig.1.50
(a) SCR ( b) BJT (c) MOSFET (d) IGBT
1.3 IGBT has three terminals namely
(a) Gate, collector and emitter (b) Gate, drain and source
(c) Base, collector and emitter (d) Base, drain and source
1.4 Match the following devices on the left hand side with the switching frequency on the right
side
(A) Thyristors (1) 100kHz
(B) Power MOSFET (2) 1kHz
(C ) Power BJT (3) 50kHz
(D) IGBT (4) 10kHz
(a) A  2, B  1, C  4, D  3 (b) A  1, B  2, C  3, D  4
(c) A  4, B  3, C  2, D  1 (d) A  1, B  2, C  4, D  3
1.5 Match the following device on the left hand side with the Voltage and current rating on the
right side
(A) Thyristors (1) 3.3kV/2.5kA
(B) Power MOSFET (2) 1400V/400A
(C ) Power BJT (3) 10kV/5kA

(D) IGBT (4) 1kV/50A
(a) A  1, B  2, C  3, D  4 (b) A  4, B  3, C  2, D  1
(c) A  3, B  4, C  2, D  1 (d) A  1, B  2, C  4, D  3
1.6 A power transistor is a _______ layer device

(a) two (b) three (c) four (d)five
1.7 When the switching waveforms of power BJT is shown in Fig.1.51, the average switching loss
during turn on is ______
Fig.1.51
1 1 1 1
a) VIt r f s (b) VIt r f s (c) VIt r f s (d) VIt r f s
2 4 6 8
1.8 High frequency operation of a electronics circuit is limited by
(a) switching losses (turn on loss and turn off loss) in the power semiconductor devices
(b) on-state loss in the power semiconductor devices
(c) off-state loss in the power semiconductor devices
(d) all of these
1.9 Which of the following statements are correct
(i) BJT is a unipolar and a majority carrier device

(ii) MOSFET is a majority carrier device
(iii) IGBT is a bipolar device
(iv) TRIAC is an unipolar device
(a) (ii) and (iii) (b) (i) and (iv) (c) (iii) and (i) (d) (ii) and (iv)
1.10 The power electronics based system has very high efficiency as
(a) the power semiconductor devices operates at high frequency, traverse active region at high speed
and stay at the two states ON and OFF
(b) the power semiconductor devices always operate in active region
(c) the power semiconductor devices never operate in active region
(d) Heat sink is used to maintain device temperature.
1.11 A power MOSFET has ______________terminals
(a) Base, Emitter and Collector (b) Gate, drain and Source
(c) Base, drain and source (d) Gate, Emitter and Collector
1.12 Which of the following statement is correct
(a) BJT has higher switching losses and lower conduction loss with respect to MOSFET
(b) BJT has higher switching losses and higher conduction loss with respect to MOSFET
(c) BJT has lower switching losses and lower conduction loss with respect to MOSFET
(d) BJT has lower switching losses and higher conduction loss with respect to MOSFET
1.13 npn power transistor is a _______ layer device
(a) n  pn  n  (b) p  n  n  n  (a) n  n  p  p  (a) n  p  p  n 
1.14 If  A is gain of auxiliary transistor and  M is gain of main transistor, the gain of Darlington pair
BJT is equal to
(a)   M  A   M   A (b)    M  A   A
(c)    M  A   A (d)    M  A   M   A
1.15 Overdrive factor (ODF) is equal to
IE IC I BS IB
(a) (b) (c) (d)
I BS I BS IB I BS
1.16 Secondary breakdown occurred in
(a) BJT (b) MOSFET (c) Both BJT and MOSFET (d) none of these
1.17 The relation between  and  is
   
(a)   (b)   (c)   (d)  
1  1  1 1
1.18 BJT is____________ controlled device whereas MOSFET is____________ controlled devices.
(a) current, current (b) current, voltage (c) voltage, current (d) voltage, voltage
1.19 Power MOSFET has _____ input impedance.
(a) low (b) medium (c) high (d) zero
1.20 During turn-off, the_______ base current must be applied to quickly remove the stored charges
in the transistor.
(a) positive (b) negative (c) zero
Answer of MCQ
1.1 (c) 1.2 (d) 1.3 (a) 1.4 (a) 1.5 (c) 1.6 (c) 1.7 (c 1.8 (a) 1.9 (a) 1.10 (a)
1.11 (b 1.12 (a) 1.13 (a) 1.14 (d) 1.15 (d) 1.16 (a) 1.17 (d) 1.18 (b) 1.19 (c) 1.20(b)
Short and Long Answer Type Questions
Category I Short Answer Type Questions
1.21 Define is power electronics? Give a list of applications of power electronics
1.22 Draw the symbol of the following devices
(a) SCR (b) IGBT (c) TRIAC (d) DIAC
1.23 What is converter? What are the different types of converters?
1.24 Write the name of converters which are used for ac to dc and dc to ac conversion?
1.25 What is power BJT?
1.26 Write the difference between npn and pnp transistors
1.27 What is primary breakdown of a power BJT
1.28 What is secondary breakdown of a power Transistor
1.29 What is the on-state loss of a power BJT
1.30 What is power MOSFET? What are the types of power MOSFET?
1.31 What is IGBT?
1.32 State single electron transistor (SET)
1.33 Give a list of applications of nano-technology
Category II Long Answer Type Questions
1.34 Draw the block diagram of power electronics based system and explains briefly
1.35 Give a list of power electronics devices
1.36 Write the difference between general purpose BJT and power BJT
1.37 Draw the structure of a power BJT and explain its operating principle
1.38 Explain V-I characteristics of a power BJT
1.39 Describe quasi saturation and hard saturation of a power BJT
1.40 Draw the FBSOA and RBSOA of power and explain briefly
1.41 Sketch the switching characteristics of power BJT. State delay time, rise time, turn-on time,
storage time, fall time and turn-off time.
1.42 Explain operating principle of power MOSFET with suitable diagram.
1.43 Compare power MOSFET and power BJT
1.44 Draw the structure of an IGBT and describe its operating principle briefly
1.45 What are advantages of IGBT over power BJT and power MOSFET?
1.46 Draw the V-I characteristics of a IGBT showing different operating regions
1.47 Write short note on (a) SET and (b) Nano-technology
Numerical Problems
1.48 If  of transistor is 0.97, determine the value of 

1.49 When  of transistor is 59, compute the value of 
1.50 If collector current of a transistor is 95 mA and it’s  is about 65, determine the value of base
current and emitter current
1.51 Determine the value of base current and collector current of a transistor when  =95 and the
emitter current is 90 mA.
1.52 A bipolar transistor has  f  30 and load resistance RC  15 . The dc supply voltage
VCC  210V and the input voltage to base is VB  12V . If VCE ( saturation)  1.2V and
VBE ( saturation)  1.7V , Calculate (a) R B when transistor operates in saturation and (b) power loss in the
transistor.
1.53 Two power BJTs are connected in parallel to share the total current 50A. The collector to emitter
voltage of T1 and T2 are 1.65V and 1.75V correspondingly. Calculate emitter current of each transistors
and the difference of current sharing when the current sharing series resistance are (a) RE1  0.35
 and RE 2  0.45  (b) RE1  0.5  and RE 2  0.5 
1.54 Switching waveforms of a power BJT is shown in Fig.1.52 where VCC  210V ,
VCE ( saturation)  2.1V , I CS  125 A , t d  0.25s , t r  1.25s , t on  40s , t s  2 s , t f  1.5s .
Determine (a) energy loss during delay time (b) energy loss during rise time (c) energy loss during
conduction time ton (d) average power loss of power transistor during turn-on if switching frequency
is 10 kHz and emitter leakage current is I EO  10mA .
Fig.1.52
PRACTICAL
1. Experiment on Test the proper functioning of power transistor
Aim:
Investigate the input and output characteristics of a NPN power bipolar junction transistor in common
emitter configuration
Apparatus:
Regulated dc power supply 0-30V; Digital multi-meter 0-200V DC, 0-1A/10A; Power Transistor
2N3055, Resistance RC=100Ω,5W; Resistance RB=3.3 kΩ,1W
Circuit Diagram:
Fig.1.53 Circuit diagram for test the proper functioning of power transistor
Theory:
Power BJT is the most commonly used semiconductor device which has full control over its turn-on
and turn-off operation. Power BJTs are available in NPN, PNP and Darlington pair forms. A power BJT
is vertically oriented four layer structure device as explained in section 1.4.3. This device has low on-
state resistance and power loss is minimum. It’s size is large compared to conventional BJT and it has
high current handling capability. Usually the collector of power BJT is connected to a metal base that
acts as a heat sink to dissipate excess power. Power rating of Power BJT is about 10-300W, maximum
collector current 1A-100A, frequency of operation about 100 Hz-100kHz. The input and output
characteristics of a NPN power bipolar junction transistor is explained in section 1.4.4. Power
transistors are used in high-power application such as power amplifiers, switch mode power supplies,
chopper and inverter circuits.
Precautions:
1. Initially all the knobs of the power supplies are at zero value.
2. Do not increase the base current more than its rated value.
3. The applied voltage and current should not be more than the maximum rating of Power BJT.
4. Use appropriate heat sink for proper cooling of Power BJT.
5. Reading of observation should be error free.
Procedure:
A) Input Characteristics
1. Make the circuit connection as per the circuit diagram
2. Switch on regulated dc power supply
3. Set the voltage VCE at specified value and increase IB with gradually increase VBB and
measure VBE
4. Repeat step 3 by increasing VCE in steps of 1V.
5. Using observation table, plot IB versus VBE curves at different values of VCE on the graph
paper
B) Output Characteristics
3. Increase VBB gradually to increase base current IB to set a set value
4. Keep base current IB constant when VCC increases in steps of 1Volt and take observation
reading of collector current IC and collector emitter voltage VCE.
5. Repeat step 3 and 4 by increasing base current IB in steps of 10 mA until IC becomes

rated value.
6. Using observation table, plot IC versus VCE curves at different values of IB on the graph
paper
Observation Table:
Table 1.6 Observation table for input characteristics for Power BJT
Sr.No. VCE = VCE = VCE =
IB in mA VBE in Volts IB in mA VBE in Volts IB in mA VBE in Volts
Table 1.7 Observation table for output characteristics for Power BJT
Sr.No. I B= I B= I B=
IC in mA VCE in Volts IC in mA VCE in Volts IC in mA VCE in Volts
VIVA Questions Related to power BJT
1. Write specifications of power BJT from manufacturer data sheet
2. Describe the V-I characteristics of Power BJT base on your observations
3. What is the voltage across the collector to emitter terminal when the power BJT operates in
(i) saturation (ii) cut-off (iii) active region?
2. Experiment on Test the proper functioning of IGBT

Aim:
Investigate the transfer and output characteristics of an n channel Insulated gate bipolar transistor.
Apparatus:
Regulated dc power supply 0-50V; Digital voltmeter/multi-meter 0-50V DC, Digital ammeter/multi-
meter 0-1A; IGBT IC T1-IRG4BC20U, Resistance RD=220Ω, 5W; Resistance RB=1MΩ,1W
Circuit Diagram:
Fig.1.54 Circuit diagram for test the proper functioning of IGBT
Theory:
IGBT is a hybrid MOS gated turn-on and turn-off bipolar transistor. An IGBT has been developed by
combining into all advantages of both power BJT and power MOSFET. It has high input impedance and
low on-state conduction loss. IGBT is a multi-layer vertically oriented semiconductor structure with p
type and n type doping as s discussed in section 1.6.1. This device has no second down problem like
BJT and it has simple drive circuit, wide safe operating area, peak current capability, ruggedness and
bipolar voltage blocking capability. IGBT IC-T1 “IRG4BC20U” is optimized for high operating frequency
8-40 kHz, 600V and 6.5A. The transfer and output characteristics of IGBT is explained in section 1.6.2.
IGBT are used in high-power applications such as UPS, SMPS, induction heating, power amplifiers,
chopper and inverter circuits.
Precautions:
1. At first all the knobs of the power supplies are at zero value.
2. Identify gate (G), collector(C ) and emitter (E) terminals of the IGBT
3. The applied voltage and current should not be more than the maximum rating of the IGBT
4. Use appropriate heat sink for proper cooling of IGBT.

Procedure:
A) Transfer Characteristics
3. Set the voltage VCE at specified value and gradually increase VGG in steps of 1 Volts and
measure IC and VGE
4. Using observation table, plot IC versus VGE curves at specified values of VCE on the graph
paper
5. Find the threshold voltage or the minimum gate voltage VGE (VGE(th)) which is required
for conduction of IGBT
B) Output Characteristics
2. Switch on regulated dc power supply VGG and set VGE≥VGE(th)
3. Increase VDD gradually in steps of 2 Volts and measure IC and VCE.
4. Repeat step 3 for different values VGE
5. Using observation table, plot IC versus VCE curves at different values of VGE on the graph
paper
Observation Table:
Table 1.8 Observation table for transfer characteristics for IGBT
Sr.No. VCE = in Volts
IC in mA VGE in Volts
Table 1.9 Observation table for output characteristics for Power BJT
Sr.No. VGE= in Volts VGE= in Volts VGE= in Volts
IC in mA VCE in Volts IC in mA VCE in Volts IC in mA VCE in Volts
VIVA Questions Related to IGBT
1. Write specifications of IGBT from manufacturer data sheet
2. Describe the transfer and output characteristics of IGBT base on your observations
3. Calculate trans-conductance and output resistance
KNOW MORE
In this module, the construction, working principle, and V-I characteristics, switching characteristics,
safe operating area (SOA) and series and parallel operation of power electronics devices namely Power
bipolar junction transistor (Power BJT), Power metal oxide field effect transistor (Power MOSFET), and
Insulated gate bipolar transistor(IGBT) are described in detail. Power BJT, Power MOSFET and IGBT
are most commonly used in different converter and inverter circuits. To know more on applications of
power semiconductor devices, please scan the following QR codes:
For more on Power BJT in

DC to DC converter
For more on Power

MOSFET Applications
For more on IGBT Module

Applications
References:
1. Ramamoorty M., An Introduction to Thyristors and their applications, East-West Press Pvt. Ltd., New
Delhi.
2. Sugandhi, Rajendra Kumar and Sugandhi, Krishna Kumar, Thyristors: Theory and
Applications, New Age International (P) ltd. Publishers, New Delhi.
3. Bhattacharya, S.K., Fundamentals of Power Electronics, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. Noida.
4. Jain & Alok, Power Electronics and its Applications, Penram International Publishing (India) Pvt. Ltd,
Mumbai.
5. Rashid, Muhammad, Power Electronics Circuits Devices and Applications, Pearson Education India,
Noida.
6. Singh, M. D. and Khanchandani, K.B., Power Electronics, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd, New
Delhi.
7. Zbar, Paul B., Industrial Electronics: A Text –Lab Manual, McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi.
8. Grafham D.R., SCR Manual, General Electric Co.
Dynamic QR Code for Further Reading

-QR codes embedded in the unit.
Thyristor Family
2 Devices
UNIT SPECIFIES
 SCR: construction, two transistor analogy, types, working and characteristics
 SCR mounting and cooling
 Types of Thyristors: SCR, LASCR, SCS, GTO, UJT, PUT, DIAC and TRIAC
 Thyristor family devices: symbol, construction, operating principle and V-I Characteristics
 Protection circuits: over-voltage, over-current, Snubber, and Crowbar.
The practical applications of the above topics are discussed for generating further curiosity and
creativity as well as improving problem solving capacity of learners.
Not only a large number of multiple-choice questions are incorporated in this unit but also questions
of short and long answer types are included in two categories following lower and higher order of
Bloom’s taxonomy, and assignments through a number of numerical problems. A list of references
and suggested readings are illustrated in this unit so that learners can go through them for practice
and get detailed knowledge. It is also be noted that some QR codes have been incorporated in
different sections of this unit for getting more information on various topics of interest.
supplementary information provided in this section becomes beneficial for the learners. Usually, this
development of thyristor family devices to focusing the salient observations and finding, timelines
starting from the development of the concerned topics up to the recent time, applications of thyristor
in our day-to-day life, and industrial applications of thyristor in power electronics converter circuits.
RATIONALE
This unit on thyristor family devices can be able to provide detail information regarding construction,
two transistor analogy, types, working, V-I characteristics, mounting and cooling
of silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) devices which are widely use in modern industry for the control
and conversion of electrical power. This unit can help students to get knowledge about types of
thyristors such as SCR, LASCR, SCS, GTO, UJT, PUT, DIAC and TRIAC, thyristor family devices: symbol,
construction, operating principle and V-I characteristics. Turn-on and turn-off characteristics of
thyristor are also discussed. The comparison between SCR, GTO, DIAC and TRIAC is incorporated in
tabular manner so that students can be able to differentiate the SCR, GTO, DIAC and TRIAC very easily.
Protection circuits such as over-voltage, over-current, snubber and crowbar for thyristor are explained
in detail.
PRE-REQUISITES
Electrical machines and power system
UNIT OUTCOMES
U2-O1: To explain construction and two transistor analogy of SCR
U2-O2: To describe working principle and V-I characteristics, mounting and cooling of SCR
U2-O3: To list types of thyristors
U2-O4: To discuss about construction, working principle, V-I characteristics, symbol of thyristor
family devices
U2-O5: To select thyristor family devices for specific applications
U2-O6: To provide proper protection of converter circuits from over-voltage and over-current
U2-O7: To understand the operation of snubber and crowbar circuits
U2-O8: To troubleshoot turn-on and turn-off circuits of thyristors
U2-O9: To determine the latching current and holding current of SCR

Thyristor Family Devices | 89
U2-O1 3 - - - -
U2-O2 3 2 - 3 -
U2-O3 3 - - - -
U2-O4 3 2 - 3 -
U2-O5 3 - - - 3
U2-O6 2 3 3 - -
U2-O7 2 3 3 - -
U2-O8 2 3 3 - -
U2-O9 - 3 - - -
2.1 INTRUDUCTION TO THYRISTOR FAMILY
The term “Thyristor” is a generic term which is applied to a family of power semiconductor devices
such as silicon controlled rectifier (SCR), light activated SCR (LASCR), silicon controlled switch (SCS),
gate turn off thyristors (GTO), UJT, PUT, DIAC and TRIAC etc. Thyristors are used extensively in power
electronics circuits. These devices act as a bistable switch and operate in conducting and non-
conducting states. The thyristor operates in conducting state when it is forward biased and current is
supplied to the gate terminal. Among the above thyristor family devices, SCR is the most simplest in
structure and most commonly used in power electronics converter circuits. SCRs are unidirectional
devices as they can conduct current in one direction and they can be turned on by applying control
signal and turned-off by natural commutation and forced commutation. GTOs are deigned to have
both turn-on and turn-off facility. Triac and DIAC are bidirectional device. Thyristor was first developed
in Bell Laboratories in 1957 and subsequently it was manufactured by General Electric Company, USA.
SCRs are available for the rating of few volts (V) to several kilovolts (kV) and few amperes (A) to several
kilo amperes (kA).
In this unit, construction of SCR, operating principle, V-I characteristics, two transistor analogy of SCR,
switching characteristics, gate characteristics, ratings, and protection circuits are explained
elaborately. The basic structure, operating principle and I-V characteristics of LASCR, SCS, GTO, UJT,
PUT DIAC and TRIAC are also included in this unit.
2.2 CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF SLILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR)

SCR is a four-layer semiconductor device. The basic structure of SCR and vertically oriented structure
of SCR are shown in Fig.2.1 and Fig.2.2 respectively. It consists of four layer P-N-P-N structure of
semiconductor materials. There are three junctions namely J1, J2 and J3 and three external terminals
such as anode (A), cathode (K) and gate (G).
Fig.2.1 Basic structure of SCR
Fig.2.2 Vertically oriented structure of SCR

The width of each semiconductor layer and doping density are depicted in Fig.2.1. The P1 and N2
semiconductor layers are heavily doped. The width of P1 layer is about 30-50 and its doping density
is about = 10 . The width of N2 is very small about 10 and its doping density is =
10 . The width of N1 is large about 50 to 100 but it is most lightly doped about =
10 . The width of P2 is about 30 to 100 and its doping density is about = 10 . The
symbol of SCR is shown in Fig.2.3.
Fig.2.3 Symbol of SCR
When anode voltage is positive with respect to cathode, junctions J 1 and J3 are forward biased and
junction J 2 is reverse biased. Consequently, a small leakage current flows from anode to cathode and
SCR operates in off-state. If anode to cathode voltage is increased to a large value, the reverse biased
junction J 2 breaks down. As junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased, there are free movement carriers
(electrons and holes) across all three junctions. Then SCR will be turned on and operates in conduction
state, a large amount of forward anode current flows from anode to cathode.
For more on Thyristor
2.3 V-I characteristics of SCR

Fig.2.4 shows the V-I characteristics of a SCR. It is clear from Fig.2.4 that SCR has three operating
regions such as forward conduction state, forward blocking state and reverse blocking state.
Fig.2.4 V-I characteristics of SCR
2.3.1 Forward Blocking (FB) State
In FB state, anode (A) is positive with respect to cathode (C). During this state, two junctions J1 and J3
are forward biased, however junction J 2 is reverse biased.
The forward biased junction depletion layer in J1 and J3 and the reverse biased junction depletion layer
in J2 changes with doping density and bias voltage. The width of forward biased junction depletion
layer is thin but the width of reverse biased junction depletion layer is thick. If voltage applied across
anode to cathode is positive, junction J1 and J3 are forward biased and junction J2 block the input
voltage.
The forward blocking state of SCR is shown in Fig.2.5. When the switch S is opened, current will not
flows through gate and gate current = 0. If anode to cathode voltage is increased progressively,
depletion layer across J2 will be increased. As junction J2 is reverse biased, forward leakage current
flows through from anode (A) to cathode (K). The amplitude of current is few mA. This current flows
due to thermally generated minority carriers. When anode to cathode voltage VAK increased to the
forward break over voltage VBO, junction J2 breaks down. The depletion layer of N1 increases and it
can contact to opposite end of the depletion layer at J1. Hence breakdown is possible through punch-
through and this break down is called as avalanche breakdown. Then anode current I A increases
sharply to a very high value and the voltage across anode to cathode reduce sharply to a low value
called as on-state voltage. The switching of SCR from turned-off sate to conduction state is done within
a short time and this state is known as transition state.
Fig.2.5 Forward blocking state of SCR with forward bias of J1 and J3 and reverse bias of J2
2.3.2 Forward Conduction (FC) State
If SCR is forward biased and the gate current is applied through gate terminal (G), the junction J2 breaks
down. Subsequently all four P-N-P-N layers are filled with charge carriers. Then SCR give very low
impedance between A and K and anode current IA flows through anode to cathode. Amplitude of IA
depends on load resistance RL. Usually gate voltage VG varies with in few volts. This state is called as
forward conduction state. When SCR operates in conduction state, the on-state voltage drop across
anode to cathode is equal to about 1V.
2.3.3 Reverse Blocking (RB) State
When anode terminal is negative with respect to cathode, SCR is reverse biased. Then junctions J1 and
J3 are reverse biased and junction J2 is forward biased as shown in Fig. 2.6. Since N1 layer is lightly
doped, the reverse biased depletion layer at junction J2 is large but the depletion layer width of J2 and
J3 are thin. Consequently, the reverse leakage current flows from cathode (K) to anode (A). If the
applied voltage becomes more than break down voltage VBD, the junction breaks and large current
flows in reverse direction. This state is known as reverse blocking state. The operation in reverse
breakdown region should be avoided to protect the device from damage permanently.
Fig.2.6 Reverse blocking state of SCR with reverse bias of J1 and J3 and forward bias of J2
2.4 TWO TRANSISTOR ANALOGY OF SCR
The PNPN structure of SCR can be represented by two transistors T1 and T2 as depicted in Fig.2.7. Here,
T1 is a PNP transistor and T2 is a NPN transistor. The collector terminal of T1 is connected with base of
T2. When the gate current flows through gate terminal (G), base current flows through the base of T2.
After that the collector current of T2 is applied to base of T1 which produce very large collector current
IC1. Subsequently the sum of gate current (IG) and collector current (IC1) flow through the base of T2.
It means that the amplified collector current IC1 is applied to the base of T2. Therefore, the regenerative
operation is performed and SCR operates in on-state (conduction state) with in few µs. The
connection of p-n-p and n-p-n transistors to model a SCR is illustrated in Fig.2.8.
Fig.2.7 Two transistor model of SCR
Fig.2.8 Connection of p-n-p and n-p-n transistors to model a SCR
In a power BJT, the collector current is related with emitter current , the leakage collector current
of collector-base junction and the dc current gain as follows:
= + (2.1)
The base current of T2 is, = + (2.2)

In transistor T1, the collector current is = + (2.3)
In transistor T2 , the collector current is = + (2.4)
Here, = , and =
Then anode current is = + = + (2.5)
After substituting the value of and in equation (2.5), we obtain
= + + + (2.6)
As = and = , = + + + (2.7)
Since = + , = + + + + (2.8)
Therefore, =( + ) + + + (2.9)
Finally anode current is equal to = ( )

(2.10)
If a small gate current is supplied, increases and current gain increases. Since is increased,
increases. In the same way, there is a change in base current as = . Subsequently,
increases as = + and is increased. As a result, the gain + becomes about 1 (unity).
Consequently, one transistor can drive another transistor into saturation. Therefore, both T1 and T2
operate in saturation and SCR operates in conduction state and IA increases extensively. The amplitude
of anode current is limited by the load.
2.5 Switching Characteristics of SCR
There are two types of switching characteristics of SCR such as
 Turn-on characteristics of SCR

 Turn-off characteristics of SCR
2.5.1 Turn- on characteristics of SCR
The turn on characteristics of SCR is depicted in Fig.2.9 which shows the waveform of anode current
with respect to gate signals (gate voltage VG and gate current IG) . When SCR is forward biased and a
positive gate pulse is applied between gate and cathode, it will be turned on but there is a finite delay
for transition from forward off-state to forward on-state. This finite delay time is called as turn-on time
. The time is sum of the delay time , rise time and spread time and it is equal
to = + + . The total turn on time of SCR is equal to about 1 to 4 .
Delay time : The delay time is the time interval from initial anode current (forward leakage
current) to attain 10% of final value of anode current (0.1 ). The delay time can also be measured
from the instant of the gate current reaches 0.9 to the instant where anode current reaches to 0.1 .
Fig.2.9 Turn-on characteristics of SCR
Rise time : The rise time is the time interval during which anode current I A increases from 10% of
on-state current (0.1IA) to 90% of on-state current (0.9IA ). is the time interval during which forward
blocking off-state voltage decreases from the instant of 90% of forward blocking off-state voltage
(0.9 ) to the instant of 10% forward blocking off-state voltage (0.1 ). It can be measured from the
instant of the gate current reaches 0.9 to the instant of final value of gate current (IG). The
phenomenon of decreasing anode voltage and increasing anode current is completely dependent
upon the type of the load
Spread time : The spread time is the time interval during which the forward blocking voltage falls
from 10% of its value (0.1 ) to the on-state voltage drop about 1V. It can be defined as the time
interval between the anode current rise from 0.9 to . In this time interval, the conduction spreads
over the entire cross section of SCR cathode. depends on the area of cathode as well as gate
structure of SCR.
2.5.2 Turn-off characteristics of SCR
The turn off characteristics of SCR is shown in Fig.2.10. When a SCR is in conducting state and it can
be turned off if the anode current is reduced gradually less than holding current IH. This turn-off
process of SCR is known as commutation. The turn-off process of SCR can be done by natural
commutation and forced commutation. The successful turned-off of on-state SCR requires that SCR
should be reversed biased by an external circuit for a minimum time period. Usually, the turn-on time
of SCR is shorter than turn-off time.
The turn-off time of a SCR can be defined as the time interval between the instant at which anode
current through the device becomes zero and the instant where SCR regain its forward blocking
capability. The turn off time of SCR is sum of the reverse recovery time and gate recovery time
and it is = + . The thyristor turn-off time is in the order of 3µs to 100µs.
Reverse recovery time : At = , the anode current is zero. Thereafter, anode current IA starts to
build up in the reverse direction. In fact, the reverse recovery current removes the excess charge
carriers from junctions and in the time interval between = and = . Hence, the reverse
recovery time is the time interval from zero crossover point of SCR current to 25% of the peak reverse
recovery current Irr.
In the beginning, the rate of decrease of reverse recovery current is very fast however thereafter it is
gradually reduced. SCR can be damaged permanently due to fast decay of reverse recovery current.
This problem can be resolved by using snubber circuit.
Fig.2.11 Turn-off characteristics of SCR
Gate recovery time : It is the time required for the recombination of excess charges in J 2 junction.
When a negative reverse voltage is applied across SCR, gate recovery time can be reduced
significantly.
2.6 GATE CHARACTERISTICS
Fig.2.12 shows the gate triggering characteristics which is used to design the gate triggering circuit for
SCR and to estimate amplitude of gate current which will be applied to turn on SCR effectively. Curve
1 and curve 2 are the gate characteristics of SCR at minimum and maximum temperature respectively.
Fig.2.12 Gate-characteristics of SCR
The gate characteristics are widely spread between curve-1 and curve-2 due to inadvertent difference
in doping density of and layers. The curve-1 represents the minimum gate voltage values which
are applied to gate-cathode of SCR for turn-on adequately. In the same way, the curve-2 corresponds
to the maximum possible gate voltage values which are also applied to gate-cathode of SCR for turn-
on satisfactorily.
Fig.2.13 shows a triggering circuit of an SCR where is gate source voltage, is resistance of source
voltage, is gate to cathode voltage, and is gate current. Here, = + . The value of
internal resistance must be such that the current should not be very high so gate drive circuit
operates safely during turn-on of SCR. When is very small, an external resistance must be
connected across gate-cathode terminals of SCR.
If minimum gate voltage is applied between gate and cathode, minimum gate current
flows from gate to cathode. The current flows through resistance is equal to ⁄ and the
source voltage is equal to
= + + as = (2.11)
Fig.2.13 Triggering circuit of SCR
A-B is the load line of gate-cathode circuit. OB is source voltage and OA is current while
triggering circuit is short circuit. Consider that SCR operates at point Q which is the intersection of load
line and curve-3. At point Q, OR=QP is gate voltage and the gate current is OP. The intersection
between load line and curve-1 and curve-2 are and respectively.
SCR can operate within operating points and as operating point must lie within the limit curve-
1 and curve-2. The slope of load line AB is = . The maximum gate to cathode voltage is
and maximum gate current is . During design of gate drive circuit, we should not exceed these
values to save the gate junction due to excessive power dissipation. In the same way, the minimum
gate to cathode voltage is and minimum gate current is for successful turn on of SCR.
Fig.2.12 shows the variation of maximum gate power dissipation. The operating point should not be
outside the maximum power dissipation curve. The shaded region in Fig.2.12 shows the safe operating
region and reliable to turn-on of SCR. The operating point of gate drive circuit should be in this region.
Example 2.1 The average gate power dissipation of a SCR is = 0.5 . When the gate voltage
varies from 2.5 V to 10 V, plot the curve where gate voltage is a function of gate current.
Solution:
Given: = 0.5 , and varies from 2.5 V to 10 V
Assume four gate voltages = 2.5 , =5 , = 7.5 and = 10
The corresponding gate currents are
.
= = = 0.2 as =
.
.
= = = 0.1
.
= = .
= 0.066
.
= = = 0.05
Fig. 2.14 shows the plot between gate voltage and gate current
Fig.2.14 Gate voltage vs gate current
Example 2.2 Assume that slope of the gate-cathode characteristics of a thyristor is about 125 and
average power dissipation is 0.8 Watt. If the gate to source voltage is about 12V, determine the gate
source resistance.
Solution: Given: = 125, = 0.8 , = 12
As = , 125 = 0.8
Therefore, = 0.08
Then gate voltage = 125 = 125 × 0.08 = 10
The gate to source voltage is = +
Therefore, the value of gate to source resistance is equal to = = (12 − 10)/0.08 = 25 Ω

Example 2.3 The gate-cathode characteristics of a thyristor are spread by the following equations:
.
= 2.3 × 10 = 1.5 × 10
When the gate source voltage is about 15 V and = 100 , determine the triggering voltage and
triggering current. Assume the gate power dissipation is 0.5Watt.
Solution: Given = 0.5 , = 15
We know that = = 0.5
Or, = 0.5/
The source voltage = +
.
Or, 15 = 100 +
Or, 100 − 15 + 0.5 = 0
After solving the above equation, we get = 0.1 0.05
According to − characteristics
0.5
= 2.3 × 10 = 2.3 × 10
. .
Therefore, = 83.15 , = = = 6.01
.
. . . .
.
As = 1.5 × 10 = 1.5 × 10 . , = 48.95 and = = .
= 10.21
Since the gate current will be in between = 83.15 and = 48.95 , the gate current at
operating point Q, = 50
. .
As = 50 , = = = 10
Hence, the operating point Q is (50mA, 10V)

Example 2.4 The gate-cathode characteristics of a thyristor is a straight line passing through origin
with a gradient of = 13 / . The maximum turn-on time is 100s and the minimum gate current
required is 80mA. If the gate to source voltage is 10V, (i) determine the value of gate-source resistance
which is connected in series with gate drive circuit as shown in Fig.2.15 and (ii) compute the power
dissipation.
Fig.2.15 Tigger Circuit
Solution: Given: = 13 / , = 80 , Vs  10V
The value of gate voltage is = 13 as : = 13 /
Or, = 13 80 10 = 1.04
(i)The value of gate-source resistance which is connected in series with gate drive circuit is
=( − )/ )=(10-1.04)/80 x10-3 = 112 Ω
(ii) Power dissipation = = 1.04 80 10 = 83.2
2.7 SCR Mounting and Cooling
Heat is generated within SCR due to on-state loss when it operates in conduction state and switching
loss due to transition from OFF to ON and ON to OFF. This heat should be transferred from SCR to a
cooling medium to maintain junction temperature with in limit. Transfer of heat is possible by
conduction, convention, and radiation, natural cooling and forced air cooling.
SCR should be mounted on the heat sink which is used as a cooling medium. A wide variety of
aluminium heat sinks are commercially available and sometimes cooling fins are used to increase the
heat transfer capability. Fig.2.16 shows heat sinks which are used for mounting SCRs. In this section
we explain about different methods of cooling of SCR such as natural cooling, forced air cooling, and
forced liquid cooling.
Fig.2.16 Heat sinks are mounting with SCRs.
Natural Air Cooling: In this method, heat is transferred from heat sink to atmosphere. Usually heat
sinks are mounted vertically for proper cooling. If heat sinks are mounted horizontally, it will be
derated by about 20%.
Forced Air Cooling: The effectiveness of heat sink can be improved by using forced air cooling. When
we use blower, the volume of air flowing over the heat sink increased significantly. Consequently,
forced air can able to transfer more heat from device. The size of heat sink can be reduced due to
forced air cooling.
Forced Liquid Cooling: SCR may be cooled by heat pipes which are partially filled with low pressure
liquid. Actually, the SCR is mounted on one side of the pipe and other side is connected with heat sink
for condensing mechanism. The heat generated by SCR vaporizes the liquid and subsequently vapour
flows to the condensing end, where it condenses and the liquid returns to the heat source. Fig.2.17
shows the construction of heat pipes for cooling.
In high power applications, the forced liquid cooling system is highly efficient. Water and oil are
generally used as cooling liquids. The water cooling is very efficient and more effective compared to
the oil cooling. However, distilled water is used as coolant to minimize corrosion and an antifreeze
agent to avoid freezing.
Since oil is flammable, the oil cooling is restricted to only very few applications. Oil cooling provides
good insulation and eliminates the problems of corrosion and freezing. Heat pipes and liquid cooed
heat sinks are available in market.
Fig.2.17 Construction of heat pipes for cooling
For more on Heat sink
2.8 RATINGS OF SCR
Power handling capability of SCR is limited by voltage and current ratings. In fact the power handling
capability of SCR depends on the temperature withstand capacity of p-n junction at steady state and
dynamic conditions. SCR should always be operating within the safe operating area (SOA) when it
operates within voltage, current, power and temperature limit. Generally SCR ratings are specified in
the manufacturer data sheet. In this section, some very useful specification of SCR voltage and current
ratings are explained.
On State Voltage Drop ( ): It is the voltage drop across anode and cathode with specified forward
on state current and junction temperature. Its value is about 1V to 1.5V.
Peak Forward Blocking Voltage ( ) : This is the maximum forward blocking voltage at which
SCR can withstand during its working as depicted in Fig.2.18.
Fig.2.18 Voltage rating of SCR
Peak repetitive forward blocking voltage ( ): This is the repetitive peak transient voltage at
which SCR can withstand in it’s forward blocking state. It is specified at a maximum allowable junction
temperature when gate circuit is open or a specified biasing resistance is present between gate and
cathode. is obtained when a SCR is commutated or turned-off.
Peak reverse voltage ( ): This is the maximum reverse voltage at which SCR can withstand
repeatedly. It’s value is equal to the peak negative value of ac voltage.
Repetitive peak reverse voltage (VRRM ): This is the repetitive maximum reverse voltage at which SCR
can withstand at the allowable maximum junction temperature.
Voltage Safety Factor ( ): It is the ratio of peak repetitive reverse voltage ( ) to maximum
value of input voltage and it is equal to
Peak .repetitive. reverse.voltage.( VRRM ) (2.12)

VSF 
2 .RMS.value.of .operating.voltage
Generally, the voltage safety factor is about 2 to 3.
Latching Current ( ): The latching current is the minimum value of anode current to turn on SCR from
its off-state to on-state even after removal of trigger pulse. To trigger an SCR, the anode current must
be build up to the latching current before the gate pulse is removed.
Holding Current ( ): The holding current is the minimum value of anode current to hold the SCR in
on-state. In turn-off process, the anode current must be below the holding current. Generally the
value of holding current is few mA.
Gate Current ( ): The gate current is required at the gate of SCR to turn on. There are two types of
gate current namely minimum gate current and maximum gate current . is the
minimum value of gate current at which the SCR is triggered and it is turned on from its off-state to
on-state and its value depends on the rate of rise of current. is the maximum value of gate
current at which the device will be turn-on without damaging the gate. The turn-on time of SCR can
be reduced with increase of gate current.
Forward dv/ dt rating: It is the maximum rate of rise of anode voltage at which thyristor will not be
triggered when gate signal is not applied and anode to cathode voltage is less than forward break over
voltage. In forward blocking mode, the applied voltage appears across the junction J 2 as junctions
J1 and J 3 are forward biased and junction J 2 is reverse biased. Then reverse biased junction J 2
behaves as capacitor. If a forward voltage is applied suddenly and dv/ dt is very high, a charging
current = starts to flow and the thyristor can be turned-on. Therefore, this type of unwanted
triggering of thyristor must be avoided. Whenever dv/ dt is less than forward dv/ dt rating, thyristor
must be remain in forward blocking state.
rating: It is the maximum permissible rate of rise of anode to cathode current without any damage.
The value of maximum rate of change of current for a particular thyristor device is always specified at
its highest value of junction temperature that it can safely bear. If the rate of rise of anode current is
very rapid compared to the spreading velocity of carriers across the junctions during the turn-on
period, the local hot spots are created due to high current density in the junction regions. This
increases the junction temperature beyond the safe limit and thyristor may be damaged. Typical
values of lies in the range of 50-800 ampere/microseconds ( /µ ).

2.9 Types of Thyristors
Thyristors are power semiconductor switching devices which are made up of four layers of alternating p and
n-type semiconductor materials. These devices are used in converters, inverters, cycloconverters, choppers,
ac voltage controllers, ac and dc drives and ac power control applications. The most commonly used thyristor
family devices are
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

 Light Activated Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (LASCR)
 Silicon-Controlled Switch (SCS)
 MOS Controlled Thyristor (MCT)
 MOS Turn-off Thyristor (MTO)
 Gate Turn off Thyristor (GTO)
 Unijunction Transistor (UJT)
 Programmable Unijunction Transistor (PUT)
 DIAC
 TRIAC
 Static Induction Thyristor (SITH)
In this unit, the symbol, construction, operating principle and V-I characteristics of Silicon Controlled Rectifier
(SCR), Light Activated Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (LASCR), Silicon-Controlled Switch (SCS), Gate Turn off
Thyristor (GTO), Unijunction Transistor (UJT), Programmable Unijunction Transistor (PUT), DIAC and TRIAC
are explained in detail.
2.10 LASCR (Light Activated Silicon Controlled Rectifier)
2.10.1 Construction of LASCR: Fig.2.19 shows the construction of LASCR. It is a four-layer PNPN
semiconductor device. It is also a semiconductor opto-electronic switch, and it has a lens that focuses light
on its gate. The silicon pellet is used in the bottom of LASCR, and the light intensity dislodges electrons in the
semiconductor crystal and contributes to conduction.
Fig.2.19 The basic construction of LASCR
It will be turns ON when it is exposed to light. This device is triggered into conduction state by light. When
sufficient light does not fall on the LASCR, it remains in off-state. Therefore, LASCR is a type of thyristor that
is triggered by photons present in the light rays.
LASCR is a three terminal device which consists of cathode, anode and gate terminal. The gate terminal is
used while the triggering is provided to the LASCR. If a pulse of light with suitable wave length fall on the
wafer of the SCR and the intensity of light exceeds a threshold value, electron-hole pairs are generated and
a current flows anode to cathode. The advantage of triggering of SCR using light is prevention from electrical
noise disturbances. Consequently, LASCR can be used as one of the useful devices in industrial applications.
2.10.2 Working Principle of LASCR: LASCR works on the principle of photoconduction as shown in Fig.2.20.
Once light is focused on LASCR, the incident photons can generate electron-hole pairs. The number of
optically generated electron-hole pairs is directly proportional to intensity of light. Therefore, a gate current
flows into LASCR. The LASCR operates into conduction due to photon striking on the semiconductor surface.
Fundamentally LASCR is a thyristor, and it is made up of semiconductor material. The light rays falling on
LASCR are focused at one place to intensify it.
When the intensity of light increases, the more current flows through the LASCR. LASCR consists of two
transistors in such a way that the collector of one transistor is connected to the base of another transistor.
LASCR does not get turn off even when the supply of external light is stopped. To turn off the LASCR, we
require to reverse the polarity of anode and cathode (A and K).
Though LASCR is a light-triggered device, the combination of light signal and the electrical signal may be
used to operate device in conduction for two conditions. Firstly, when the lower strength electrical signal
is applied to gate terminal, the intensity of light required to dislocate electrons from the semiconductor
wafer will be high. Secondly, when the higher strength electrical signal is applied to gate terminal, the
intensity of light required to displace electrons from the semiconductor crystal will be low.
LASCR is most sensitive to light while its gate terminal is open. Its sensitivity can be controlled by inserting
a resistor between its gate and cathode terminals. Actually, it provides complete electrical isolation
between the source of triggering and device. The forward breakdown voltage decreases with increase in
light intensity.
Fig.2.20 The basic operation of LASCR
The symbolic representation of LASCR is shown in Fig.2.21. The Light Activated SCR are used for low power
applications, motor control, computer applications, solid state relay and optical light controls.
Fig.2.21 Symbol of LASCR
2.10.3 V-I Characteristics of LASCR: As the LASCR is photosensitive, it is provided with a glass top to allow
the light input. It is also provided with a lens at the top to focus the light on the gate. It has three terminals
such as anode, cathode and gate. It can be turned ON by direct radiation on the silicon wafer of gate with
light. Fig.2.22 shows the V-I characteristics of LASCR.
Fig.2.22 V-I characteristics of LASCR
LASCR can be triggered by optical radiation. Usually, a light of wave-length about 0.8 to 1.5 µm is used
for triggering LASCR. When light is absent (intensity of light ϕ1=0), LASCR is not conducting, and it is
called forward blocking state or off-state. If the intensity of light is present (ϕ2>0), LASCR starts
conducting from brake-over voltage . While intensity of light is progressively increased from ϕ2
(ϕ4>ϕ3>ϕ2>0), LASCR starts conducting at lower break-over voltage ( < < ) as shown in
Fig.2.22. It is clear from Fig.2.22 that larger in intensity of light on LASCR, the lower forward break
down voltage is required to turn on the device. Usually a variable resistance is connected between
gate and cathode to change the sensitivity of circuit due to light intensity.
2.11 SCS (Silicon Controlled Switch)
2.11.1 Construction of SCS: Silicon controlled switch (SCS) is a unilateral four-layer silicon device with four
electrode such as anode, cathode, anode gate and cathode gate. It is a unidirectional device of thyristor
family. The construction of SCS is shown in Fig.2.23. This device consists of four-layer PNPN
semiconductors. It has three junctions like a SCR. The circuit symbol of SCS is shown in Fig.2.24 and it is
available for industrial applications at low power ratings.
Fig.2.23 Basic construction of SCS
Fig.2.24 Symbol of SCS
2.11.2 Working Principle of SCS: Fig.2.25 shows the equivalent circuit of two transistor analogy of a
SCS. SCS consists of a complementary pair of transistors with regenerative feedback. Like a SCR, this
device will be turned on by applying a positive trigger pulse at GK or a negative triggering pulse at gate
GA. The construction SCS is similar to that of a SCR.
The SCS is forward biased when a positive voltage is applied at the anode terminal with respect to
cathode and there is no voltage at the gates GK and GA. Consequently, the gate current is zero, both
transistors will be in off-sate. When a positive triggering pulse is applied at the terminal GK, the gate
current will flow though the base of transistor Q1. As regenerative feedback action takes place,
transistors Q1 and Q2 operate into saturation region and high current will flow from anode to cathode.
This is called as conduction or on-state of SCS. SCS can be turned on by applying a negative pulse at
GA. Similarly, SCS can be turned-off by applying a positive pulse at GA or a negative pulse at cathode
gate terminal GK. SCS can also be turned off just like SCR when anode current is less than the holding
current IH.
Fig.2.25 Equivalent circuit of two transistor analogy of SCS
2.11.3 V-I Characteristics of SCS: Fig.2.26 shows the V-I characteristics of SCS. During forward biased
condition, a positive triggering pulse applied at GK or a negative gate pulse voltage at the gate GA is
less than break over voltage, SCS will not conduct, and current does not flow. At that time leakage
current flows through SCS. Hence SCS operates in forward blocking state. When SCS is forward biased,
a positive triggering pulse voltage at GK or a negative pulse voltage at the GA is more than break over
voltage, SCS will operate in on-state and current flows from anode to cathode. Subsequently the
voltage across SCS drops to about 1V though anode current increases rapidly. This state of device is
known as forward conduction state of SCS.
Fig.2.26 V-I characteristics of SCS
Advantages of SCS are (i) it has fast turn-off and (ii) it can be turned-off with positive or negative pulse
at either gate.
The applications of SCS are (i) it is used in low power circuits, (ii) it is used in timers, registers and
counters, (iii) it is used in digital logic circuits, (iv) it is used in pulse generators and (v) it is used in
oscillators.
2.12 GTO (Gate Turn-off Thyristor)
SCR can be used as ideal switches in power electronics. When SCRs are forward biased and a gate
pulse is applied between anode to cathode, these devices will be turned-on. Once SCR is turned-on
and it operates in the on-state. These devices can also be turned-off by natural commutation and
forced commutation. SCRs can be used as switching device up-to about 1 kHz. In off-state, SCRs can
able to block high voltages about several kilo volts (kV) and during on-state, a large current about
several kA flows from anode to cathode with a small on-state voltage. To incorporate the turn-off
capability in SCRs, the structure of SCR should be modified. GTO is just like a SCR but the turn-off
feature is incorporated within this device. When a positive gate current is applied in between gate and
cathode, GTO will be turned on and operates in conduction state. When a negative gate current of
required amplitude is applied to gate-cathode terminals, GTO will be turned off. As GTO has self-
turned off capability, this device is suitable device for inverters and choppers.
2.12.1 Construction of GTO
GTO is a four layer p n p n semiconductor device and it has three terminals namely gate (G), cathode
(K) and anode (A). Fig.2.27 shows the basic structure of GTO. The doping density of different layers of
GTO is just like the doping density of different layers of SCR. In GTO, the thickness of P2 layer is smaller
compared to conventional SCR.
Fig.2.27 Construction of GTO

The n+ region is penetrated in the p-type anode (P1 layer) at regular interval so that the n+ region makes
contact with the n- region (N1 layer). Since n+ regions are over laid with the same metallization
contacts, the p-type anode is called anode short. Due to anode short structure, the turn-off process
of GTO will be very fast.
Just like SCR, GTO can be represented by two transistor analogy (Fig.2.28). Transistor T1 is type
transistor but transistor T2 is type transistor. The emitter of transistor T1 ( ) is anode of GTO
and emitter of transistor T2 ( ) is cathode of GTO. The symbol of GTO is shown in Fig.2.29. The two-
way arrow convention on the gate terminal will be used to differentiate GTO from a conventional SCR.
Fig.2.28 Two transistor analogy of GTO
Fig.2.29 Symbol of GTO
2.12.2 V-I Characteristic of GTO
The V-I characteristic of GTO is identical to a conventional SCR in the forward direction as shown in
Fig.2.30. The difference between SCR and GTO is that latching current of GTO is few amperes but the
latching current of conventional SCR is about 100 to 500 mA for equal power rating.
Fig.2.30 V-I characteristic of GTO
If the gate current is not able to turn on the GTO, this device behaves just like a high voltage low gain
transistor with sufficient anode current. In this case, there will be certain power loss.
During reverse direction, virtually the GTO has no blocking capability for anode-short structure. Since
junction J3 is in reverse direction block, GTO has low break down voltage about 20-30V as large doping
densities exist on both sides of the junction. The difference between SCR and GTO is given in Table
2.1
Table 2.1 Differences between SCR and GTO
SCR GTO
The magnitude of latching and holding current The magnitude of latching and holding current
of SCR is less than GTO. of GTO is more than thyristor.
The on-state voltage drop of SCR is less than The on-state voltage drop of GTO is more than
GTO. thyristor.
The gate and cathode structure of SCR are not The gate and cathode structure of GTO are
highly interdigitated highly interdigitated with small cathode and
gate widths, the use of anode shorts of GTO.
SCR GTO
The required gate current to turn on a SCR is less Due to multi-cathode structure of GTO, the
than the required gate current of a GTO. required gate current to turn on a GTO is more
than the required gate current for a
conventional thyristor.
Gate drive circuit losses for SCR are less. Gate drive circuit losses for GTO are more.
SCR has less switching speed compared to GTO. GTO has faster switching speed compared to
thyristor.
Reverse voltage blocking capability of SCR is The reverse voltage blocking capability of GTO is
greater than Reverse voltage blocking capability less than forward voltage blocking capability.
of GTO.
SCR has less di/dt rating at turn-on compared to GTO has more di/dt rating at turn-on compared
GTO. to thyristor.
2.12.3 Operating Principle of GTO
GTO during turn-on: GTO is a monolithic p n p n semiconductor structure and its operating
principle can be similar to that of a SCR. Fig.2.31 shows that the p n p n structure of a GTO which
consist of two transistors where one pnp and one npn transistor are connected in the regenerative
configuration.
Fig. 2.31 Current distribution in GTO during turn-on
Collector current of T1 is = + (2.13)
Base current of T1 is = = + (2.14)

as = and =
From Fig. 2.31, we get = + and = + (2.15)
After combining the above equation, we obtain
( )
= ( )
(2.16)
GTO is forward biased, and the applied forward voltage V is less than the forward break over
AK
voltage , both the currents I and I are small. When gate current I is zero, anode current
CBO1 CBO2 G
I is only slightly higher than (I +I ). At this instant current gain and are small and
A CBO1 CBO2
+ << 1. Subsequently GTO operates in off condition and the device is in the forward
blocking state.
To turn-on GTO, the gate current is injected through gate terminal. When GTO is forward biased
and a positive gate current input to gate and cathode, the current gain and start to increase
rapidly as the emitter current increases. If + move towards to 1 or + ≅ 1, anode
current tends to infinity. When + = 1, GTO starts to regenerate and transistor T1 and T2
operate in saturation. Subsequently all junctions will be forward biased and total potential drop
across GTO is equal to that of a single p-n junction diode. Since each transistor is in saturation
level, GTO is turned on and anode current starts to flow. When GTO is turned on, anode current is
limited by load impedance.
GTO during turn-off: To turn-off the GTO, the gate terminal voltage should be negative with
respect to cathode so that gate–cathode is reverse biased. In fact, the holes are injected from anode
and these holes are taken out from p base through gate metallization into gate terminal. Thus, the
voltage drop across p base and n emitter of transistor T 2 starts reverse biasing the junction J 3 and
consequently electron injection stops.
As soon as the electron injection stops completely, the depletion layer starts to grow on both
junctions J2 and J3. Then once again the device starts blocking forward voltage. The flow of
cathode current has stopped and the anode to gate current continues to flow due to the n base
excess carriers diffuse towards junction J1. This current is known as “tail current”. The amplitude
of tail current decays exponentially because the n base excess carriers will be reduced by
recombination. If the tail current becomes zero, GTO device regain its steady state blocking
characteristics and it operates in off-state. The current distribution in a GTO during turn-off is shown
in Fig.2.32.
Fig.2.32 Current distribution in GTO during turn-off
2.12.4 Advantages of GTO over BJT
(i) GTO has higher blocking voltage capability

(ii) The ratio of peak current rating to average current is high
(iii) The ratio of peak surge current rating to average current is high and it is about 10:1
(iv) High on-state current gain and it value is about 600
(v) The pulse width of gate signal is short.
2.12.5 Advantages of GTO over SCR
(i) GTO has faster switching speed compared to SCR.

(ii) GTO has more di/dt rating at turn-on compared to SCR.
(iii) The surge current capability is analogous with an SCR
(iv) GTO circuit has lower size and weight as compared to SCR circuit.
(v) Elimination of commutating circuit components in forced commutation as it is not
required.
(vi) Improved efficiency of converter circuits.
2.12.6 Applications of GTO
(i) High performance converter fed DC drives

(ii) High performance AC drives such as vector control are used in rolling mills, process control
industry, machine tools control, and robotics.
(iii) Electric traction drives
(iv) Variable voltage variable frequency inverter fed ac drives.
2.13 UJT (UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTOR)
2.13.1 Construction of UJT
Fig.2.33 shows the construction of UJT which is a three terminal semiconductor device namely Emitter
E, Base B1 and Base B2. This device is formed from a lightly doped slab of n-type material which has
high resistance. The two base contacts are made at each end of n type slab is used as base terminal
such as B1 and B2 and aluminum rod is inserted on the other side to form a single p-n junction.
Consequently UJT is known as uni-junction transistor. Usually aluminum rod is placed near to base
terminal B2. As shown in Fig.2.33 that B2 is positive with respect to B1 by voltage VBB and the symbol
of a UJT is shown in Fig.2.34.
Fig.2.33 Construction of an UJT
Fig.2.34 Symbol of UJT
The equivalent circuit of UJT is depicted in Fig.2.35. The p-n junction is represented by diode, RB1 is a
variable resistance, and RB2 is a fixed resistance. The value of RB1 decreases while emitter current
increases. Generally, RB1 varies from 50 kΩ to 50 Ω when emitter current changes from 0 to 50 mA.
Fig.2.35 Equivalent circuit of UJT
Inter-base resistance between B1 and B2 is equal to = + and it is varies from 4 kΩ to 10

kΩ. If IE = 0, the voltage across RB1 is
= = (2.17)
where, intrinsic stand-off ratio = . (2.18)
The intrinsic stand-off ratio is controlled by the location of the aluminum rod. The emitter threshold
potential is equal to
= + (2.19)
2.13.2 Working Principle and V-I characteristics of UJT
Fig.2.36 shows the V-I characteristics of a UJT. When VE crosses the threshold potential VP, the emitter
fires and holes are injected into the n-type slab through the p-type rod. Subsequently, the holes
content in n-type slab increases. As the number of free electrons increases, conductivity increases.
Hence VE drops off when IE increasing. The UJT operates in the negative resistance region as shown in
Fig.2.36. When UJT passes through the valley point (IV, VV), it becomes saturated.
Fig.2.36 V-I characteristics of a UJT
2.14 PUT (Programmable Unijunction Transistor)
Programmable unijunction transistor (PUT) is a four-layer PNPN device. It is an improved version of

UJT, and it also called as small version of thyristors. The operating principle is just like to UJT.
Therefore, it is permanently considered with UJT. The trigger voltage VP of PUT can be programmed
with the help of two external resistors but VP is fixed in UJT. As a result, it is known as programmable
unijunction transistor (PUT). The construction of PUT is illustrated in Fig.2.37
Fig. 2.37 Construction of PUT
The symbol of PUT is shown in Fig 2.38. It has three junctions J1, J2 and J3 and it has three terminals
anode, cathode and gate. The gate terminal is connected to the N region, though in thyristor gate is
connected with P region. The anode and cathode constitute the PN junction which controls the ON
and OFF states of PUT.
Fig.2.38 Symbol of PUT
The gate voltage is decided by the values of R1, R2 and VBB. Parameters of PUT , ƞ and are
programmed by and . PUT circuit is shown in Fig.2.39. The intrinsic stand-off ratio of PUT is equal
to ƞ = and the gate voltage is =ƞ .
Fig.2.39 PUT circuit
For PUT, the peak point of voltage depends on the voltage of the inner base resistance VBB, intrinsic
stand-off ratio and the anode-gate junction voltage . The peak voltage is expressed as
= + (2.20)
Fig.2.40 shows the V-I Characteristics of PUT. To understand the V-I Characteristics of PUT, we assume
that PUT is forward biased when anode is positive with respect to cathode and the gate is forward
biased with respect to cathode. When the anode voltage less than the gate voltage (VA< VG), the PUT
is reverse biased, and it is in off-state. During off-state, it has high resistance. If the anode voltage
increases and it exceeds the gate voltage and voltage , the PUT is said to be in the ON-state and it
offers a low resistance path.
Fig.2.40 V-I Characteristics of PUT
Generally, in PUT positive potential is applied to gate with respect to cathode. When the anode voltage
is less than gate voltage VG, the anode gate junction becomes reverse biased and PUT operates in off-
state. When the anode voltage exceeds the gate voltage, anode cathode junction becomes forward
biased and PUT is turned-on. In the on-state, PUT behaves just like a four-layer PNPN SCR. Therefore,
PUT is also known as complementary SCR.
The rating of available PUT is about 100V, 2A or 200V, 1A. It is mainly used in SCR trigger circuits and
delay logic relaxation oscillators, high gain phase control circuits. A PUT can be used as relaxation
oscillator which is discussed in Unit-III. The advantages of PUT over UJT are (i) the switching voltage is
easily earned by changing Vg through the potential divider, (ii) PUT can operate at lower voltages than
IC’s and (iii) Peak current of PUT is lower than UJT.
2.15 DIAC
2.15.1 Construction Of DIAC:
Fig.2.41 shows the cross-sectional view of all existing semiconductor layers and junction of a DIAC.
DIAC is a two-terminal semiconductor device namely MT-1(main terminal-1) and MT-2 (main terminal-
2). These terminals are also designated as anode-I and anode-II. It is a bidirectional avalanche diode
which can be switched from the off-state to the on-state in both positive and negative direction. Since
the device is bidirectional and anode current flows in either direction.
Fig.2.41 Construction of DIAC
2.15.2 Operating Principle and V-I Characteristics
Fig. 2.42 shows the V-I characteristic of a DIAC. This device can work for both positive half cycle and
negative half cycle of ac supply. It operates in I and III quadrants, and each direction has a different
value of break-over voltage (VBO). As there is no gate in DIAC and the only way to fire a DIAC is to apply
its break-over voltage VBO. The symbol of DIAC is shown in Fig.2.43.
Fig. 2.42 V-I characteristic of DIAC.

Fig.2.43 The symbol of DIAC
When the applied voltage across two terminals crosses the break over voltage in either direction, DIAC
conducts. While MT-1 is positive with respect to MT-2 and voltage across two terminals is greater
than break-over voltage VBO1, the PNPN structure conducts. Similarly, when MT-2 is positive with
respect to MT-1 and voltage across two terminals is more than break-over voltage VBO2, again the
PNPN structure conducts. The break over voltage of a DIAC is about 30V. In conducting state of DIAC,
it acts as a low resistance and on-state voltage drop across it is about 3V.
If voltage across DIAC is less than the break over voltage, a leakage current flows through the device.
Then the device operates in non-conducting state i.e., OA region. At operating point, A, voltage just
reaches the break over voltage and the device starts to conduct. The conduction state of DIAC express
negative resistance characteristics and the current flow through it starts to increase and voltage across
it starts to decrease. AB region of V-I characteristic curve is the conduction state. The amplitude of
voltage at A is called the break over voltage VBO. In the same way, the V-I characteristic curve can be
obtained for negative half-cycle of ac supply voltage, and it operates in the third quadrant. When the
device starts conducting, the current flow through it is high and its amplitude can be limited by
external resistance. But it stops conducting only when the current is reduced below its holding value.
The circuit for DIAC operation is shown in Fig.2.44. The device will operate in on-state when the input
voltage is greater than its break-over voltage . In positive half cycle of ac input voltage, if applied
voltage is more than the break over voltage VBO at , the diac starts to conduct and it is in on-state
from = to = . During negative half cycle, if the supply voltage is greater the break over voltage
-VBO at , the diac is again closed and starts to conduct from = to = 2 . This device can be
turned off if the supply voltage is reduced and the current flow through the device falls below its
holding value. Usually, DIAC has the same value of break over voltage and the firing angle of DIAC is
fixed. In this way diac is used as a two terminal ac switch. Generally, DIAC is used as triggering device
for a TRIAC. It can be used as a lamp dimmer, fan regulator, heater control, ac motor control, etc. All
these circuits are almost similar but only the load i.e., lamp, heater, fan, motor, etc. is changed.
Fig.2.44 The circuit for DIAC operation along with output voltage across
2.16 TRIAC
2.16.1 Construction Of TRIAC
SCR is a unidirectional device since it conducts during forward biased condition when trigger pulse is
applied between gate to cathode. SCR has reverse blocking characteristics and current cannot flow
from cathode to anode direction. In ac circuit applications, the bidirectional current flow is required.
Then two SCRs are connected back-to-back or two anti-parallel SCR can be integrated into a single
chip called as TRIAC (Fig.2.45). TRIAC can conduct in both positive half cycle and negative half cycle of
supply voltage. Therefore, TRIAC is a bidirectional thyristor, and it is used for ac voltage controller.
Fig.2.45 Equivalent circuit of TRIAC
TRIAC is equivalent to two SCRs connected in anti-parallel and it conducts in bidirectional. The anode
and cathode terminals cannot be a symbol of a TRIAC. TRIAC has three terminals namely MT1, MT2
and gate G. MT1 is used as reference point to measure voltages and currents at gate terminal and MT2.
Always gate G is present near MT1. The construction of TRIAC is shown in Fig.2.46 and the circuit
symbol of TRIAC is shown in Fig.2.47.
Fig.2.46 Basic construction of TRIAC
Fig.2.47 Symbol of TRIAC
2.16.2 Operating Principle and V-I characteristic:
Fig.2.48 shows the V-I characteristic of a TRIAC and it operates in first quadrant and third quadrant.
During first quadrant operation, MT2 is positive with respect to MT1 and in the third quadrant
operation, MT1 is positive with respect to MT2. If gate pulse is not applied, the TRIAC can block both
positive and negative half cycles of ac applied voltage and the peak voltage across MT1 and MT2 must
be less than break over voltage.
Fig.2.48 V-I characteristic of a TRIAC
Consider the device is in blocking condition. If a gate pulse is applied, a gate current flows to trigger
the TRIAC in first or third quadrant. Based on the biasing condition and gate pulse, TRIAC can operate
in four different operating modes.
Mode 1: MT2 positive with respect to MT1 and positive gate current:
In this condition, junctions P1-N1, P2-N2 are forward biased and junction N1-P2 is reverse biased in
Fig.2.49. If the gate terminal is positive with respect to MT1, gate current is positive, and it flows from
gate terminal to MT1 through P2-N2 junction J3 just like SCR. TRIAC will be turn on just like a SCR. To
turn on TRIAC, the gate current must be greater than SCR. As ohmic contacts of gate and MT1 on P2
layer are present, a small amount of gate current flows from gate to MT1 through P2. Since P2 layer is
flooded by electrons when gate current flows through P2-N2 junction. Then electrons diffuse the
junction J2 and collected at N1 and subsequently the reverse bias junction N1-P2 break downs just like
SCR. So, the P1N1P2N2 structure operates just like SCR in on-state and TRIAC operates in first quadrant.
Fig.2.49 Mode 1- MT2 positive and positive gate current
Mode 2: MT2 positive with respect to MT1 and gate current negative:
If MT2 is positive and gate terminal is negative with respect to MT1, gate current starts to flow through
P2-N3 and TRIAC starts to conduct through P1 N1 P2 N3 structure as shown in Fig.2.50. Due to the
conduction, the voltage drop across the path P1 N1 P2 N3 falls, and the potential of P2 N3 junction rises
towards anode potential of MT2. Since the right-hand portion of P2 is clamped at potential of MT1, a
potential gradient developed across P2 and its left-hand region being at high potential than its right
hand region. A current flow in P2 layer from left to right which forward biased P2N2 junction and lastly
P1 N1 P2 N2 structure starts to conduct. This turn on method of TRIAC is less sensitive compared to the
turn on process of TRIAC when MT2 is positive, and gate is positive.
Fig.2.50 Mode 2- MT2 positive and negative gate current
Mode 3: MT2 negative with respect to MT1 and positive gate current:
In this case, the device will be turn on by applying a positive gate voltage across gate and MT1 as shown
in Fig.2.51. TRIAC operates in third quadrant when it is turned on. The P2 N1 P1 N4 structure with N2
acts as a remote gate. The gate current establishes forward biases P2N2 junction. Electrons from N2
layer injected into P2 layer and electrons from N2 are collected by P2N1 junction due to increase of
current through the junction P2N1. Subsequently holes are injected from P2, diffuse through N1 and
reach at P1. Therefore, a positive space charge builds up in P1 region and more electrons from N4
diffuse into P1 to neutralize the positive space charge region. As these electrons reach at junction J2,
electrons generate a negative space charge in N1 region. After that more holes are injected from P2
into N1 and the regenerative process continues until P2N1P1N4 completely turned on. When TRIAC is
turned on, the current flow through TRIAC is controlled by external load. As TRIAC is turned on by the
remote gate N2, it is less sensitive.
Fig.2.51 Mode 3 - MT2 negative and positive gate current
Mode 4: MT2 negative with respect to MT1 and negative gate current:
In this mode, N3 acts as a remote gate. The gate current IG flows through forward biased P2N3 junction
and electrons injected from N3 to P2 as shown in Fig.2.52. Then electrons from N3 are collected by P2N1
and there is an increase of current across P1N1. Subsequently the P2N1P1N4 structure turns on by
regenerative action. Then TRIAC is turns on due to the increased current in N1 layer. TRIAC is more
sensitive in this mode operation compared to MT2 negative and positive gate current.
Fig.2.52 Mode 4 - MT2 negative and negative gate current
It is clear from the above four operating modes, TRIAC can be switched into on-state by either positive
or negative gate current, though the device is more sensitive if positive gate current is injected when
MT2 is positive and negative gate current is injected when MT2 is negative. At present TRIACs are
available with voltage rating about 1200V and current rating about 300A. TRIACs are widely used in
lamp dimmers, heat control and speed control of single-phase ac motors. The comparison between
DIAC and TRIAC is given in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 Comparison between DIAC and TRIAC
Sr. No. DIAC TRIAC

1. DIAC is a two-terminal device TRIAC is a three-terminal device
2. Break over voltage of DIAC cannot Break over voltage of TRIAC can be controlled
be controlled. by varying the gate current.
3. DIAC is a low power device TRIAC is a high-power device
4. This device is used as a triggering This device is used in fan speed control and
device for TRIAC illumination control etc.
2.17 Protection Circuit of Thyristor
Thyristor should always be operating within the specified voltage and current ratings for better and
reliable operation. Although in some special applications, thyristors must be subjected to over voltage
and over current. When the device is under over voltage and over current, the junction temperature can
exceed the maximum allowable temperature 150° and the device may get damage permanently.
Consequently efficient cooling methods should be used for cooling thyristor to dissipate the excess
heat into atmosphere. In turn-on and turn-off process, there is lot of power loss within the device and
device temperature increases. Power loss in the device is extensively high in high frequency
applications and the device may get damage due to temperature rise.
During the turn on process of thyristor, is reasonably large and local heating is possible within the
device. Subsequently, thyristor may get destroy. The false triggering of thyristor is possible due to high
and noise signal across gate to cathode terminals. Always thyristor must be protected from false
triggering. For standard operation of thyristor in power electronics converter circuits, the following
protections circuits are used such as over voltage protection, over current protection, snubber circuit
and crowbar circuit.
2.17.1 Over Voltage Protection
Thyristors are very sensitive to over voltage which is the main cause of failure. The transient over
voltage across thyristor can turn it on without any gate signal and the converter circuit perform
malfunction. Usually thyristor is able to withstand in external over voltage and internal over voltage.
External over voltage: If the current flow in an inductive circuit is interrupted, external over-voltage
appears across thyristor. When the converter circuit is supplied through transformer, transient over-
voltage across thyristor occurs while transformer is energized or de-energized. Due to transient over-
voltage, thyristor may be turn on abruptly and over voltage appear across load. Accordingly, a large
fault current flows though the converter circuit and thyristors may get damage partly or completely.
Internal over voltage: Generally internal over voltage is generated during turn-off process of thyristor.
When anode current becomes zero, current starts to flow in reverse direction due to stored charges and
reaches the peak reverse recovery current. Then the reverse recovery current starts to fall abruptly with
high . Since series inductance L is present in the converter circuit, a large transient voltage . is
created and thyristor will be damaged due to large transient over-voltage.
Usually voltage clamping devices namely varistor can be used to protect thyristors from over-voltage.
In fact varistor is a non-linear resistance when the current increases its resistance value decreases. The
V-I characteristics of varistor is shown in Fig.2.53. and action of current limiting fuse is illustrated in
Fig.2.54.
Fig.2.53 V-I characteristics of varistor
Fig.2.54 Function of current limiting switch
2.17.2 Over Current Protection:
Over current may damage thyristor due to the junction temperature exceeding rated value. Therefore
there is a need of over current protection. In any electrical circuit, generally current is limited by fuses
or circuit breakers. Each thryristor has I2Rt rating for protection from over current. In fact a fuse is
placed in series with each device to protect it. Fig.2.55 shows the over current protection.
Fig.2.55 Thyristor protection
2.17.3 Snubber Circuit
Once a voltage is applied across anode to cathode of a thyristor and anode is positive with respect to
cathode, and junctions are forward biased and junction is reverse biased. In fact the reverse
biased junction behaves as capacitor. Subsequently holes from p-region of junction are
accumulated at junction and electrons from n-layer of junction are also accumulated at the other
side of junction . Consequently, space charge carriers are present across the junction . If a large
voltage is applied abruptly, charging current flows through thyristor and the device will be turned on
without gate signal. This is the unnecessary triggering of thyristor.
The charging current is = (2.21)
The equation (2.21) can be written as = = + (2.22)
(as = )
Since = 0, ic  (2.23)
Generally, rating of thyristor is about 20 to 500 . When is more than it’s rated value, thyristor
will be turned on and this is the abnormal triggering of thyristor. Then thyristor based converter circuit
starts to malfunction. So a snubber circuit should be connected in parallel with thyristor to protect from
Basically a snubber circuit consists of a series combination of a resistance and a capacitance and
it is connected in parallel with thyristor as shown in Fig.2.56. When a capacitor is connected in
parallel with thyristor, the capacitor itself is sufficient to protect from unwanted abnormal triggering
of thyristor.
Fig.2.56 Snubber circuit connected across thyristor (T)

If the switch S is closed at = 0, abruptly the input voltage Vs appears across the circuit and the
capacitor behaves as short circuit. So the voltage across thyristor is zero. There after the voltage across
capacitor builds up slowly with a , which is much less than the specified maximum . Accordingly
is sufficient to prevent the thyristor from triggering.
While the gate pulse is not applied and is less than its maximum limit, thyristor will be in off-state
and capacitor is charged to supply voltage . If thyristor is turned on by gate pulse, the capacitor starts
to discharge through SCR and the current flows through the path formed by capacitor and thyristor
is = ( is the resistance of thyristor during forward conduction state).
As is quite low, the during turn-on will be very high and thyristor may be permanently damaged.
Consequently current must be a safe value while a series resistance is connected with the capacitor
.
Whenever the switch S is closed, capacitor is short circuit and SCR operates in forward blocking state,
the equivalent circuit of Fig.2.56 is shown in Fig.2.57.
Fig.2.57 Equivalent circuit of snubber circuit
Using KVL in the circuit, we get = ( + )+ . (2.24)
The solution of equation (2.22) is = 1− (2.25)
Since = and = , = 1− (2.26)
After differentiating the equation (2.26), we obtain
= = = (2.27)
At t=0, is maximum and = (2.28)
The voltage across SCR is = (2.29)
After differentiating the equation (2.29), we find = (2.30)
Then = | =
So = | (2.31)
The R-L-C circuit should be analyzed to find the optimum values of and of snubber circuit.
After analyzed, we find the values of and are
=2 and = (2.32)
where, is the damping factor and it is about 0.5 to 1.
For more on snubber

circuit
Example 2.5 Consider a SCR is operating with a rms supply voltage of 220V and it has the
repetitive peak current = 80 , |

, and |
.
Design a snubber circuit for SCR protection. Assume that factor of safety is 2 and minimum value of
resistance is 25 .
Solution:
Since factor of safety is 2, the permissible value of = = 40 , |

= , |
=
To limit the value of within , a inductance L should be connected in series with thyristor
|
√ ×
and its value is = = = 6.22
|
. ×
The value of = | = × =5
√
If the SCR is in the blocking state, capacitor will be charged to maximum voltage 220√2V. When
the SCR is turned on, the peak current flows through the SCR is
√ √
+ = 77.77
The maximum permissible peak current is 40A. Therefore, the value of RS should be such that, the
peak current is less than 40A.
Assume = 15 , then the peak current flows through the SCR is
√ √
+ = 33.18
If the damping factor = 0.7, the value of capacitance is

× .
= = × 6.22 × 10 =0.054
The parameter of snubber circuit is = 15 and =0.054
2.17.4 Crowbar Circuit
Fig.2.58 shows the crowbar protection circuit. A crowbar thyristor is connected across dc supply. If
over current flows through converter circuit and current sensing resistance generates voltage which is
greater than preset value, triggering circuit generates triggering pulse which is applied to the crowbar
thyristor. Then crowbar thyristor will be turn-on. Since thyristor becomes turn-on and dc supply will be
short circuited, fuse will be blown due to high current and interrupt the fault current to protect thyristor.
Sometimes fuse may be replaced by circuit breaker for thyristor protection.
Fig.2.58 Crowbar protection circuit
EXERCISE
2.1 SCR is a _______ layer device
(a) two (b) three (c) four (d) five
2.2 The number of pn junctions in a SCR is
(a) 4 (b) 3 (c) 2 (d) 1
2.3 A SCR is a _______ layer device
(a) (b) (a) (a)

2.4 When anode terminal of SCR is positive with respect to cathode, the number of
forward biased junctions are
(a) 3 (b) 2 (c) 1 (d) 4
2.5 If SCR is forward biased, the number of reverse biased junctions are
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
2.6 If anode terminal of SCR is negative with respect to cathode, the number of blocked p-n
junctions are
(a) 4 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 1
2.7 The doping density of n region near cathode is
(a) 10 (b) 10 (c) 10 (d) 10
2.8 The anode current flows in a SCR due to
(a) electrons only (b) holes only (c) electrons or holes (d) electrons and holes
2.9 When the gate circuit is open, SCR operating state can be changed from forward blocking state
to forward conducting state if
(a) the applied voltage is greater than reverse break down voltage
(b) the applied voltage is greater than forward break over voltage
(c ) the applied voltage is 1.0 V
(d) the applied voltage is greater than peak repetitive reverse voltage
2.10 In a SCR, the latching is
(a) equal to holding current (b) greater than holding current
(c) less than holding current (d) None of these
2.11 The turn on time of SCR is equal to
(a) delay time (b) rise time (c) spread time
(d) sum of delay time, rise time and spread time

2.12 In a SCR, turn on time is
( a) equal to turn-off time (b) greater than turn-off time (c) less than turn-off time
2.13 The ratio of latching current to holding current of thyristor is
(a) 1 (b) 1.5 (c) 2 (d) 2.5
2.14 The on-state voltage drop of a SCR is
(a) 0.7 V (b) 1V to 1.5V (c) 5V (d)10V
2.15 The typical rating of thyristor is
(a) 0.1 to 2 (b) 0.5 to 10 (c) 20 to 500 (d) 1500
2.16 The typical rating of thyristor is
(a) 0.1 to 10 (b) 0.5 to 5 (c) 20 to 500 (d) 1500
2.17 Snubber circuit is used for ________ protection of thyristor
(a) (b) (c) over current (d) over voltage
2.18 Thyristor can be used as
(a) bidirectional switch (b) unidirectional switch (c) either bidirectional or unidirectional switch
(d) none of these
2.19 The parameters of snubber circuit are
(a) =2 and = (b) =2 and =
(c) =2 and = (d) =2 and =
2.20 In a UJT with voltage across two base terminals, the emitter potential at the peak point is
given by
(a) = + (b) = (c) = − (d) = +
2.21 A DIAC is used
(a) in triggering circuit of a TRIAC (b) for protection of a TRIAC
(c) to increase efficiency of a TRIAC (d) to decrease efficiency of a TRIAC

2.22 The snubber circuit is used in a thyristor
(a) to limit the value of (b) to limit the value of
(c) to limit both the value of and (d) to turn on and turn off
2.23 The three terminals of TRIAC are
(a) Base, emitter, collector
(b) Base 1, Base 2 and emitter (c) Anode, cathode and gate
(d) MT1, MT2 and gate
2.24 Thyristor is equivalent to
(a) two transistors (b) two diodes (c) two DIAC (d) two MOSFET
2.25 TRIAC is equivalent to
(a) two transistors (b) two Thyristors (c) two DIAC (d) two MOSFET
Answers of multiple choice questions
2.1 (c) 2.2 (b) 2.3 (a) 2.4 (b) 2.5(a) 2.6 (b) 2.7 (d) 2.8 (d) 2.9 (b) 2.10 (b)
2.11 (d) 2.12 (c) 2.13 (d) 2.14 (b) 2.15(c) 2.16 (c) 2.17 (b) 2.18 (b) 2.19 (d) 2.20 (d)
2.21 (a) 2.22 (b) 2.23 (d) 2.24 (a) 2.25(b)
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Short Answer Type Questions
2.26 What is SCR?
2.27 What is thyristor?
2.28 What are the different names of thyristors ?
2.29 What is the symbol of thyristor?
2.30 What are the necessary conditions for turning on of a thyristor?
2.31 What are the types of switching characteristics of SCR?
2.32 What are the different modes of operation of a thyristor?
2.33 Define (a) delay time (b) rise time (c) spread time (d) reverse recovery time
2.34 Define the following ratings of thyristor
(a) on state voltage drop (b) voltage safety factor
(c) latching current (d) holding current (e) rating
2.35 Why turn-on time is less than turn-off time in a thyristor?
2.36 Why protection circuit is required during operation of thyristor?
2.37 Draw the V-I characteristics of LASCR and GTO
2.38 What are the advantages of GTO over thyristors?
2.39 What is a summer circuit?
2.40 State the applications of UJT and PUT
Long Answer Type Questions
2.41 Draw the structure of a SCR and explain its operating principle briefly.
2.42 Describe the behaviour of thyristor using a two-transistor model.
2.43 In two transistor model of SCR, prove that anode current of SCR is equal to
= ( )
2.44 Draw the V-I characteristics of a SCR and explain different operating regions.
2.45 What is the effect of gate current on the V-I characteristics of a SCR?
2.46 Draw the turn-on characteristics of SCR and explain briefly?
2.47 Draw the turn-off characteristics of SCR and explain in brief?
2.48 State the turn-on and turn-off time of SCR.
2.49 Draw the gate characteristics of a thyristor and explain its importance.
2.50 What are the different protection schemes of thyristor?
2.51 What is purpose of protection and protection?
2.52 Write short notes on
(a) over voltage protection (b) over current protection
2.53 Explain the design method of a snubber circuit.

2.54 Describe the crowbar protection circuit for the over current protection of thyristors.
2.55 Define (a) peak voltage (b) valley voltage (c) stand-off ratio of UJT
2.56 Explain the operating principle of DIAC with proper diagram.
2.57 Draw the V-I characteristics of a DIAC. What are the applications of DIAC?
2.58 What is TRIAC? Explain the operating principle of TRIAC with proper diagram.
2.59 Draw the V-I characteristics of a TRIAC and explain different operating regions.
2.60 Give a list of applications of TRIAC
Problems
2.61 The turn-on and turn-off time of SCR are 3.7 and 6.3 respectively, compute the maximum
switching frequency of SCR in a converter circuit.
2.62 The average gate power dissipation of a SCR is = 0.5 . When the gate voltage varies
from 2.5 V to 9.5V, plot the curve where gate voltage is a function of gate current. Assume average
gate power dissipation is constant.
2.63 The gate characteristics of a SCR is = 1 + 4.5 . If a rectangular pulse of 10V with 25 is
applied to gate, determine (a) the series connected resistance in gate, (b) triggering frequency and (c)
duty cycle. Assume average power dissipation is 0. 45Watt and peak gate drive power is 4Watt
2.64 If a SCR is operating with a peak supply voltage of 210√2V and it has the following
parameters:
repetitive peak current = 100 , , and .

| |
Design a snubber circuit for thyristor protection. Assume the factor of safety is 2 and the minimum
value of resistance is 20 .
2.65 In a thyristor the capacitance value of reverse-biased junction J2 is = 50 and it is

independent of the off-state voltage. The limit value of the charging current to turn the thyristor is
about 20mA. Determine the critical value of .

PRACTICAL
1. Experiment on Test the proper functioning of DIAC to determine the break over voltage
Aim:
To study the V-I characteristics of a DIAC in both directions, first and third quadrant operation of DIAC
and determine break over voltages.
Apparatus:
Regulated dc power supply 0-50V, Digital voltmeter/multi-meter 0-50V DC, Digital ammeter/multi-
meter 0-100mA; DIAC-DB3/DB4, and Resistance R1=1kΩ, 10W
Circuit Diagram:
(a)
(b)
Fig.2.59 Circuit diagram for test the proper functioning of DIAC to determine the break over voltage
(a) MT1 is positive with respect to MT2 (b) MT2 is positive with respect to MT1
Theory:
DIAC is a member of the thyristor family. This device consists of three layers and two terminals MT1
and MT2. The construction of DIAC is almost same as that of the transistor, but there are certain
deviations from the construction of the transistor. The discriminating points are: (i) there is no base
terminal in the DIAC, (ii) the three regions have almost same level of doping, and (iii) DIAC has
symmetrical switching characteristics for either polarity of voltages. DIAC can be turned on or off for
both the polarity of voltages. This device operates when avalanche breakdown occurs. The detail
construction of DIAC is explained in section 2.16.1 and V-I characteristics described in section 2.16.2
in detail. This device can be used in the TRIAC triggering circuit, lamp dimmer circuit, fan regulator,
and temperature controller. The advantage of using DIAC is that it can be turned on or off simply by
controlling the applied voltage level about break over voltage.
Precautions:
1.Initially all the knobs of the power supplies are at zero value.
2.The applied voltage and current should not be more than the maximum rating of Power BJT.
3.Reading of observation should be error free.
Procedure
(a) First Quadrant Operation of DIAC (MT2 is positive with respect to MT1)
(i) Make the circuit connection as per the circuit diagram
(ii) Switch on regulated dc power supply
(iii) Increase voltage of dc power supply (Vs) in steps of 2V and measure V and I of DIAC
(iv) Increase voltage of dc power supply (Vs) till current (I) increases with sudden drop in
voltage across DIAC. The maximum voltage at which DIAC is turned on, is called the
break over voltage VBO.
(v) Measure break over voltage VBO precisely
(vi) Take some readings of voltage and current after break over voltage
(vii) Plot V-I Characteristics in first quadrant operation of DIAC
(b) Third Quadrant Operation of DIAC (MT1 is positive with respect to MT2)
(i) Reverse the polarity of regulated dc power supply and meters or reverse the terminals
DIAC
(ii) Repeat steps (iii) to (vi) as per (a)
(iii) Plot V-I Characteristics in third quadrant operation of DIAC
Observation Table:
Table 2.3 Observation table to test the proper functioning of DIAC to determine the break over
voltage
Sr.No. MT2 is positive with respect to MT1 MT1 is positive with respect to MT2
V (Volts) I (mA) V (Volts) I (mA)

VIVA Questions Related to DIAC
1. Explain the different working mode of operation of DIAC

1. Determine first quadrant break over voltage and third quadrant break over voltage
2. Write specifications of the DIAC from the manufacturer data sheet
2. Experiment on determine the latching and holding current using V-I characteristics of SCR
Aim:
To study the V-I characteristics of a SCR and determine the latching and holding current using V-I
characteristics of SCR.
Apparatus:
Regulated dc power supply 0-50V; Regulated dc power supply 0-30V; Digital voltmeter 0-50V DC,
Digital ammeter 0-30mA; Digital ammeter 0-150mA; SCR-SN 104/TYN604, Resistance
R2=RL=10kΩ,10W, R3= 1kΩ,10W, R1=RG=3.3kΩ,0.5W
Circuit Diagram:
Fig.2.60 Circuit diagram to determine the latching and holding current using V-I characteristics of SCR.
Theory:
SCR is a unidirectional semiconductor device. It has three terminals namely anode (A), cathode (K) and
gate (G). SCR is a four-layer as p-n-p-n and three junctional devices. The construction of SCR is
described in section 2.2 and V-I characteristics of SCR is explained in section 2.3. SCRs are commonly
used for home appliance control such as lighting, temperature control, fan speed regulator etc. and
for industrial applications, SCRs are used to control motor speed, battery charging and power
conversions.
Precautions:
1.Initially all the knobs of the power supplies are at zero value.
2.The applied voltage and current should not be more than the maximum rating of SCR.
3.Reading of observation should be error free.
Procedure
(a) Forward characteristics of SCR

(iii) SCR must be in off state with open gate and IG=0 mA
(iv) Increase power supply voltage across anode to cathode (VAK) gradually and when IA flows
then VAK is called as forward break over voltage VBO
(v) Set IG=2mA, increase VAK gradually till SCR turns on and measure VAK and IA
(vi) Set IG at different value and repeat step (v)
(vii) Plot IA versus VAK for various values of IG on graph paper
(b) To determine latching current of SCR
(i) Apply VAK to any suitable value which is less than forward break over voltage
(ii) Apply gate current to turn-on the SCR
(iii) After the SCR is turned-on, remove gate current
(iv) SCR remains ON and increase the value of resistance RL
(v) As the value of RL is increased, IA will be decreased and measure lowest value of IA at which
SCR remains ON
(vi) The measured lowest value of IA is called the latching current.
(c) To determine holding current of SCR
i) Apply VAK to any suitable value which is less than forward break over voltage and
increase gate current gradually to turn on the SCR and absolutely small IA flows through
it.
ii) Remove gate current if SCR turns off, then as per step-(i) a minimum IA flows through the
SCR., and it is called holding current IH.
iii) Gradually increase RL and IA will decrease
iv) Measure the lowest value of IA at which SCR will be turns off. This is called holding
current IH.
Observation Table:
Table 2.4 Observation table for determine the latching and holding current using V-I characteristics
of SCR.
Sr. No. IG1= in mA IG2= in mA IG3= in mA
VAK in Volt IA in mA VAK in Volt IA in mA VAK in Volt IA in mA
Related Questions
1. Write specifications of SCR from manufacturer data sheet

2. Define forward break down voltage, holding current and latching current
3. Mention some applications of SCR
KNOW MORE
Thyristors can take several forms, but they have certain things in common. All of thyristor
family devices are solid state switches which act as open circuits with forward rated voltage
blocking capability until triggering pulse is applied. Whenever thyristors are triggered, they
provides low-impedance current paths and remain in conduction state until the current stops or
falls below the holding level. Most commonly used thyristor family devices such as SCR,
LASCR, SCS, GTO, UJT, PUT, DIAC and TRIAC are already described in this unit. Field-
controlled thyristors (FCTs) is a new family of power semiconductor device. To study the
operating principle and application circuits of FCTs, please scan the QR code.
For more on Field

Controlled
Thyristor (FCT)
References:
1. Ramamoorty M., An Introduction to Thyristor and their applications, East-West Press Pvt. Ltd,
New Delhi
2. Sugandhi, Rajendra Kumar and Sugandhi, Krishna Kumar, Thyristors: Theory and Applications,
New Age International (P) ltd. publishers, New Delhi
3. Bhattacharya, S.K., Fundamental of Power Electronics, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. Noida
4. Jain & Alok, Power Electronics and its Applications, Penram International Publishing(India) Pvt.
Ltd, Mumbai
5. Rashid, Muhammad, Power Electronics Circuits Devices and Applications, Pearson Education
India, Noida
6. Sing, M.D. and Khanchandani, K.B., Power Electronics, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd, New
Delhi
7. Zbar, Paul B., Industrial Electronics: A Text-Lab manual, McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd, New
Delhi

Turn-on and Turn-off
3 Methods of Thyristors
UNIT SPECIFIES
 SCR turn-on methods

 High voltage triggering, thermal triggering, illumination triggering, dv/dt triggering and
gate triggering
 Gate triggering circuits- R and RC circuits, SCR triggering using UJT
 PUT as Relaxation oscillator and synchronized UJT circuit
 Pulse transformer and opto-coupler based triggering
 SCR turn-off methods
The practical applications of the topics are discussed for generating further curiosity and creativity as
well as improving problem solving capacity of learners.
questions of short and long answer types marked in two categories following lower and higher order
of Bloom’s taxonomy, assignments through a number of numerical problems. A list of references and
suggested readings are illustrated in this unit so that learners can go through them for practice and
get detailed knowledge. It is also be noted that some QR codes have been incorporated in different
sections of this unit for getting more information on various topics of interest.
development of the power electrics devices focusing the salient observations and finding, timelines
starting from the development of the concerned topics up to the recent time, applications of the
subject matter for our day-to-day life, and industrial applications of power electronics devices.
RATIONALE
This unit on “turn-on and turn-off methods of thyristors” can be able to provide detail information
regarding different turn-on methods of SCR such as high voltage triggering, thermal triggering,
illumination triggering, dv/dt triggering and gate triggering. Gate triggering is most commonly used in
modern industry for the control and conversion of electrical power. This unit can help students to get
a primary idea about gate trigger circuits, R and RC circuits, SCR triggering using UJT, PUT as Relaxation
oscillator and synchronized UJT circuit and Pulse transformer and opto-coupler based triggering. The
different SCR turn–off methods such as class A- resonant commutation circuit, class B-shunt resonant
commutation circuit, class C-complimentary symmetry commutation circuit, class D-auxiliary
commutation, class E-external pulse commutation and class F-line or natural commutation are
described in detail to help students to know about the recent development of turn-off methods of
thyristors.
PRE-REQUISITES
UNIT OUTCOMES
U3-O1: To explain turn-on methods of SCR
U3-O2: To understand the concept of high voltage triggering, thermal triggering, illumination
triggering, dv/dt triggering and gate triggering
U3-O3: To design gate triggering circuits, R and RC circuits and SCR triggering using UJT
U3-O4: To discuss PUT as Relaxation oscillator and synchronized UJT circuit
U3-O5: To explain pulse transformer and opto-coupler based triggering
U3-O6: To provide a list of SCR turn-off methods
U3-O5: To discuss about construction, working principle and V-I characteristics of IGBT
U3-O6: To provide a list of SCR turn-off methods
U3-O7: To understand the concept of class A- resonant commutation, class B-shunt resonant
commutation and class C-complimentary symmetry commutation
U3-O8: To explain class D-auxiliary commutation, class E-external pulse commutation and class F-line
or natural commutation
Turn-on and Turn-off Methods of Thyristors | 155

U3-O1 - - 3 - -
U3-O2 - 2 3 - -
U3-O3 - 2 3 - -
U3-O4 - 2 3 - -
U3-O5 - 2 3 2 2
U3-O6 - - 3 - -
U3-O7 - 2 3 - -
U3-O8 - 2 3 2 2
3.1 Introduction
Thyristor is a unidirectional switching device. It can be switched from off-state to on-state by forward
voltage triggering, dv/dt triggering, temperature triggering, high voltage thermal triggering and gate
triggering. Thryristor can be turned-off by natural commutation and forced commutation techniques.
In this chapter, different turn-on and turn-off methods of thyristors are discussed elaborately.
3.2 TURN-ON METHODS of Thyristors
Thyristors can be turned on by different methods such as (i) High forward voltage triggering (ii)
Thermal triggering, (iii) illumination triggering (iv) dv/dt triggering and (v) gate triggering. In this
section, the above turn-on methods of thyristors are explained in detail.
3.2.1 High Forward Voltage Triggering
Whenever the applied voltage across anode to cathode is greater than the forward break-down
voltage VBD, the leakage current flow through anode to cathode and it can lead to a regenerative
action. Subsequently, thyristor will be turned on. In reality, high forward voltage triggering type of
turn on method is destructive and must be avoided.
3.2.2 Thermal Triggering
If the temperature of thyristor increases, the large numbers of electron-hole pairs are generated. Since
the minority carriers moves freely and cross the junction J2, the reverse leakage current increases.
After crossing the junction, these minority carriers are accelerated and strike the covalent bond and
generate more electron hole pairs. This increases the leakage currents and 1 and  2 increases. Due
to regenerative action, 1 +  2 increases towards unity and the thyristor will be turned on. In fact,
N1 and P2 layers have large number of thermally generated carriers and the device is turned on.
Generally this method of triggering is not used for turn-on thyristors as it increases junction
temperature and the voltage withstand capability is reduced. In this method of triggering, thermal
runway is developed with in the device and therefore this method of triggering is normally avoided.
3.2.3 Illumination or Optical Triggering
When a beam of light falls on the junction J2 of the thyristor, it generates the electron-hole pairs. The
generated minority carriers cross the blocking junction J2 and reach P2. Due to high electric field,
minority carriers are accelerated and strike the covalent bond of silicon wafer and generate more
electron-hole pairs. Therefore the regenerative action takes place and the device is turned on. In fact
this method of triggering is used in LASCR. This method of triggering is used for HVDC transmission
system, static VAR compensation system where current as well as voltage rating are high.
3.2.4 dV / dt Triggering
When thyristor is forward biased, the junction J2 is reverse biased and Junction J1 and J3 are forward
biased. The reverse biased voltage across J2 blocks the conduction of device. The depletion of junction
J2 provides large capacitance. If the rate of change of voltage across anode to cathode is high, the
charging current ICJ 2  C J 2 (dVAK / dt ) increases and it flows though P2 just like the gate current is
supplied from gate terminal. Then the device is turned on. A high value of charging current may
destroy the device. So, thyristors must be protected from high dV / dt . In fact, the snubber circuit
is used for dV / dt protection.
3.2.5 Gate Triggering
The gate triggering is most commonly used to turn on thyristors. When the thyristor is forward biased
and a positive gate voltage is applied between gate and cathode, gate current flows through gate and
the thyristor will be turn on. For successful triggering of thyristor, the applied gate voltage V g and gate
current I g must be close to their maximum value but always less than maximum value. If the gate
current increases, the forward blocking voltage capability of thyristor decreases.

For more on Turn-on

methods of SCR
Example 3.1 What are the different conditions to turn on a thyristor?
Solution: The following conditions must be satisfied to turn-on a thyristor
(i) Thyristor must be forward biased and anode potential must be positive with respect to
cathode.
(ii) The width of gate pulse must be greater than the turn-on time of thyristor.
(iii) Anode current must be greater than latching current when the gate signal is removed.
(iv) Anode to cathode voltage must be greater than finger voltage.
(v) Amplitude of gate current must be more than the minimum gate current which is required
to turn on SCR.
(vi) Amplitude of gate current must be less than the maximum permissible gate current so that
gate circuit may not be damaged.
(vii) The gate triggering must be synchronized with ac supply in case of applications like
controlled rectifier.
3.3 GATE TRIGGER CIRCUITS FOR THYRISTORS
Thyristor can be turned-on by forward-voltage triggering, dv/ dt triggering, temperature triggering,

light triggering and gate triggering. From these triggering methods, forward-voltage triggering, dv/ dt
triggering, and temperature triggering are not used to control output of any controlled rectifier circuit
as these methods are not normal triggering. Illumination triggering is used in some special applications
such as series-parallel connected thyristors. The most commonly used triggering method is gate
triggering as by using this method, we can properly control the turn-on of thyristors as well as output
voltage of converter. The gate triggering method is most efficient and reliable method to turn-on
thyristors. To turn on thyristor from its forward blocking state, a gate signal of appropriate wave shape
and frequency should be applied between gate and cathode.
During gate triggering, thyristor is forward biased and anode is positive with respect to cathode. When
a voltage is applied at the gate terminal, thyristor will be turned-on. The gate voltage may be a slow-
rising rectified voltage or a sharp single pulse with constant amplitude dc voltage and high frequency
pulse voltage as shown in Fig.3.1. Thyristor will be turned-on as soon as gate voltage V g is greater
than the required critical gate trigger voltage VgT . At  t   , voltage V g is equal to VgT and the
thyristor will be triggered at  t   . Subsequently the firing angle of thyristor is  .
Fig.3.1 Triggering signals of a thyristor
Fig.3.2. shows an ideal gate current waveform. The initial high amplitude and fast rise in gate current
can able to turn-on the thyristor. Generally, a continuous gate voltage is required for thyristor. If
thyristor is already turned-on, there is no requirement of gate signal after successful triggering of
thyristor. The gate voltage signal can be generated by a gate-drive which is called firing circuit for
thyristors. The different type of triggering circuits are (i) Resistance (R) triggering circuit, (ii)
Resistance capacitance (RC) triggering circuit, (iii) Uni-junction transistor triggering circuit, (iv) UJT
relaxation oscillator triggering circuit, (v) synchronized UJT circuit, and (vi) pulse transformer and
opto-coupler based triggering.
Fig.3.2 Gate current waveform
3.4 Resistance Triggering Circuit
The simplest triggering circuit of thyristor is resistance triggering circuit as shown in Fig.3.3. R1 is the
variable resistance, R2 is the stabilizing resistance. If R1 is zero, the gate current flows through Rmin ,
D , gate–cathode, load and source. This current should not be greater than maximum permissible gate
current I gm
Vm
 I gm (3.1)
Rmin
Vm
Therefore Rmin  (3.2)
I gm
where, Vm is the maximum source voltage.
Fig.3.4 shows the voltage waveforms of resistance triggering circuit of SCR. In positive half cycle of
input voltage and at  t   , the voltage applied at gate terminal is greater than VgT . Before turn-on
of thyristor, the input voltage is applied to thyristor and operates in forward blocking state. The value
of R2 should be such that the maximum voltage across it is not greater than gate voltage Vgm .
R2
So, Vm  Vgm (3.3)
Rmin  R1  R2
Fig.3.3 Resistance triggering circuit of SCR
Fig.3.4 Voltage waveforms of resistance triggering circuit of SCR
As R1 and R2 are very large, the gate trigger circuit draws small current. Due to presence of diode D,
the current flows in positive half cycle only. The amplitude of voltage is controlled by VgT . If R1 is
very large and voltage across R2 is Vg  iR2 . When the peak value of V g is less than VgT , thyristor will
not be turned-on. Consequently, the output voltage is equal to zero.
While R1 is reduced, ig current increases, V g exceeds VgT and thyristor can be turn-on.
At  t   , Vgp sin   VgT (3.4)

VgT
and   sin1 ( ) (3.5)
Vgp
R
If Vgp  Vm (3.6)
R  R1  R2
VgT R  R1  R2
Firing angle will be   sin 1 ( ) (3.7)
Vm R
Since VgT , R1 , R, Vm are constant,   sin 1 ( R2 ) (3.8)
Therefore,   R2 (3.9)
Thus the firing angle of thyristor is directly proportional to R2 . When R2 increases, the firing angle
of thyristor  increases. The maximum limit of firing angle though resistance triggering circuit is
  90 . Here   0 is not possible, the range of firing angle will be represented by 90    0 .
The resistance triggering circuit can be used for Triac. If diode D is removed and the triggering signal
will be available at the gate terminal during both positive and negative half cycles.
3.5 Resistance Capacitance Triggering Circuit
Fig.3.5 shows a resistance capacitance triggering circuit and voltage wave forms are given in Fig.3.6.
During the negative half cycle of supply voltage, capacitor C charges through diode D2 to the negative
peak value of supply voltage (  Vm ). At t  90 , Vc  Vm . After t  90 , the supply voltage
starts to increase from  Vm to zero. At t  0 , the supply voltage is equal to zero. During
 90  t  0 , the capacitor voltage decreases and finally falls to OA. At t  0 , Vc  OA . Just
after t  0 , the supply voltage is positive and capacitor starts to charge though variable resistance R.
Whenever the capacitor voltage reaches B and holds the positive voltage during the positive half cycle
of supply voltage, the capacitor voltage Vc at point B is greater than V gT and thyristor will be turned
on. Thus the firing angle can be controlled by varying resistance R.
In this circuit, diode D1 is used to flow current in positive direction only. Therefore it prevents the
breakdown of cathode to gate junction in negative half-cycle. Using the resistance capacitance
triggering circuit, firing angle will never become 0 and 180 . The control range of firing angle is
0    180 . In a resistance capacitance triggering circuit firing circuit, the following condition must
be satisfied:
1.3T 4
RC   (3.10)
2 
1
where, T  = time period of ac line frequency in seconds
f
Fig.3.5 Resistance capacitance triggering circuit of SCR
Fig.3.6 Voltage waveforms of resistance capacitance triggering circuit of SCR
Thyristor will be turned on when capacitor voltage is equal to Vc  V gT  V d (3.11)
where, Vd is the voltage drop across diode D1.
Since the capacitor voltage drop is constant at the instant of triggering, the gate current I gT must be
flow through R, D1 and gate-cathode of thyristor.
The maximum value of R can be determined by the following equation
V  I gT R  Vc (3.12)
Therefore, after substituting Vc  V gT  V d in the equation (3.12), we obtain
V  I gT R  V gT  Vd (3.13)
V  V gT  Vd
So, R  (3.14)
I gT
Where, V is the voltage at which thyristor will be turned on.
If the thyristor is turned on and operates in conduction state, the on-state voltage drop across thyristor
is about 1V to 1.5V. Consequently, the voltage drop across R and C will also be reduced to the value
of 1V to 1.5V until the negative half cycle voltage appears across C. During the negative half cycle of
supply voltage, the capacitor is charged to the maximum voltage (  V m ). When the value of R is less,
firing angle of thyristor is less and conduction angle is more. If R is increased, firing angle increases
and conduction angle decreases.
For more on Triggering

Circuits
Example 3.2 In resistance triggering circuit as shown in Fig.3.3, I g (min)  0.12mA and
V g (min)  0.6V . If the peak amplitude of input voltage is 210V, find the trigger angle  for
R1  100k and Rmin  10k
Solution:
The KVL equation of gate circuit is
V  I g ( R min  R1 )  V D  V g
At the point of trigger,
V  I g ( Rmin  R1 )  VD  Vg  0.12  103 (10 103  100  103 )  0.7  0.6 V
= 13.8 V
If the firing angle of thyristor is  , 13.8  210sin
 13.8 
Then   sin 1    3.76
 210 
Example 3.3 A 220V, 50Hz ac supply is connected to a resistance capacitance triggering circuit. If the
resistance R is variable from 2k to 20k , V gT  2V and C  0.47 F , what is the minimum and
maximum firing angle?
Solution:
The current flow through capacitance C is equal to
V 1 2
I where Z  R2  ( )
Z C
1 2 1
(i) If R2  2k , Z  R2  ( )  2000 2  ( ) 2 = 7064.98 
C 2  50  0.47  10 6
1 / C 6775 .98
and   tan  1  tan  1 = 73.55
R1 2000
V 2200
The current I leads V by an angle  , I    0.0311373.55
Z 7064.98  73.55
The voltage across capacitor is
VC  IX C  0.0311373.55  6775.98  90 = 210.93 16.45
So, vC  2  210.93 sin(t  16.45)
At t  1 , v C  2  210 . 58 sin(  1  16 . 45 )  2
2
Therefore,  1  sin 1  16.45  16.75
2  210.93
1 2 1
(ii) If R2  20k , Z  R2  ( )  20000 2  ( )2
C 2  50  0.47  10 6
= 21116.67 
1 / C 6775 .98
and   tan  1  tan  1 = 18.71
R1 20000
V 2200
The current I leads V by an angle  , I    0.010417 18.71
Z 21116 .67  18.71
The voltage across capacitor is
VC  IX C  0.01041718.71  6775.98  90 = 70.58  71.29
So, vC  2  70.58 sin(t  71.29)

At t  1 , vC  2  70.58 sin(1  71.29)  2
2
Therefore,  1  sin 1  71.29  72.43
2  70.58
3.6 SCR Triggering Circuit Using UJT
SCR triggering circuit using UJT is shown in Fig.3.7. In this circuit, the values of external resistances R1
and R2 are smaller than the values of internal resistances RB1 and RB 2 of UJT. The charging resistance
R should be variable one and value of R should be such that load line must intersect the negative
resistance region of UJT characteristics. If a dc voltage V is applied, the capacitor C starts to charge
through R. During charging of capacitor C, emitter of UJT behaves as open circuit. The capacitor voltage
Vc can be expressed by
t

1
Vc  V (1  e ) (3.15)
t

RC
Therefore, Vc  V (1  e ) (3.16)
Where,  1  RC is the charging time constant of capacitor.
Fig.3.7 SCR triggering circuit using UJT
Voltage waveforms of SCR triggering circuit using UJT are shown in Fig.3.8. Whenever the capacitor
voltage VC reaches the threshold voltage V p , the junction between E-B1 will get break down.
Accordingly, UJT will be turned-on and capacitor C starts to discharge through resistance R1. The
discharging time constant is  2  R1C . Here  2 is smaller than  1 . As the emitter voltage decreases to
valley voltage Vv , emitter current falls below I v . Subsequently, UJT will be turned off.
Fig.3.8 Voltage waveforms of SCR triggering circuit using UJT
The threshold voltage is equal to
t

RC
V p  V  VD  Vv  V (1  e ) (3.17)
t

RC
Where, VD  Vv and   (1  e )
T

At t  T ,   (1  e RC
) (3.18)
1 1
So, T  RC ln( ) (3.19)
f 1 
The firing angle is equal to
1
1  T  RC ln( ) (3.20)
1 
where,  is the angular frequency of UJT oscillator.
When the output pulse of UJT oscillator is used to trigger thyristor, R1 should be small so that the
normal leakage current drop must be less than Vp and UJT will not be triggered.
R1
So, V  SCR trigger voltage VgT (3.21)
R BB  R1  R2
Where, RBB  RB1  RB 2
The value of R2  10 4 / V and the width of triggering pulse is equal to R1C .

The maximum value of R can be computed from the peak voltage Vp and peak current Ip . When the
voltage across capacitor is Vp , the voltage across R is equal to V  V p .
So, Rmax  (V  V p ) / I p  [V  (V  VD )] / I p (3.22)
The minimum value of R can be determined from valley point voltage and current values Vv and I v
Rmin  (V  Vv ) / I v (3.23)
3.7 PUT: Relaxation Oscillator

Relaxation oscillator is the most common application of a programmable UJT. PUT relaxation oscillator
can be used to generate a wide range of saw tooth wave forms. It is known as a relaxation oscillator
as the timing interval is started by the gradual charging of a capacitor and the timing interval is
terminated by the sudden discharge of the same capacitor. The circuit diagram of PUT as relaxation
oscillator is shown in Fig.3.9.
Fig.3.9 PUT as relaxation oscillator
Resistors R1 and R2 are connected in series and set the peak voltage (Vp) and intrinsic standoff ratio
(η) of the PUT. Resistor Rk is used to limit cathode current of the PUT. Resistor R and capacitor C are
used to set the frequency of the oscillator. Once the supply voltage Vbb is applied, the capacitor C
starts to charge through resistor R. When the voltage across the capacitor C exceeds the peak voltage
(Vp), the PUT operates into negative resistance region of V-I characteristics of PUT and it creates a low
resistance path from anode to cathode. Thereafter the capacitor discharges through the path R-C.
Whenever the voltage across the capacitor C is less than the valley point voltage (Vv), the PUT revert
back to its initial condition. Then capacitor C starts to charge again and the cycle is repeated
accordingly. Fig.3.10 shows the charging and discharging of capacitor as a saw tooth waveform.
Fig.3.10 Charging and discharging of capacitor as a saw tooth waveform
The frequency of oscillation of a PUT relaxation oscillator is equal to
f = 1/ (RC ln(1/(1-η)) (3.24)
where, f is the frequency, η is the intrinsic standoff ratio, R is the resistance and C is the capacitance.
3.8 Synchronized UJT Circuit.
A synchronised UJT Circuit for triggering thyristor is shown in Fig.3.11. This circuit consists of a
bridge rectifier using four diodes D1, D2, D3 and D4 and this bridge rectifier converts ac to dc. The full
wave rectified dc output voltage is obtained from bridge-rectifier. The resistance R1 and zener diode Z
are used to clip the rectified output voltage to specified voltage level VZ. The output voltage waveforms
are illustrated in Fig.3.12.
Fig. 3.11 Synchronised UJT Circuit
As output voltage is applied across RC circuit, the capacitor C is charged and its charging rate depends
on the value of resistance R. When the capacitor voltage VC reaches the threshold voltage of uni-
junction transistor ( VZ ), the emitter-base (E-B1) junction of UJT will be breakdown and the capacitor
will be discharged through primary winding of pulse transformer. Then current i flows through primary
winding of pulse transformer, a voltage will be induced in the secondary winding of pulse transformer
and it is used as triggering signal of thyristor.
During discharging of capacitor, once the capacitor voltage is less than valley voltage of UJT, E-B1
junction becomes open circuit and capacitor starts again to charge through R. The rate of capacitor
voltage can be controlled by varying the value of resistance R. By using this triggering circuit, the firing
angle is varied within range of 0 to 150 . Fig.3.13 shows the triggering circuit for single phase half
wave controlled rectifier and the generation of triggering pulse and output voltage of single phase half
wave controlled rectifier are depicted in Fig.3.12.
Fig.3.12 Generation of triggering pulse and output voltage of single phase half-wave controlled rectifier
Fig.3.13 Triggering circuit for single phase half-wave controlled rectifier using synchronized UJT
Example 3.4 The frequency of relaxation oscillator can be varied by changing the value of charging
resistance R. Compute the maximum and minimum values of R and their corresponding firing
frequencies.
Assume that   0.65 , I p  0.65mA , V p  10V , I v  2.0mA , Vv  2V , VBB  20V , and
C  0.047F
Solution:
The minimum value of R is computed from valley point voltage and current values Vv and I v
V  Vv 20  2
Rmin  =  9k
Iv 2.0  10 3
The maximum value of R is computed from peak point voltage and current values V p and I p
V  Vp 20  10
Rmax  =  15.384 k
Ip 0.65  10 3
1
We know that firing frequency f 
 1 
RC ln  
1 
The maximum firing frequency
1 1
f max  = Hz = 2075.73 Hz
 1  3 6  1 
Rmin C ln   9 10  0.047  10 ln 
1   1  0.65 
The minimum firing frequency
1 1
f min  = Hz =1317.41 Hz
 1  3 6  1 
R max C ln   15.384  10  0.047  10 ln  
1   1  0.65 
3.9 Pulse Transformer and Opto-coupler Based Triggering
The gate drive circuit operates at low voltage with lower power but the load/power circuit is
connected with high voltage and power circuit is used to control power. If the gate drive circuit
is not isolated from power circuit, the gate drive or control circuit will be damaged. So, the
isolation between the gate drive circuit and the power circuit is required for high power
applications. Generally, isolation can be provided either by using pulse transformers or by
using opto-couplers. In this section, pulse transformer and opto-coupler base triggering circuits
are discussed elaborately.
3.9.1 Pulse Transformer Based Triggering
Pulse transformers are used in firing circuits for SCR. Generally pulse transformer has two
secondary windings and one primary. The turn ratio from primary to secondary is 1:1:1 or
2:1:1. The pulse transformer has low winding resistance; low leakage reactance and low inter
winding capacitance. The pulse transformers which are used in firing circuit of SCR, have the
following advantages: (i) the isolation between the low voltage gate circuit and high-voltage
anode circuit, and (ii) the triggering pulses from same trigger source can be used to turn-on two
or more number SCR.
Fig.3.14 shows the pulse transformer triggering circuit for SCR. While a square pulse is applied
at the primary terminals of pulse transformer, it will be transmitted at its secondary terminals
as a square wave or the transmitted signal will be the derivative of the input voltage signal.
Fig.3.14 Pulse transformer triggering circuit for SCR
In fact a square waveform is applied to base of a transistor T1 which is act as a switch. When
the input pulse is high, transistor T1 will be turned on and the dc voltage is applied to primary
winding of pulse transformer. The advantage of pulse transformer based triggering circuit is
that (i) it is not required a strength pulse generator since the amplitude of pulse is same; the
strength of generated pulses may be increased by increasing the amplitude of dc bias voltage;
(ii) the circuit operation is independent of the pulse characteristics as the pulse is used to turn-
on or turn-off the transistor. The pulse distortion has no effect on the circuit operation. The
resistance RL is connected in series with the primary winding of pulse transformer to limit the
current flow; and (iii) when the amplitude of applied pulse at base of transistor T1 is low, T1
will be turned off and then diode D starts to operate. Subsequently diode D allows to flows the
current through pulse transformer.
3.9.2 Opto-coupler Based Triggering
Opto-couplers are made up of a light emitting device and a light sensitive device, all wrapped
up in one package but with no electrical connection between the two. An opto-coupler allows
two circuits to exchange signals yet remain electrically isolated. The standard opto-coupler
circuits design uses a LED shining on a phototransistor. When the signal is applied to the LED,
then shines on the transistor in the IC.
It is implemented using a simple circuit. Simply provide a small pulse at the right time to the
light emitting diode in the package. The light produced by the LED activities the light sensitive
properties of diac and the power is switched on. The isolation between the low power and high
power circuits in these optically connected devices is typically about several thousand volts.
The most commonly used standard single channel phototransistor couplers is MCT2E.
MCT2E family is an industry standard single channel phototransistor. Each opto-coupler
consists of gallium arsenide infrared LED and a silicon NPN phototransistor as shown in
Fig.3.15.
Fig.3.15 Opto-coupler IC- MCT2E
Fig.3.16 shows the opto-coupler based triggering circuit. The externally connected 270kΩ
resistor is used to control the sensitivity of the photo-transistors base region. The value of the
resistor can be chosen in such a way that it can able to suit the selected photo-coupler device
and the amount of switching sensitivity required. The capacitor stops any unwanted spikes or
transients from false triggering the opto-transistors base.
Fig.3.16 shows opto-coupler based triggering circuit
Usually opto-coupler used in lamp ballasts, motor control and incandescent lamp dimmers. The
opto-coupler can also be used in switch mode power supply circuit in many electronics
equipment. It is connected in between the primary and secondary section of supplies. The
applications of opto-coupler in (i) monitor high voltage (ii) output voltage sampling for
regulation (iii) system control using microprocessor and microcontroller and (iv) ground
isolation.
3.10 SCR Turn-off Methods

SCR can be turned-off when its forward current I A becomes below the holding current I H or when
a reverse biased voltage is applied across the thyristor for a specified time so that the device operates
in the blocking state. After the thyristor turned-off, if the forward voltage is reapplied after certain
time, then the excess carriers in the outer and inner layers of the SCR have to decay adequately. The
decay and recombination of excess carriers can be accelerated by applying a reverse voltage across
the SCR. The process of turning-off of SCR is called commutation. The different turn-off methods of
SCR are
(i) Class A- Resonant Commutation Circuit
(ii) Class B- Shunt Resonant Commutation Circuit
(iii) Class C- Complimentary Symmetry Commutation Circuit
(iv) Class D- Auxiliary Commutation
(v) Class E- External Pulse Commutation
(vi) Class F- Line or Natural Commutation
In this section, all above turn-off methods of SCR are explained elaborately.
For more on SCR

Turn-Off methods
3.10.1 Class A- Resonant Commutation Circuit
Fig.3.17 (a) shows the Class A-resonant commutation circuit where L and C are connected in series
with load resistance RL and L and C are used as commutation components and Fig.3.17(b) shows the
Class A-resonant commutation circuit where load resistance RL is connected in parallel with C.
(a) (b)
Fig.3.17 Class A resonant commutation circuit
When a dc voltage is applied to the circuit and a gate pulse is also applied between gate and cathode,
SCR will be turned on and the charging current of capacitor flows through SCR. After certain time, the
charging current decays to a value which is less than holding current when the capacitor is charged to
supply voltage V. Fig.3.18 shows the current wave from. At point A, the current becomes zero and the
commutation of SCR occurs at this point. The time taken to turn-off the SCR depends on the resonant
frequency. The resonant frequency is function of commutating components and load resistance. In
high frequency applications above 1 kHz, the LC resonant circuit is used as commutation circuit.
Usually this circuit is widely used in series inverter circuit. This commutation is also known as self-
commutation. Fig.3.19 Voltage and current waveforms of Class A series resonant commutation circuit
(when load RL is parallel with capacitor).
Fig.3.18 Current flows through SCR in Class A-series resonant commutation
3.10.1.1 Design of Class A-Commutation when L and C are connected in series with Load RL
Assume that SCR T1 is turned-on at t  0 and initial capacitor voltage is about zero. The KVL equation
of circuit is
di 1
VL  i.dt  i.R L
dt C 
(3.25)
After differentiating equation (3.25) and dividing by L, we get

1 d d 2i 1 R di
(V )  2  i . L (3.26)
L dt dt LC L dt
d
As V is constant, (V )  0 and the equation (3.26) can be written as
dt
d 2i 1 R di
2
 i . L 0 (3.27)
dt LC L dt
The equation (3.27) is a second order equation and the solution of this equation at under damped
condition is equal to
i  e t  A1 cos t  A2 sin t  (3.28)
RL
Where,   , (3.29)
2L
1
and  o  (3.30)
LC
1 R2
  o 1   2  o  2 (3.31)
LC 4 L
V
If i(0  )  i (0  )  0 , A1  0 and A2  (3.32)
L
RL
 t V 
L sin t 
2L
Therefore, current i (t )  e (3.33)
at  t   , SCR current becomes zero.

R
 di  L V 
So t  and  e 2L   (3.34)
1 R2 dt  L
 2
LC 4L
The capacitor voltage at the end of conduction is VC  V  VL (3.35)
di
where, VL  L
dt
R
  L 
2L
V
Therefore, C  V 1  e  (3.36)
 
If VO is the initial state voltage of the capacitor, the equation (3.33) can be written as
RL
 t V  Vo 
 L sin t 
2L
i(t )  e (3.37)
RL
 t
and VC  V  e 2
V  Vo  (3.38)
Since   0 , the condition for under damped is equal to

1 R2
 2 0 (3.39)
LC 4 L
4L
Therefore R (3.40)
C
The voltage and current waveforms of class A-resonant commutation circuit(when load RL is parallel
with capacitor is illustrated in Fig.3.19.
Fig.3.19 Voltage and current waveforms of Class A series resonant commutation circuit
(when load RL is parallel with capacitor)
3.10.2 Class B - Shunt Resonant Commutation Circuit
Fig.3.20 shows the class B-shunt resonant commutation circuit which consist of SCR T1 and L-C circuit.
Class B-shunt resonant commutation is a self-commutation process by an L-C circuit. The L-C
resonating circuit is connected across the SCR. This circuit is also called as resonant-pulse
commutation. This commutation circuit operates four modes.
Fig.3.20 Class B shunt resonant commutation circuit
MODE-1: At t  0 , initially the supply voltage V is applied to the circuit and the capacitor starts to
charge and it finally charged to voltage V with upper plate positive and lower plate negative. The
charging of capacitor is done by the path “ V   L  C  R L  V  ”.
MODE-2: At t  t1 , when the gate pulse is applied to SCR T1 and SCR T1 will be turned on, a constant
current I L flows through load and capacitor discharging current flows through capacitor. Then load
current I L follows though the path “ V   T1  R L  V  ” and the capacitor is discharged through the
path “ C   L  C  T1  C  ”.
MODE-3: If the capacitor is completely discharged, it starts to charge with reverse polarity. Due to
reverse polarity of capacitor voltage, the commutating current iC opposes the load current I L . As SCR
is a unidirectional device, the net current flows through is equal to

I T 1  I L  iC (3.41)
Whenever the commutating current iC is greater than the load current I L , SCR will be turned off.
MODE-4: As soon as SCR is turned off, capacitor again starts to charge with upper plate positive and
lower plate negative. When capacitor is fully charged, SCR operates in the forward blocking state and
it will be turned-on when a trigger pulse is applied to SCR. Fig.3.21 shows the voltage and current
waveforms of class B commutation. If SCR is turned on by applying a gate pulse and loads current
flows though SCR and load for certain specified time duration. After the specified time period, SCR
will be turned-off due to self-commutation.
Fig.3.21 Voltage and current waveforms of class B commutation
3.10.2.1 Design of Class B Commutation

The KVL equation for L-C circuit is equal to
di 1
L  idt  V
dt C 
(3.42)
After differentiating the equation (3.1), we get

d 2i 1 dV
L 2
 i (t )  0 (3.43)
dt C dt
dV d 2i 1
As  0, L  i (t )  0 (3.44)
dt dt 2 C
After applying Laplace transform on the equation (3.44), we obtain
 2 1
 s L   I ( s)  0 (3.45)
 C
After solving the equation (3.45), we get
C
i(t )  V sin  0 t (3.46)
L
1
where,  0 
LC
The peak commutation current is equal to
C
I c ( peak )  V (3.47)
L
In class B commutation process, the time taken by SCR to get into reverse biased is approximately
equal to one-quarter period of the resonant circuit. Subsequently turn-off time of SCR is equal to

t off  LC (3.48)
2
and the peak discharge current is about two times of load current
C
I c ( peak )  2 I L  V (3.49)
L
3.10.3 Class C- Complimentary Symmetry Commutation Circuit

Fig.3.22 shows class C- complimentary symmetry commutation circuit which consists of two SCRs
such as main SCR T1 and auxiliary SCR TA and a commutating capacitor. The load resistance RL is
connected in series with main SCR T1. This commutation technique is called as complementary
commutation as the commutation of main SCR T1 occurs when the auxiliary SCR TA is turned on. This
commutation process is also known as complementary impulse commutation. This commutation circuit
operates in four different modes as explained below:
(a) (b)
Fig.3.22(a) Class C commutation circuit with T1 ON and TA OFF and (b) Class C commutation circuit
with T1 OFF and TA ON
MODE-1: Initially, both the SCRs T1 and T A are in OFF state and the voltage across capacitor is zero.
The conditions of T1 and TA and capacitor can be represented by “T1 is in OFF state, TA is OFF state
and VC  0 ”
MODE-2: At t  t1 , when the triggering pulse is applied to main SCR T1, SCR T1 will be turned on
and two currents namely load current I L and capacitor charging current iC flows through the circuit.
Then load current I L follows though the path “ V   R L  T1  V  ” and the capacitor charging current
flows through the path “ V   R  C   C   T1  V  ”. During steady state condition, capacitor is

fully charged to the supply voltage V with the polarity as shown in Fig.3.22 and the conditions of T1
and T A and capacitor can be represented by “T1 is in ON state, TA is OFF state and VC  V ”.
MODE-3: At t  t 2 , when a triggering pulse is applied to auxiliary SCR TA, SCR TA will be turned on.
When SCR TA is turned on and starts conducting, a negative polarity voltage of the capacitor C is
applied to cathode of SCR T1 with respect to anode. Subsequently, SCR T1 will be reverse biased and
turned off immediately. Therefore, the commutation of main SCR T1 is possible by turning on the
auxiliary SCR TA. After that the capacitor C is charged through the load and its polarity becomes
reverse. The charging path of capacitor is “ V+ –RL–C- – C+–TA – V- ”.
At the end of this mode of operation, the conditions of T1 and TA and capacitor can be represented by
“T1 is in OFF state, TA is ON state and VC  V ”
MODE-4: At t  t 2 , again SCR T1 is triggered and turned on. Then auxiliary SCR will be turned off
immediately as reverse bias voltage is applied across TA and capacitor starts to charge in reverse
direction. At the end of this mode of operation, the conditions of T1 and TA and capacitor can be
represented by “T1 is in ON state, TA is OFF state and VC  V ”
The voltage and current waveforms of class C complimentary symmetry commutation circuit is shown
in Fig.3.23. The class C commutation is very useful for operating frequency below 1 kHz and this
commutation technique is used in Mc Murray Bedford inverter. The characteristics of class c
commutation are most reliable commutation.
Fig.3.23 Voltage and current waveforms of class C complimentary symmetry commutation circuit
3.10.3.1 Design of Class C Complimentary Symmetry Commutation Circuit

When SCR T1 conducts and capacitor C is charged to input voltage V through resistance RL. Whenever
a triggering pulse is applied to SCR T2 and T2 is turned on, a voltage twice the dc supply voltage is
applied to the RL C series circuit. Subsequently applying the KVL in the closed loop, we get
1
iRL  idt  VTA  V  0
C
(3.50)
1
as VTA  0 , iRL  idt  V  0
C
(3.51)
Applying Laplace transform on the equation (3.1), we obtain
 1  V
 RL   I ( s)  (3.52)
 sC  s
After applying the inverse Laplace transform of equation (3.1), we get

t
2V  RLC
i(t )  e (3.53)
RL
The voltage across SCR T1 is equal to (3.54)
VT 1  V  iRL
t t
 
RL C RL C
Therefore, VT 1  V  2Ve  V (1  2e ) (3.55)
To turn-off the main SCR T1, the capacitor voltage should be equal to the voltage across SCR T1.
t

RL C
Therefore, VC  VT 1  V (1  2e ) (3.56)
t off

RL C
At t  t off , VC  0 and V (1  2e )0 (3.57)
Therefore, t off  0.6931R L C (3.58)
toff
So, C  1.44 (3.59)
RL
dV
The maximum permissible across SCR T1 using commutating components is given by
dt
dV 2V
| max  (3.60)
dt RL C
3.10.4 Class D – Auxiliary Commutation:

Fig.3.24 shows the class D -auxiliary commutation circuit which consists of two SCRs such as main
SCR T1 and auxiliary SCR T A , inductor L, diode D and a commutation capacitor C. The main SCR
T1 and load resistance RL act as a power circuit but inductor L, diode D and auxiliary SCR T A are
used to form the commutation circuit. This commutation circuit operates in four different mode which
are discussed in this section.
Fig.3.24 Class D - auxiliary commutation circuit
MODE-1: Initially, the dc voltage V is applied to circuit, SCRs T1 and T A are in off-state. There is no
current flow though dc supply and commutation circuit. The conditions of T1 and TA and capacitor can
be represented by “T1 is in OFF state, TA is OFF state and VC  0 ”.
MODE-2: When the triggering pulse is applied to auxiliary SCR T A , SCR TA will be turned on and
capacitor C gets charged. The capacitor charging current flows through the path “
V   C   C   T A  RL  V  ”. As the voltage across the capacitor C increases gradually, the current

flow through SCR T A decreases slowly. When the capacitor is fully charged to V, the auxiliary SCR
TA gets turned off. In this mode, the conditions of T1 and TA and capacitor can be represented by
“Initially TA is in ON state, and at steady state condition; T1 is in OFF state, TA is OFF state and
VC  V ”.
MODE-3: When the triggering pulse is applied to main SCR T1, the current flows in the two different
paths: (i) the load current I L follows though the path “ V   T1  R L  V  ” and commutation current
(capacitor discharging current) flows through the path “ C   T1  L  D  C  ” . If the capacitor is

fully discharged, its polarity will be reversed. The discharging of capacitor C in reverse direction is not
possible due to presence of Diode D. At the end of this mode of operation, T1 is in ON state, T A is in
OFF state and VC  V .
MODE-4: In this mode, whenever the SCR T A is triggered and turned on, capacitor C starts to discharge
through the path “ C   T A  T1  .C  ”. Whenever the commutating current (discharging current of
capacitor) becomes more than load current I L , SCR T1 gets turned off. At the end of mode 3 operation,
“T1 operates in OFF state and TA is also in OFF state”. Capacitor C will again charge to the supply
voltage V with the polarity. As the commutation energy rapidly transfers to the load, high efficiency is
possible in class D commutation. This commutation is mostly used in Jones chopper circuit. Voltage
and current waveforms of Class D auxiliary commutation are shown in Fig.3.25.
3.10.4.1 Design of Class D Auxiliary Commutation

Design of Commutation capacitor (C)
The value of commutating capacitor (C) depends on (i) maximum load current to be commutated, (ii)
turn off time of SCR, t off and (iii) input voltage V.
The turn off time of SCR, t off is available from manufacturer data sheet. The capacitor voltage is
changed from –V to 0 during turn off time t off .
As CV  q  it , where i  I L and t  toff , CV  I Ltoff (3.61)
I Ltoff
Therefore, C (3.62)
V
Design of Commutation inductor (L)
The magnitude of commutating inductor (L) depends on (i) the maximum permissible value of capacitor
current is I C when the main SCR T1 operates in the ON state and (ii) during the time interval t2  t1 ,
the capacitor voltage must be reset to correct polarity for commutating SCR T1.
As the capacitor current I C is an oscillatory current in nature and flows through main SCR T1, L, D
and C when SCR T1 is triggered and turned on. The peak value of current I C is equal to
V
IC ( peak )  (3.63)
r L
1
where,  r  oscillatin g . frequency  rad / sec
LC
After substituting the value of r in equation (3.63), we obtain
C
I C ( peak )  V (3.64)
L
The periodic time during oscillation is
2
Tr   2(t1  t 2 ) (3.65)
r
When I L (max) is the maximum current through the main SCR T1 for commutation, the capacitor peak
current must be equal to the load current.

C
So, V  I L (max) (3.66)
L
2
 V 
Therefore, L  C   (3.67)
 I L (max) 
 
Fig.3.25 Voltage and current waveforms of Class D auxiliary commutation

3.10.5 Class E-External Pulse Commutation

The class E external pulse commutation circuit is shown in Fig.3.26. In this commutation method, the
reverse voltage applied to the current carrying SCR from an external pulse source. This commutation
is also called as external pulse commutation. In this commutation method, the commutating pulse is
applied through a pulse transformer which is design in such a way that there should be tight coupling
between the primary and secondary windings of pulse transformer. The pulse transformer is also
designed with a small air gap so that there will not be any saturation when a pulse voltage is applied to
its primary. When the commutation of SCR T1 is required, the pulse duration equal to or slightly greater
than the specified turn-off time of SCR T1 must be applied. The voltage and current waveforms of class
E external pulse commutation is depicted in Fig.3.27. This commutation operates in two different
modes.
Fig.3.26 Class E external pulse commutation
MODE-1: If the SCR T1 is triggered and turned on, current starts to flow through the pulse
transformer and load resistance RL . Then current flows through the path “
V   T1  Pr imary.of .Pulse.transformer  RL  V  ”
MODE-2: Whenever an external pulse voltage VP is applied across the primary of the pulse
transformer, a voltage will be induced in the secondary of the pulse transformer. This induced voltage
in the secondary appears as reverse voltage (- VP ) across the SCR T1. After that, SCR T1 gets turned off.
Since the frequency of induced pulse voltage is very high, the capacitor provides almost zero
impedance. When SCR T1 is turned off completely, the load current decays to zero. Before the
computation process, the capacitor voltage remains at a value of about 1V. As the minimum energy is
required for commutation, both the time ratio and pulse width regulations are easily possible in this
commutation. The class E external pulse commutation method is very efficient.
Fig.3.27 Voltage and current waveforms of Class E external pulse commutation
3.10.6 Class F-Line or Natural Commutation
When the supply voltage is ac in any ac circuit, current in the SCR goes through a natural zero and a
reverse voltage appears across the SCR and SCR will be turned off. This method of turned-off process
of SCR is called as natural commutation. During natural commutation, there is no requirement of
external circuits for turning off the SCR. For example, class-F commutation is natural commutation.
The line or natural commutation is used in single phase and three phase controlled rectifiers, ac
voltage controllers and cyclo-converters etc. Fig.3.28 shows the class F commutation and it’s voltage
and current waveforms are depicted in Fig.3.29..
Fig.3.28 Class F line or natural commutation
Fig.3.29 Voltage and current waveforms of Class F line or natural commutation

For more on
Commutation of
Thyristor-Based Circuits
Example 3.5 In class A commutation circuit, a SCR is connected in series with R-L-C. When
L  10 H , C  20 F and R  1 , check whether self-commutation is possible or not. Compute
the conduction time of SCR.
Solution:
Given: L  10 H , C  20 F and R  1
The damped frequency of oscillation is
2
1  R
d   
LC  2 L 
2
1  R 4L
Since  d  0 ,    0 or R
LC  2 L  C
4 10  106
Then R or R 2
20 106
In the circuit, the value of resistance is 1 which is less than 2 . Therefore, the circuit is under-
damped.
2 2
1  R  1  1  10 6 
Then  r        =50,000 rad/sec
LC  2 L  10  10  6  20  10  6  2  10 
   106
The conduction time of SCR is t1   s  62.857s
 r 50000
Example 3.6 In a class B resonant pulse commutation circuit, L  5H and C  25F . The initial
voltage across capacitor is 210V, determine (a) resonant frequency (b) peak value of resonant current
(c) turn-off time of SCR.
Solution:
Given L  5H , C  25F and V=210V
1 1
(a) Resonant frequency is equal to  0    89.445 kHz
LC 5  10 6
 25  10  6
C 25106
(b) Peak value of resonant current is I c ( peak ) V  210 =469.56 A
L 5 106
 
(c) Turn-off time of thyristor is t off  LC  5  10 6  25  10  6  17.553s
2 2
Example 3.7 In a Class C commutation, if V  200V , RL  20 , R2  100 calculate (a) the peak
value of current through SCR T1 and T2 (b) the value of capacitance C when turn-off time of each SCR
is equal to 25s . Consider that the factor of safety is 2.
Solution:
 1 2 
(a) The peak value of current through SCR T1 is V    when SCR T1 is turned on to commutate
 R L R2 
2V
at the instant iT 2  0 , vT 2  V , vT 1  0 and ic 
R2
 1 2  1 2 
iT 1  V     200   = 14 A
 R L R2   20 100 
The peak value of current through T2 is equal to
 2 1  2 1 
iT 2  V     200   = 40 A
 R L R2   20 100 
(b) The value of capacitance C when turn-off time of each thyristor is equal to 25s is
t off 25  10 6
C  1.44  1.44   1.8F
RL 20
2  t off 2  25  10 6
If factor of safety is 2, the value of C is C  1.44  1.44   3.6 F
RL 20
Example 3.8 In a Class D commutation circuit, V  220V , L  25H and C  50 F . If load

current is 100A, determine (a) peak value of current through capacitance, main SCR and auxiliary
SCR (b) turn off time of SCR.
Solution:
Given V  220V , L  25H , C  50 F and I L  100A
(a) An oscillatory current flows through C, T1, L and L and it is expressed by
C
i c (t )  V sin  o t
L
C 50 106
Peak value of current through capacitance is I p  V  220 =311.12 A
L 25106
Peak value of current through main SCR T1 is I p  I L  311.12  100  411.12 A
Peak value of current through auxiliary SCR TA is I L  100A
I Ltoff
(b) As C  , Turn off time of main SCR is equal to
V
V 200
t off  C  50  10 6   100s
IL 100
Turn off time of auxiliary SCR is equal to
   1
t off   LC  25  10 6  50  10 6  55.50 s as  o 
2 o 2 2 LC
EXERCISE
3.1 If the gate circuit is open, SCR operating state can be changed from forward blocking state to
forward conducting state when
(a) The applied voltage is greater than forward break over voltage
(b) The applied voltage is greater than reverse break down voltage
(c ) The applied voltage is less than forward break over voltage
(d) The applied voltage is greater than 1.2V
3.2 After turn on a SCR,
(a) the gate pulse should not be removed
(b) the gate pulse should be removed to reduce losses and junction temperature
(c) the gate pulse nay or may not be removed
(d) the gate pulse has no relation with thyristor turn on

3.3 Which of the following is the normal trigger of SCR?
(a) thermal triggering
(b) high forward voltage triggering
dv
(c) triggering
dt
(d) gate triggering
3.4 In gate triggering turn on method of SCR,
(a) the gate pulse width must be greater than or equal to turn-on time.
(b) the gate pulse width must be less than or equal to turn-on time.
(c) the gate pulse width must be equal to turn-on time.
(d) the gate pulse width must be less than turn-on time.
3.5 In a RC triggering circuit of SCR, the value of R will be
V  VgT  Vd V  VgT  Vd
(a) R  (b) R 
I gT I gT
V  VgT  Vd V  VgT  Vd
(c) R  (d) R 
I gT I gT
3.6 The oscillation frequency of UJT oscillator is equal to
1 1
(a) f  (b) f 
 1   1 
RE C ln  RE C ln  
1    1  
1 1
(c) f  (d) f 
 1   1 
RE ln  C ln 
 1   1  
3.7 A DIAC can be used
(a) in triggering circuit of a TRIAC
(b) to increase efficiency of a TRIAC
(c) to decrease efficiency of a TRIAC

(d) for protection of a TRIAC
3.8 The commutation of SCR means
(a) turn–on process
(b) turn-off process
(c) both turn on and turn-off process
(d) breakdown process
3.9 Match List I and List II and select the correct answer
(a) A -3, B-4, C-2, D-1 (b) A -1, B-2, C-4, D-3
(c) A -3, B-4, C-1, D-2 (d) A -1, B-2, C-3, D-4
(A) (1) class C commutation
(B) (2) class A commutation

(C) (3) class B commutation
(D) (4) class D commutation
3.10 In a commutation circuit of a SCR, for satisfactory turn of SCR the following condition must be
satisfied:
(a) circuit time constant is less than device turn-off time
(b) circuit time constant is greater than device turn-off time
(c) circuit time constant is equal or less than device turn-off time
(d) circuit time constant is equal to device turn-off time
(a) A -3, B-4, C-2, D-1 (b) A -1, B-2, C-4, D-3
(c) A -3, B-4, C-1, D-2 (d) A -2, B-4, C-1, D-3
(A) Resonant commutation (1) Class E
(B) Complementary commutation (2) Class A
(C ) External pulse commutation (3) Class E
(D)Line commutation (4) Class C

3.12 When the amplitude of the gate pulse to SCR is increased,
(a) the delay time would decrease but the rise time remain un-effected
(b) the delay time would decrease but the rise time would increase
(c) both delay time and rise time would increase

(d) the delay time would increase but the rise time would decrease
(a) A -1, B-4, C-2, D-3 (b) A -1, B-2, C-4, D-3
(c) A -3, B-4, C-1, D-2 (d) A -3, B-4, C-2, D-1
(A) Resonant commutation (1) Load commutation
(B) Complementary Impulse commutation (2) Current commutation
(C ) Resonant pulse commutation (3) Natural commutation
(D)Line commutation (4) Parallel capacitor commutation
3.14 A pulse transformer is used in a SCR driver circuit
(a) to generate high frequency pulses
(b) to save from dc triggering
(c) to shape the trigger signal
(d) to provide isolation
3.15 In synchronized UJT triggering of a SCR, the voltage across capacitor reaches threshold voltage
of UJT thrice in each half cycle. Therefore there are three firing pulses during each half cycle. The
firing angle of the SCR can be controlled
(a) thrice in each half cycle
(b) twice in each half cycle
(c) Once in each half cycle
(d) none of these

3.16 The function of a zener diode which is connected in an UJT trigger circuit for SCR is,
(a) to expedite the generation of triggering pulses
(b) to provide a variable voltage to UJT as the source voltage changes
(c) to provide delay the generation of triggering pulses
(d) to provide a constant voltage to UJT to prevent unreliable firing
3.17 In reliable gate triggering of SCR, usually we use
(a) slight over triggering
(b) very hard triggering
(c) very soft triggering
(d) none of these
3.18 The most commonly used gate triggering signal for SCR is
(a) a short duration pulse

(b) a steady dc signal
(c) a high-frequency pulse train
(d) a low frequency pulse train
3.19 When an UJT relaxation oscillator circuit is used for triggering a SCR, the wave shape of the
voltage which is generated by UJT circuit is a
(a) saw-tooth wave
(b) sine wave
(c) square wave
(d) trapezoidal wave
3.20 UJT is used for relaxation oscillator due to
(a) negative resistance part of V-I characteristics
(b) positive resistance part of V-I characteristics
(c) peak-point potential

(d) valley-point potential
Answers of Multiple Choice Questions :
3.1 (a) 3.2 (b) 3.3 (d) 3.4 (a) 3.5 (a) 3.6 (b) 3.7 (a) 3.8 (b) 3.9 (a) 3.10 (b)
3.11 (d) 3.12 (a) 3.13 (a) 3.14 (d) 3.15 (c) 3.16 (d) 3.17 (a) 3.18 (c) 3.19 (a) 3.20 (a)
REVIEW QUESTIONS
3.21 What are the necessary conditions for turning on of SCR?
3.22 What is gate triggering of thyristor ?
3.33 What is latching current of SCR ?
3.34 What is holding current of thyristor ?
3.35 What is relaxation oscillator?
3.36 What are the different turnings on methods of SCR?
3.37 What is the nature of gate current waveform?
3.38 What is the limitation of a resistance triggering circuit?
3.39 What is commutation?
3.40 What are the types of commutation?
3.41 What are the advantages and disadvantages of self-commutation with respect to other
commutations?
3.42 What are the advantages of RC triggering over R triggering circuit?
3.43 What are the applications of DIAC?
3.44 Is it possible to obtain a firing angle greater than 90 using R triggering method?
3.45 Why pulse train gating is preferred over pulse gating?
3.46 Describe the different methods of triggering of SCR
3.47 Explain the different triggering signals of a thyristor.

3.48 Draw a resistance triggering circuit and explain its operation.
3.49 Draw a RC triggering circuit and explain its operation.
3.50 Write short notes on the following
(a) UJT triggering circuit (b) Synchronized UJT triggering circuit
3.51 Compare UJT triggering circuit with R and RC firing circuit.
3.52 Explain any one commutation circuit with a diagram and waveforms.
3.53 Distinguish between (a) natural commutation and forced commutation
(b) voltage commutation and current commutation
3.54 Draw the self-commutation circuit and discuss in detail.
3.55 Explain the different features of a thyristor firing circuit.

3.56 Draw the trigger circuit for a triac using a diac and explain its operation with waveforms.
3.57 Describe a gate trigger circuit for a single phase half wave and full wave controlled rectifier
Problems
3.58 In resistance triggering circuit as shown in Fig.3.3, I g (min)  0.12mA and V g (min)  0.6V .
If the peak amplitude of input voltage is 220V, find the trigger angle  for R1  100k and
Rmin  10k
3.59 A 230V, 50Hz ac supply is connected to a resistance capacitance triggering circuit. If the
resistance R is variable from 2k to 20k , V gT  2V and C  0.47 F , what is the minimum and
maximum firing angle?
3.60 The frequency of relaxation oscillator can be varied by changing the value of charging resistance
R. Compute the maximum and minimum values of R and their corresponding firing frequencies.
Assume that   0.65 , I p  0.65mA , V p  10V , I v  2.0mA , Vv  2V , VBB  20V , and
C  0.047F
3.61 In class A commutation circuit, a SCR is connected in series with R-L-C. When L  10 H ,
C  20 F and R  1 , check whether self-commutation is possible or not. Compute the

conduction time of SCR.
3.62 In a class B resonant pulse commutation circuit, L  5H and C  25F . The initial voltage
across capacitor is 200V, determine (a) resonant frequency (b) peak value of resonant current (c) turn-
off time of SCR.
3.63 In a Class C commutation, if V=220, RL  20 , R2  100 calculate (a) the peak value of
current through SCR T1 and T2 (b) the value of capacitance C when turn-off time of each SCR is equal
to 25s . Consider that the factor of safety is 2.
3.64 In a Class D commutation circuit, V=230V, L  25H and C  50 F . If load current is
100A, determine (a) peak value of current through capacitance, main SCR and auxiliary SCR (b) turn
off time of SCR.
PRACTICAL
1. Experiment on test the variation of R, C in R and RC triggering circuits on firing
angle of SCR
Aim:
To study the different triggering circuits for SCR such as (i) Resistance (R) triggering circuit and
(ii) Resistor-capacitor (RC) triggering circuit
Apparatus:
AC power supply 230V, 50 Hz; Transformer 0-12V, 500mA; Digital voltmeter 0-30V, CRO 20
MHz; SCR-SN 104/TYN604/TYN 612, Diode D1 4007, Diode D2 4007, Capacitor C 0.22µF,
Resistance R1 =RL=100kΩ,5W , R4=RG=100Ω,0.5W, R2=100Ω,0.5W, R3=100kΩ,0.5W
potentiometer.
Circuit Diagram:
Fig.3.30 Circuit diagram for Resistance (R) triggering circuit of SCR.

Fig.3.31 Circuit diagram for Resistor-capacitor (RC) triggering circuit of SCR.
Theory:
SCR can be turned-on by applying gate signal at any phase angle with respect to applied 230V, 50 Hz
ac voltage when SCR is forward biased. Basically firing angle of SCR is the phase angle of ac voltage at
which SCR is turned-on. The different of gate triggering are (i) Resistance (R) triggering circuit and (ii)
Resistor-capacitor (RC) triggering circuit. The operating principle of resistance (R) triggering circuit is
explained in section 3.4 and resistor-capacitor (RC) triggering circuit is explained in section 3.5. These
are most commonly used triggering method of SCR as these circuits are most simplest and economical
type of triggering. In R triggering circuit firing angle can be varied by varying the gate current by
R3=100kΩ and is limited to 90ᵒ. In RC triggering circuit, firing angle can be varied by varying the gate
current by R3=100kΩ and it provides the firing angle control from 0 to 180ᵒ.
Precautions:
1. Initially connection to 230V, 50 Hz AC supply carefully.
2. The applied voltage and current should not be more than the maximum rating of SCR.
Procedure
(a) Resistance (R) triggering circuit of SCR
(ii) Keep the potentiometer R2 at maximum value
(iii) Switch on ac power supply
(iv)The resistance of potentiometer R2 decreases in steps and measure the output
voltage using voltmeter.

(v) CRO is use to measure and record the output voltage

(vi) Plot the output voltage waveform on graph paper or take printout of recoded
output voltage in CRO
(b) Resistor-capacitor (RC) triggering circuit of SCR
(ii) Keep the potentiometer R2 at maximum value
(iii) Switch on ac power supply
(iv) The resistance of potentiometer R2 decreases in steps and measure the output voltage
using voltmeter.
(v) CRO is use to measure and record the output voltage
(vi) Plot the output voltage waveform on graph paper or take printout of recoded output
voltage in CRO
Observation Table:
Table 3.1 Observation table for Resistance (R) triggering circuit of SCR
Sr.No. Firing angle αᵒ DC output voltage in Volts
Table 3.2 Observation table for Resistance-Capacitor (RC) triggering circuit of SCR
Sr.No. Firing angle αᵒ DC output voltage in Volts

Related Questions
1. If R3 is shorted, state the effect on output voltage

2. If Diode D1 is open circuit, state the effect on output voltage
3. Write the range of firing angle of R, RC triggering circuit.
2. Experiment on test effect of variation of R, C in UJT triggering technique
Aim:
To study the performance and waveforms of UJT triggering or SCR
Apparatus:
Regulated DC power supply 0-30V, UJT-2N2646; Capacitor C 10µF; Digital voltmeter 0-30V,
CRO 20 MHz; Resistance R1=10kΩ,0.5W , R2=500Ω,0.5W, R3=150Ω,0.5W, R4=27Ω,0.5W
potentiometer
Circuit Diagram:
Fig.3.32 Circuit diagram to test effect of variation of R, C in UJT triggering technique.
Theory:
Unijunction Transistor (UJT) is a semiconductor device which has three terminals Emitter E
and two bases B1 and B2. The base of UJT is formed by lightly doped n-type silicon bar. Two
ohomic contacts B1 and B2 are attached at its ends. The emitter (E) is p-type and it is highly
doped. If the emitter is open circuit, the resistance between B1 and B2 is called interbase
resistance. The operating principle of UJT triggering is explained in section 3.6. The rate of
charging of capacitor is varied as the RC pot is varied and firing angle is controlled by varying
the potentiometer RC. UJT triggering circuit is used in power control using SCR and Triac.
Precautions:
2. The applied voltage and current should not be more than the maximum rating of UJT.
Procedure
Case-I
(ii) Increase power supply voltage VBB gradually to increase IB
(iv) Resistance R2 is in maximum value
(v) C is fixed. When resistance R2 decreases in steps to observe the voltage across B1
and C1.
(vi) Measure the time period of charging and discharging of capacitor
(vii) Repeat step (v) and (vi) up to 2/3 value of R2
Case -II
(i) R2 is fixed and C1 is varied and observe the waveform in CRO
(ii) Measure the time period of charging and discharging of capacitor
(iii) Repeat step (i) and (ii) upto 2/3 value of C1
(iv) Plot the waveforms for different values of R2 and C1
Observation Table:
Table 3.3 Observation table for test effect of variation of R, C in UJT triggering technique
Sr.No. R2 C1 Measured time period T Calculate time period T
Related Questions
1. Why UJT triggering circuit is better compared to R and RC triggering circuit?

2. Write the specification of UJT from manufacturer data sheet
3. Compare measured time period and calculated time period.
3. Experiment on perform the operation of Class-A, B, C turn-off circuits
Aim:
To study the operation of class-A, B, C turn-off circuits of SCR observing waveforms in CRO
Apparatus:
Regulated DC power supply 0-30V, SCR-SN 104/TYN604/TYN 612, Dual Trace CRO 20 MHz; Resistance
1kΩ,0.5W, Inductance 5mH, Capacitor C 1µF; UJT base SCR triggering circuit.
Circuit Diagram:
(a) (b) (c )
Fig.3.33 Circuit diagram (a) Class-A (b) Class-B and (c) Class-C commutation circuits
Theory:
The commutation circuits are required to turn-off SCR. The following method are used for commuting
SCR (i) when the anode current is reduced below the holding current and (ii) by applying reversing the
anode voltage across the conducting thyristor. In Class-A, Class-B, Class-C commutation, SCR can be
turned off by reducing the anode current below the holding current. The detail operating principle of
Class-A, Class-B and Class-C commutation are explained in section 3.10.1, 3.10.2 and3.10.3
respectively.
Precautions:
Procedure
(a) Class-A commutation
(i) Make the circuit connection as per the circuit diagram 3.33(a).
(iii) Connect UJT triggering circuit output to gate and cathode of SCR
(iv) Observe the voltage waveforms across load, SCR and capacitor in CRO
(v) Repeat step (iii) and (iv) for different values of R, L and C
(vi) Plot the waveforms for the voltage waveforms across load, SCR and capacitor
(b) Class-B commutation
(i) Make the circuit connection as per the circuit diagram 3.3(b).
(ii) Repeat step (ii) and (v) as given in Class-A commutation
(c) Class-C commutation
(i) Make the circuit connection as per the circuit diagram 3.3(c).
(iii) Connect UJT triggering circuit output to gate and cathode of SCRs (T1 and T2)
(iv) Observe the voltage waveforms across load, SCR and capacitor in CRO
(v) Plot the waveforms for the voltage waveforms across load, SCR and capacitor
VIVA Questions Related to Class-A, Class-B and Class-C Commutation
(i) What happened if inductor is disconnected in Class-B commutation circuit?
(ii) What is the effect on Class-C commutation circuit when capacitor is short-circuit?
(iii) Explain the waveforms for the voltage waveforms across load, SCR and capacitor
4. Experiment on perform the operation of Class-D, E, F turn-off circuits
Aim:
To study the operation of class-D, E, F turn-off circuits of SCR observing waveforms in CRO
Apparatus:
Regulated DC power supply 0-30V, 230 V, 50 Hz AC power supply, SCR-SN 104/TYN604/TYN 612,
Dual Trace CRO 20 MHz; Resistance 1kΩ,0.5W, Inductance 5mH, Capacitor C 1µF; UJT base SCR
triggering circuit.
Circuit Diagram:
(a) (b)
(c )
Fig.3.34 Circuit diagram (a) Class-D (b) Class-E and (c) Class-F commutation circuits
Theory:
In Class-D and Class-E commutation, SCR can be turned off by applying reverse voltage across SCR and
external pulse respectively. In Class-F commutation, SCR is turned off due to negative half cycle of
applied ac voltage. The detail operating principle of Class-D, Class-E and Class-F commutation are
discussed in section 3.10.4, 3.10.5 and 3.10.6 respectively.
Precautions:
Procedure
(ii) Switch on regulated dc power supply/ac power supply
(iii) Connect UJT triggering circuit output to gate and cathode of SCR
(iv) Observe the voltage waveforms across load, SCR in CRO
(v) Plot the waveforms for the voltage waveforms across load and SCR
VIVA Questions Related to Class-A, Class-B and Class-C Commutation
1. What happened in Class-D commutation circuit if trigger pulse is disconnected to auxiliary

SCR?
2. What is the effect on Class-E commutation circuit when the pulse width of external pulse is
smaller than turn-off of SCR ?
3. Explain the waveforms for the voltage waveforms across load and SCR in class-D, E, and F
turn-off circuits
KNOW MORE
The basic requirement for successful firing of SCRs in any converter circuit is that the current
supplied to the gate should be of adequate amplitude and sufficiently short rise time and the
current must flows for adequate duration. These conditions can be achieved properly by gate
triggering. Therefore, the gate triggering method is most commonly used to turn-on SCRs in
different converter circuits. In this module, resistance-capacitance triggering circuits and
synchronized UJT triggering circuit using pulse transformer and opto-coupler, are already
discussed elaborately. To study the gate triggering circuits for single phase full wave controlled
rectifier using analog and digital devices, design and implementation of firing circuit for single-
phase converter and microprocessor/microcontroller based firing circuits for SCRs, please
scan the following QR code.
For more on Design and For more on Microcontroller

Implementation of Firing Based Advanced Triggering
Circuit for Single Phase Circuit for
Converter Converters/Inverters
References:
1. Ramamoorty M., An Introduction to Thyristor and their applications, East-West Press Pvt.
Ltd, New Delhi
Applications, New Age International (P) ltd. publishers, New Delhi
3. Bhattacharya, S.K., Fundamental of Power Electronics, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. Noida
4. Jain & Alok, Power Electronics and its Applications, Penram International Publishing(India)
Pvt. Ltd, Mumbai
India, Noida
6. Sing, M.D. and Khanchandani, K.B., Power Electronics, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd,
New Delhi
Delhi

Phase Controlled
4 Rectifiers
UNIT SPECIFIES
 Phase control: firing angle and conduction angle
 Single phase half controlled, full controlled and midpoint–controlled rectifier with R and RL load
 Circuit diagram, working principle, input-output waveforms of phase controlled rectifiers
 Effect of freewheeling diode in phase controlled rectifiers
 Different configurations of bridge controlled rectifiers: full bridge, half bridge with common
anode, common cathode and SCRs in one arm and diodes in another arm
The practical applications of the above topics are discussed for generating further curiosity and
Not only a large number of multiple choice questions are incorporated in this unit but also questions
of short and long answer types marked in two categories following lower and higher order of Bloom’s
taxonomy, assignments through a number of numerical problems. A list of references and suggested
readings are illustrated in this unit so that learners can go through them for practice and get detailed
knowledge. It is also be noted that some QR codes have been incorporated in different sections of this
unit for getting more information on various topics of interest.
development of the thyristor family devices to focusing the salient observations and finding, timelines
starting from the development of the concerned topics up to the recent time, applications of thyristor
in our day-to-day life, and industrial applications of thyristor in power electronics converter circuits.
RATIONALE
This unit on “phase controlled rectifiers” can be able to provide detail information regarding phase
control: firing angle and conduction angle, single phase half controlled, full controlled and midpoint–
controlled rectifier with R and RL load, circuit diagram, working principle, and input-output waveforms
of phase controlled rectifiers. The equations of dc output voltage, performance parameters of
converters, and the effect of freewheeling diode in phase controlled rectifiers are also incorporated
in this unit. After study this unit, student can able to get knowledge about different configurations of
bridge controlled rectifiers: full bridge, half bridge with common anode, common cathode and SCRs
in one arm and diodes in another arm.
PRE-REQUISITES
UNIT OUTCOMES
U4-O1: To define phase control of controlled rectifiers
U4-O2: To define firing angle and conduction angle of SCR
U4-O3: To draw the circuit diagram of single phase half controlled, full controlled and mid-point
controlled rectifier with R and RL load
U4-O4: To discuss the working principle of single phase controlled rectifiers
U4-O5: To understand the effect of freewheeling diode in phase controlled rectifiers
U4-O6: To explain operating principle of different configurations of bridge controlled rectifiers: full
bridge, half bridge with common anode, common cathode and SCRs in one arm and diodes in
another arm
Phase Controlled Rectifiers | 213
U4-O1 2 2 2 3 2
U4-O2 1 2 3 2 1
U4-O3 2 2 2 3 2
U4-O4 2 2 2 3 3
U4-O5 1 2 3 2 1
U4-O6 2 2 2 3 3
4.1 Introduction
Rectifiers are converters which convert ac to dc. In a rectifier circuit, the average output voltage is
constant for a specified load and a fixed input voltage. When a variable input voltage is applied to
uncontrolled rectifier through an auto transformer, the output voltage will also vary. Using
uncontrolled rectifier with auto transformer, the variable output voltage can be obtained very simply,
but these circuits have some demerits such as large size, heavy weight and high cost of transformers.
As a result, phase controlled rectifiers are used in place of half wave and full wave rectifiers using auto
transformer. Single phase controlled rectifiers are extensively used in many industrial applications
such as electric traction systems, paper mills, steel rolling mills, textile mills, magnet power supply and
electro-mechanical devices etc. SCRs are also used as switches in phase controlled converter.
4.2 Classification of Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers

A controllable output voltage is able to obtain by controlling the firing angle “  ” of controlled
rectifier. So variable voltage can be available at output terminals of a controlled rectifier. The single
phase controlled converters are classified as single phase half wave (1-pulse) controlled converter,
and single phase full wave (2-pulse) controlled converter. The classification of single phase controlled
rectifiers is shown in Fig.4.1.
Fig.4.1 Classification of single phase controlled rectifiers

4.3 Single Phase Half-Controlled Rectifiers with R Load
The single phase half controlled rectifier with resistive (R) load is shown in Fig.4.2. The thyristor T1
will conduct only when the anode is positive with respect to cathode and a positive gate pulse is applied.
Otherwise it can operate in forward blocking state and the load current does not flow though the
thyristor. In positive half cycle of input voltage, thyristor T1 is forward biased. Whenever the thyristor
T1 is fired at  t   , it is turned on and starts to conduct at  t   and the load current flows through
T1 and R load. Then thyristor T1 continue it’s conduction up to t   and conduction angle is (   
).
Fig.4.2 Single phase half controlled rectifier with R load
For the negative half cycle of input voltage, thyristor T1 is reverse biased. Therefore, thyristor T1 will
be turned off due to natural commutation at t   and the current flow through load becomes zero.
So the average (dc) output voltage can be controlled by varying the firing angle  . Fig.4.3 shows the
input voltage (Vs), triggering pulse of T1 (ig1), output voltage (VO), output current (IO) and VT1, voltage
across T1 of half wave controlled rectifier with R load. The output voltage waveform is same as load
current waveform due to zero phase difference in resistive load as depicted in Fig.4.3. In single phase
half-controlled rectifier, the dc output voltage is always positive and current is also positive. Therefore,
single phase half wave controlled rectifier with R load operates in first quadrant and this controlled
rectifier is also called as half wave converter.
Fig.4.3 Input voltage (Vs), triggering pulse of T1 (ig1), output voltage (Vo), output current (Io) and VT1
voltage across T1 for half wave controlled rectifier with R load
As  is the firing angle of thyristor T1, T1 operates in off-state from t  0 to  t   and t   to

t  2 . The device T1 operates in on-state from  t   to t   . Consequently the output
voltage across load is zero from t  0 to  t   and t   to t  2 and the output voltage
across load is equal to input voltage during  t   to t   . Hence the conduction angle of
thyristor T1 is (    ). Therefore, the output voltage across load is available during positive half cycle
only.
The output voltage across the load is equal to
vO  Vm sin t for   t   (4.1)
=0 for 0   t  and   t  2 (4.2)

The value of average output voltage is


1 2V
VO   2V sin td (t )  (1  cos ) (4.3)
2 
2
2V 2V
If   0 , the average output voltage is VO  (1  cos 0)  (4.4)
2 
2V
When    , the average output voltage is VO  (1  cos  )  0 (4.5)
2
Thus the dc output voltage can be varied from 2V /  to 0 when firing angle varies from   0
to    as shown in Fig. 4.4.
Fig.4.4 Firing angle  vs output voltage VO
The average current is I dc  I o  Vo / R  2V (1  cos ) / 2R (4.6)
Since both the current and voltage are positive, the converter operates in first quadrant as shown in
Fig.4.5.
Fig.4.5 First quadrant operation of single half wave controlled rectifier with R load
The dc output power is equal to
2V 2V
Pdc  Vdc  I dc  Vo  I o  (1  cos )  (1  cos ) (4.7)
2 2 R
V2
= (1  cos  ) 2 (4.8)
2 2 R
The rms value of output voltage across load is
1
 1  2
Vrms    ( 2V sin t ) 2 dt  (4.9)
 2  
1
V 1 1 2
=  (    sin 2 )  (4.10)
2  2 
The rms value of load current is equal to
1
V V 1 1 2
I rms  rms =  (    sin 2 )  (4.11)
R 2R  2 
The ac output power is expressed as
Pac  Vrms  I rms (4.12)
1 1
V 1 1 2 V 1 1 2

2   (    2 sin 2 )  2 R   (    2 sin 2 ) (4.13)
V2 1 1 
= (    sin 2 ) (4.14)
2 R   2 
The from factor is equal to
1
I V 1 1 2 2V
FF  rms =  (    sin 2 )  / (1  cos ) (4.15)
I av 2R  2  2 R
1
1  1 2
=  (    sin 2 )  (4.16)
(1  cos  )  2 
The ripple factor of load current is
1
2 1  1 2
RF  FF  1 =  (    sin 2 )  (1  cos  ) (4.17)
(1  cos )  2 
The volt ampere rating of transformer is

1
V2 1 1 2
VA= VI rms =  (    sin 2 )  (4.18)
2R  2 
Transformer utilization factor is expressed as
Power .delivered .to.load Pdc

TUF   (4.19)
Input .VA VA
Vdc I dc VI (1  cos  )2
= = o o = 1 (4.20)
VI rms VI rms 1
  2
 2 (    sin 2 )
 2 
4.4 Single Phase Half-Controlled Rectifiers with R-L Load
Fig. 4.6 shows a single phase half wave rectifier with R-L load. In the positive half-cycle of supply
voltage, thyristor T1 is forward biased and a gate pulse is applied at  t   . Then Thyristor T1 will be
turned on and input voltage is applied across the load. Due to presence of inductive load, output
current increases gradually from zero to maximum value and then it starts to decrease. At t   ,
the polarity of supply voltage has been changed from positive to negative but load current continue
to flow through thyristor T1 due to inductive load.
Fig.4.6 Single phase half controlled rectifier with R-L load
At t   , thyristor T1 is subjected to reverse anode voltage and the device T1 will not be turned off
as load current io is greater than the holding current. Consequently, thyristor T1 remains in conduction.
At  t   , load current io becomes zero and thyristor T1 will be turned off as it is already reverse
biased. During  t   to t  2   , the output voltage across load is zero and current io is also
zero. Since the thyristor T1 starts conduction at  t   and it is turned off at  t   , the conduction
period of T1 is (    ) . Hence,  is known as extinction angle and the conduction angle is equal to
(   ) .
Fig.4.7 Input voltage (Vs), triggering pulse of T1 (ig1), output voltage (Vo), output current (Io) and VT1
voltage across T1 for single phase half wave controlled rectifier with R-L load
The output voltage across the load can be expressed as
vO  Vm sin t for   t   (4.21)
=0 for 0   t  and    t  2 (4.22)
The waveforms of input voltage Vs , triggering pulse of T1 (i g1), output voltage Vo , output current Io and
VT1 voltage across T1 for half wave controlled rectifier with R-L load are shown in Fig.4.7. In the time
from  t   to t   , input voltage and output current are positive. Therefore power flows from
the supply to load. This operating mode of single phase half wave controlled rectifier with R-L load is
known as rectification mode and this controlled rectifier operates in first quadrant. During the time
period from t   to  t   , input voltage is negative, output current is positive and power flows
in reverse direction from the load to supply. This mode of operation of single phase half wave
controlled rectifier with R-L load is called as inversion mode and this controlled rectifier operates in
fourth (IV) quadrant. Based on the firing angle  , the dc output voltage will be either positive or
negative. So, the single phase half wave controlled rectifier with R-L load operates in two quadrants
as shown in Fig.4.8. This controlled rectifier is called two quadrant converter.
Fig.4.8 First and fourth quadrant operation of single half wave controlled rectifier with R-L load
The voltage equation for the circuit [Fig.4.6] when thyristor T1 operates in conduction state and
   t   , is 2V sin  t  L.dio / dt  Rio (4.23)
where, V is the rms input voltage and output current is io
The output current io can be expressed as
R
2V  t
io (t )  is  it  sin(t   )  Ae L (4.24)
Z
The current io has two components such as steady state component ( is ) and transient component ( it ).
The steady state component of io (t ) is is (t )  ( 2V / Z ) sin(t   ) and the transient component of
R
 t
io (t ) is it (t )  Ae L (4.25)
At  t   , current io =0, the equation (4.24) is expressed as
R
2V 
0 sin(   )  Ae L  (4.26)
Z
R
2V
From the equation (4.26), we obtain A   sin(   )  e L  (4.27)
Z
After substituting the value of A in equation (4.24), we get
R R
2V  L
 t
io (t )  sin( t   )  sin(   ) e e L
 (4.28)
Z  
The equation (4.28) can be written as
t 
2V  
tan 

Finally we get io (t )  sin(t   )  sin(   )e  for    t   (4.29)
Z  
L
were, Z  R 2  (L)2 , and tan 
R
As per output current waveform, io =0 at  t   .
 
2V  
tan 

So, 0  sin(    )  sin(   )e  (4.30)
Z  
 

tan 
From the above equation, we obtain, sin(    )  sin(    )e (4.31)
The equation (4.31) will be solved to find out the value of  .
As average output voltage across inductor (L) is zero, average output voltage across R-L is equal to
the average voltage across R. The average output voltage can be computed from equation (4.32)

1 2V
Vav  VO   2V sin td (t )  (cos  cos  ) (4.32)
2 
2
If   0 , the average output voltage is maximum. When the value of  increases, the average output
voltage decreases.
The rms value of output voltage is

1
1  2
Vrms    ( 2V sin t ) 2 dt  (4.33)
 2  
1
V  1 2
=  (    )  (sin 2   sin 2 )  (4.34)
2  2
The form factor is
1
V V  1  2 2V
FF  rms = (    )  2 (sin 2   sin 2 )  / 2 (cos  cos  ) (4.35)
Vav 2 
1
 1 2
 (    )  (sin 2   sin 2 )
 2 
= (4.36)
cos   cos 
For more on Single

Phase Controlled
Rectifier
Example 4.1 A single phase 220V, 1.5 kW heater is connected a half wave controlled rectifier and it is
supplied from a 220V, 50Hz ac supply. Calculate the power absorbed by the heater if the firing angle
is (a)   60 and (b)   45
Solution:
Given: V  220V ,   60 =1.046 rad and   45 =0.785 rad
The resistance of heater is R  V 2 / W  220 2 / 1500 = 32.26Ω as W  1.5kW  1500Watt
(a) The rms value of output voltage at   60 is

1 1
V 1 1  2 220  1 1 2
Vrms = (    sin 2 ) = (  1. 046  sin( 2  60 ))  =139.56 V
2   2  2   2
The power absorbed by the heater at firing angle   60 is

2
Pat .  60  Vrms / R  139.562 / 32.26 Watt = 603.75 Watt
(b) The rms value of output voltage at   45 is

1 1
V 1 1  2 220  1 1 2
Vrms =
2   (    2 sin 2 )  = 2   (  0.785  2 sin( 2  45))  =148.35 V
The power absorbed by the heater at firing angle   45 is

2
Pat. 45  Vrms / R  148.352 / 32.26 Watt =682.19 Watt
Example 4.2 A single phase half wave controlled rectifier is connected across R-L load and feeds from
a 230V, 50Hz ac supply. If R=20Ω and L=0.05H, Compute (a) the firing angle to ensure no transient
current and (b) the firing angle for the maximum transient.
Solution:
Given V=230V, f  50Hz, R=20Ω and L=0.05H
The current flows through load is

t 
2V  
tan 

i (t )   sin( t   )  sin(   ) e  for    t  
Z  
L
Where, Z  R 2  (L)2 , and tan 
R
t 
2V  
tan 

The transient current is it (t )   sin(   )e 
Z  
(a) When there is no transient current
t 
2V  
tan 

it (t )  0   sin(   )e 
Z  
Or, sin(    )  0
Then the firing angle to ensure no transient current is
1 L 2fL 2  50  0.05
   = tan = tan 1 = tan 1 =38.14°
R R 20
(b) For maximum transient current,
sin(    )  1  sin 90 
So,   90     90   38 .14   128 .14 
As a result, the maximum transient occurs at firing angle   128.14
Example 4.3 The voltage across secondary winding of a single phase transformer is 220V, 50 Hz and
the transformer deliver power to resistive load of R  2 through a single phase half wave
controlled rectifier. When the firing angle of thyristor is 90 , determine (a) average dc output voltage
(b) average dc output current (c) rms output voltage (d) rms output current (e) form factor (f) voltage
ripple factor (g) rectification efficiency (h) transformer utilization factor (i) PIV of thyristor.
Solution: Given V=220, f=50 Hz, R  2 ,   90
(a) the average output voltage is

2V 2  220
VO  (1  cos )  (1  cos 90) =49.54 V
2 2
Vo 49.54
(b) average dc output current is I o   A  24.77 A
R 2
(c) the rms value of output voltage is equal to

1 1
V 1 1  2 200  1  1 2
Vrms =  (    sin 2 )  =  (   sin( 2  90)) =110 V
2  2  2  2 2 
Vrms 110
(d) rms output current I rms    55 A
R 2
(e) the form factor is equal to
Vrms 110
FF   =2.22
Vav 49.54
(f) the voltage ripple factor of load current is
RF  FF 2  1 = (2.22) 2  1 =1.982
(e) The dc output power is equal to
Pdc  Vdc  I dc  Vo  I o = 49.54  24.77 Watt=1227.10 Watt
The ac output power is equal to
Pac  Vrms  I rms = 110 55 =6050 Watt
Pdc 1227.10
Rectification efficiency=  100% =  100% =20.28%
Pac 6050
(f)The volt ampere rating of transformer is
VA= VI rms = 220 55VA
Transformer utilization factor is
Power .delivered .to.load Pdc 1227.10

TUF   = =0.1014
Input .VA VA 220  55
(g) The peak inverse voltage of thyristor is
PIV= 2V = 2  220 V= 311.12 V

4.5 Single Phase Half-Controlled Rectifiers With Free Wheeling Diode

In single phase half wave controlled rectifier with R-L load, output voltage will be negative during
t   to  t   . Consequently, the average output voltage decreases with increasing  and the
performances of controlled rectifier are reduced. To improve controlled rectifier performance, a
freewheeling diode will be connected across R-L load. The circuit diagram of single phase half wave
controlled converter with R-L load and freewheeling diode DF is shown in Fig.4.9. Since free wheeling
diode DF is connected across load, the controlled rectifier operates as half controlled converter. This
converter operates in two operating modes such as continuous mode and discontinuous mode.
Fig.4.9 Single phase half controlled rectifier with R-L load and freewheeling diode DF
4.5.1 Discontinuous mode of operation
In the positive half-cycle of supply voltage, thyristor T1 is forward biased and firing pulse is applied at
 t   . Thereafter, thyristor T1 operates in on-state and input voltage is applied across R-L load and
current starts to flow through load. Consequently thyristor T1 conducts from  t   to t   .
Subsequent to  t   , the polarity of input voltage is reversed, although the load current still flows
due to inductance (L). In this time, the amplitude of load current decreases with time. At t   ,
diode DF is forward biased and starts conduction. After that the decaying inductive current flows
though load and diode DF upto  for discontinuous mode of operation. Since thyristor T1 is reverse
biased, it will be turned off at t   . The waveforms of input voltage, triggering pulse of T1, output
voltage, output current and voltage across T1 for half wave controlled rectifier with R-L load and
freewheeling diode during discontinuous mode operation are shown in Fig.4.10.
The dc output voltage of controlled rectifier is

1 2V
Vav  VO   2V sin td (t )  (1  cos ) (4.37)
2 
2
The dc output current is equal to
VO 2V
I av   (1  cos ) (4.38)
R 2R
Fig.4.10 Supply voltage (Vs), triggering pulse of T1 (ig1 ), output voltage (Vo ), output current (Io) and
voltage across T1 for single phase half wave controlled rectifier with R-L load and freewheeling diode
(discontinuous mode)
4.5.2 Continuous mode of operation
The continuous mode of operation of single phase half wave controlled rectifier with R-L load and
freewheeling diode has two sub parts namely
(i) MODE I : Conduction of T1 and (ii) MODE II : Conduction of DF.

The supply voltage (Vs), triggering pulse of T1 (ig1), output voltage (Vo), output current (Io) and voltage
across T1 for single phase half wave controlled rectifier with R-L load and freewheeling diode is shown
in Fig.4.11
MODE I : Conduction of T1:
During continuous mode of operation, the voltage equation for the circuit [ Fig.4.9] is
dio
2V sin t  L  Rio for   t   (4.39)
dt
Where, V is the rms input voltage and output current is io
The output current io is equal to
R
2V  t
io (t )  is  it  sin(t   )  Ae L (4.40)
Z
The load current io has two components: (i) steady state component ( is ) and transient component ( it
2V
). The steady state component current is is (t )  sin(t   ) and the transient component
Z
R
 t
current is it (t )  Ae L
When  t   , load current io =Io, the equation (4.40) can be expressed as
R
2V 
Io  sin(   )  Ae L  (4.41)
Z
R
2V
Therefore, A  {I o  sin(   )}  e L  (4.42)
Z
When the value of A is substituted in equation (4.40), we obtain
2V  2V  RL R
 t
io (t )  sin(t   )   I o  sin(   )  e  e L (4.43)
Z  Z 
2V  2V   R (t  )
So, io (t )  sin(t   )   I o  sin(   )  e L for   t   (4.44)
Z  Z 
MODE II : Conduction of DF:
The voltage equation during conduction of DF is equal to
dio
0L  Rio for   t  2   (4.45)
dt
The solution of the equation (4.45) is
R
 t
L (4.46)
io (t )  Ae

When  t   , t  and load current io =Io1, the equation (4.46) can be rewritten as

R

L
I o1  Ae (4.47)
When the value of A is substituted in equation (4.46), we get

R R R
 t  ( t   )
io (t )  I o1e L
e L
 I o1 e L for   t  2   (4.48)
Fig.4.11 Supply voltage (Vs), triggering pulse of T1 (ig1), output voltage (Vo), output current (Io) and
voltage across T1 for single phase half wave controlled rectifier with R-L load and freewheeling diode
(continuous mode)
During the positive half cycle of supply voltage, a voltage is induced across the inductance and its value
di di
is L . When changes its sign, the polarity of induced voltage is changed and free wheeling diode
dt dt
DF starts to conduct as soon as the induced voltage reaches a sufficient amplitude. Subsequently
inductance will discharge its stored energy into load resistance.
In this converter circuit, the power flow from input to load takes place only when the thyristor is
conducting. Due to free wheeling diode DF, no power will be returned to source during negative half
cycle of power supply. If diod DF is absent, the stored energy in the load inductance is returned to
supply through thyristor. Therefore, the ratio of recative power flow from supply to the total power
consumed in load is less in single phase half wave controlled rectifier with R-L load and free wheeling
diode.
Re active.Power VI sin 
Hence,   sin  is less. As sin is less, cos is more and power factor
Power.Consumed VI
of single phase half wave controlled rectifier with R-L load and freewheeling diode is more.
Consequently, the freewheeling diode helps to improve power factor of this converter.
The advantages of free wheeling diode in single phase half wave controlled rectifier with R-L load are
(i) average output voltage increases, (ii) input power factor improves, (iii) load current wave form is
improved, (iv) performance of controlled rectifier is better and (v) since the stored energy in inductance
L is transferred to R when the free-wheeling diode conducts, the converter efficiency is improved.
4.6 Single Phase Full Wave Midpoint-Controlled Rectifiers

Fig.4.12 shows the single phase full wave midpoint controlled rectifiers using centre tap transformer.
This circuit diagram is same as the single phase full wave uncontrolled rectifier, but thyristors are
used in place of diodes. These converters are called as two pulse converters as two set triggering
pulses are used to trigger thyristors. When the ac supply voltage is applied across the primary winding
of transformer, the center tap of secondary winding is used as ground or zero reference voltage. The
voltage between the center tap of transformer and either end of the secondary winding is half of the
secondary winding voltage.
Fig.4.12 Single phase full wave midpoint controlled rectifier
4.6.1 Single Phase Full Wave Midpoint Controlled Rectifier With R Load
In the positive half cycle of supply voltage, thyristor T1 is forward biased and thyristor T 2 is reverse
biased. Whenever a gate pulse is applied to thyristor T1 at  t   , T1 starts to conduct and it operates
in on-state and thyristor T 2 is in off-state and current flows through load resistance R and T1 as shown
in Fig.4.13.
Fig.4.13 Single phase full wave midpoint controlled rectifier with R load
During negative half cycle of supply voltage, the polarities of secondary winding have been reversed.
Then thyristor T 2 is forward biased and thyristor T1 is reverse biased. As firing pulse is applied at
 t     , thyristor T2 operates in on-state and thyristor T1 is in off-state and current flows through
load resistance R and thyristor T2. Therefore, the current flows through load in the same direction for
positive and negative half cycle of supply voltage. Thus, the output voltage across load resistance is
full wave rectified dc voltage. Since thyristor T1 conducts from  t   to  t   and thyristor T2
conducts from  t     to t  2 , the input voltage, triggering pulses, output voltage, output
current, voltage across thyristors are shown in Fig.4.14.
Fig.4.14 Supply voltages (Vs ), gate pulse, output voltage (Vo), voltage across thyristor and load current
(Io) waveforms at firing angle  for single phase full wave controlled rectifier with R load
The average or dc output voltage is

1 2V
Vo  Vav   2V sin t.d t = (1  cos ) (4.49)
 
2V 2 2V
When   0 , the average output voltage is (1  cos 0)  (4.50)
 
2V
If    , the average output voltage is (1  cos  )  0 (4.51)
2
2 2V
The dc output voltage is varied from to 0 if firing angle varies from   0 to  as shown

in Fig.4.15.
Fig.4.15 Firing angle vs output voltage
Vo 2V
The dc load current is I o  I av  = (1  cos ) (4.52)
R R
As the load current waveform is similar to voltage waveform, this controlled rectifier operates in first
quadrant only as depicted in Fig.4.16.
Fig.4.16 First quadrant operation of single phase full wave mid point controlled rectifier with R load
The rms output voltage is
1 1
1  2  1 1 2
Vrms    ( 2V sin t ) 2 dt  = 2V  (    sin 2 )  (4.53)
    2 2 
The rms output current is equal to
1
V 2V  1 1 2
I rms  rms = (    sin 2 ) (4.54)
R R  2 2 

The form factor is
1
V  1 1  2 2V
FF  rms = 2V  (    sin 2 )  / (1  cos ) (4.55)
Vav  2 2  
The load ripple factor is equal to RF  FF 2  1 (4.56)
The dc output power is
Pdc  Vav I av  Vo I o (4.57)
2V 2V 2V 2
= (1  cos )  (1  cos ) = 2 (1  cos  ) 2 (4.58)
 R  R
V2  1 
The ac output power is Pac  Vrms I rms =  (    2 sin 2 )  (4.59)
R  
The rms value of transformer secondary current is

1
I 2V  1 1 2
I rms transformer  rms =  (    sin 2 )  (4.60)
2 2 R  2 2 
The VA rating of transformer is
VA=2Vrms Irms-transformer
1
2V 2  1 1 2
=  (    sin 2 )  (4.61)
R  2 2 
The transformer utilization factor (TUF) is
Pdc 2(1  cos  ) 2

TUF   1
(4.62)
VA 1
 [ (    sin 2 )] 2
2
Example 4.4 A single phase full-wave midpoint controlled rectifier is fed from a 220V, 50Hz ac
source and it is connected a resistive load R=20Ω. Calculate (a) the output voltage, (b) form factor,
(c) ripple factor, (d) efficiency, (e) transformer utilization factor at   30 . Assume turn ratio of
transformer is 1:1
Solution

Given :   30 = 30  = 0.523rad
180
As turn ratio of transformer is 1:1, the rms voltage between center tap and other terminal of
transformer secondary is V=220/2=110V.
(a) The dc output voltage is

1 2V 2  110
Vo  Vav   2V sin t.dt = (1  cos ) = (1  cos 30) =92.42 V
 
 
(b) The rms output voltage is
1 1
1  2  1 1 2
Vrms    ( 2V sin t ) 2 dt  = 2V  (    sin 2 ) 
    2 2 
1
 1 1 2
= 2  110 (  0.523  sin( 2  30)) =108.39 V
 2 2 
Form factor is
Vrms 108.39
FF  = =1.172
Vav 92.42
(c) The load ripple factor is RF  FF 2  1 = (1.172) 2  1 =0.6112
Vo 92.42
(d) The dc output current is I o    4.621 A
R 20
Vrms 108.39
RMS output current I rms    5.419 A
R 20
The dc output power is Pdc  Vo I o  92.42  4.621 Watt=427.07 Watt
The ac output power is Pac  V rms I rms = 108.39  5.419 Watt=587.365 Watt
Pdc 427.07
Rectifier efficiency is   100% =  100% =71.49 %
Pac 597.368
(e) The rms value of transformer secondary current is
I rms 5.419
I rms transformer  = A=2.709A
2 2
VA rating of transformer is
VA =2 VIrms-transformer = 2 110 2.709 = 595.98 VA
Transformer utilization factor (TUF) is
Pdc 427.07
TUF  = =0.7165
VA 595.98
4.6.2 Single phase full wave controlled rectifier using centre tap transformer with R-L Load
The single phase full wave midpoint controlled rectifier using centre tap transformer at R-L load is
shown in Fig.4.17. During the positive half cycle of supply voltage, thyristor T1 is forward biased and
thyristor T 2 is reverse biased. If a gate pulse is applied to the thyristor T1 at  t   , T1 operates in
on-state and thyristor T 2 is in off-state and current flows through R-L load and T1.
Fig.4.17 Single phase full wave midpoint controlled rectifier with R-L load
In the negative half cycle of supply voltage, the polarities of secondary winding have been reversed.
Although the voltage across thyristor T1 is negative, thyristor T1 will not be turned-off due to inductive
load. If a firing pulse is applied to thyristor T2 at t     , then thyristor T2 conducts and thyristor
T1 will be in off-state and current flows through R-L load and T2. The load current may be discontinuous
or continuous depending upon the inductive load. This controlled rectifier operates in continuous or
discontinuous mode. If inductance value is very large, the load current will be continuous and each
thyristor conducts for 180 duration. In a complete cycle, Thyristor T1 conducts from  t   to
 t     and Thyristor T2 conducts from  t     to t  2   . Voltage and current

waveforms for continuous mode operation are shown in Fig.4.19.
When inductance value is low, the load current will be discontinuous and each thyristor conducts for
less than 180 duration. For a complete cycle, Thyristor T1 conducts from  t   to  t   and
Thyristor T2 conducts from  t     to  t     . Voltage and current waveforms for
discontinuous mode of operation are depicted in Fig.4.18.
4.6.2.1 Discontinuous Load Current
In discontinuous load current, each thyristor conducts for less than 180 duration and the average
output voltage is

1 2V
Vo  V av   2V sin  t.d t = (cos  cos  ) (4.63)
 

The dc load current is
2V
I o  I av  = (cos  cos  ) (4.64)
R
The rms output voltage is equal to
1 1
1  2 1 1 2
Vrms    ( 2V sin t ) 2 dt  = V  {(    )  (sin 2  sin 2  )}) (4.65)
     2 
The rms output current is expressed as
1
V V 1 1 2
I rms  rms =  {(    )  (sin 2  sin 2  )}) (4.66)
R R  2 
Vrms
Form factor is FF  (4.67)
Vav
Load ripple factor is RF  FF 2  1 (4.68)
2V 2
The dc output power is Pdc  Vav I av  Vo I o = (cos   cos  ) 2 (4.69)
 2R
The ac output power is Pac  V rms I rms (4.70)
The rms value of transformer secondary current is I rmstransformer  I rms / 2 (4.71)

VA rating of transformer is VA=2V Irms-transformer (4.72)
Pdc
Transformer utilization factor (TUF) is TUF  (4.73)
VA
Fig.4.18 Voltage and current waveforms of single phase full wave midpoint controlled rectifier with
R-L load in discontinuous load current
R-L load in continuous load current
4.6.2.2 Continuous Load Current
During continuous mode operation, each thyristor conducts for 180 duration and the average
output voltage is
 
1 2 2V
Vo  Vav   2V sin t.dt = cos  (4.74)
 

2 2V
If   0 , average output voltage is . When    / 2 , average output voltage is 0 and if

2 2V 2 2V
   , average output voltage is - . So, the dc output voltage can be varied from to -
 
2 2V
when firing angle varies from   0 to  as shown in Fig.4.20.

Fig.4.20 Firing angle vs output voltage of single phase full wave midpoint controlled rectifier with R-
L load in continuous load current
2 2V 2 2V
As the load current is always positive and output voltage is varied from to - , this
 
controlled rectifier operates in first and fourth quadrant as depicted in Fig.4.21.
Fig.4.21 First and fourth quadrant operation of single phase full wave midpoint controlled rectifier
with R-L load

1 1
 
1 2
 2 V 2 1   
2
Vrms   ( 2V sin  t ) d  t    |  t  sin 2t |  =V (4.75)
    2 
The voltage equation for the circuit [Fig.4.17] is
dio
2V sin t  L  Rio for   t     (4.76)
dt
Where, V is the rms input voltage and output current is io
The output current io is expressed as
R
2V  t
io ( t )  sin(t   )  Ae L (4.77)
Z
When  t   and  t     , load current io =Io, the equation (4.77) can be written as
R
2V 
Io  sin(   )  Ae L  (4.78)
Z
R (  )
2V 

and I o  sin(     )  Ae L (4.79)
Z
After solving the equation (4.77), we obtain
(t  )
2V 2V 2 sin(   )  tan 
io (t )  sin(t   )  
e (4.80)
Z Z 
1  e tan
4.6.3 Single phase full wave midpoint controlled rectifier with R-L Load and Free-wheeling Diode
The single phase full wave midpoint controlled rectifier using centre tap transformer with R-L load and
free wheeling diode is shown in Fig.4.22. In this controlled rectifier, the conduction period of thyristor
depends upon firing angle  and phase angle  . Due to R-L load, the conduction of thyristor continues
in the negative half cycle of supply voltage. The load current may be continuous or discontinuous
depending on load impedance.
Fig.4.22 Single phase full wave midpoint controlled rectifier with R-L load and free
wheeling diode
While a free wheeling diode DF is connected across R-L load of single phase full wave midpoint
controlled rectifier using centre tap transformer, this converter works as a semi-converter. During the
positive half cycle of supply voltage, thyristor T1 is forward biased and firing pulse is applied at  t  
. Subsequently thyristor T1 is turned on at t   and conducts upto t   . When t   , the diode
DF becomes forward biased as cathode is negative with respect to anode and conducts. Therefore,
load current flows through diode DF and R-L load from t   to  t   for discontinuous load
current. At  t   , diode DF is turned-off as load current reduces to zero.
During the negative half cycle of supply voltage, thyristor T2 is forward biased and firing pulse is applied
at  t     . After that thyristor T2 is turned on at  t     and conducts up to t  2 . At
t  2 , the diode DF becomes forward biased and conducts. So, load current flows through diode
DF and R-L load from t  2 to  t     for discontinuous load current. At  t     , diode
DF is turned off as load current reduces to zero. The voltage and current waveforms in discontinuous
load current are shown in Fig.2.23 and the voltage and current waveforms in continuous load current
are depicted in Fig.4.24.
The dc output voltage is equal to

1 2V
Vo  Vav   2V sin  t.dt = (1  cos  ) (4.81)
 

Vo 2V
I o  I av  = (1  cos  ) (4.82)
R R
R-L load and free wheeling diode in discontinuous load current
Fig.4.24 Voltage and current waveforms of Single phase full wave midpoint controlled rectifier with
R-L load and free wheeling diode in continuous load current
4.7 Different Configurations of Bridge Controlled Rectifiers

Single phase full wave controlled bridge rectifiers are extensively used in various industrial
applications. This controlled rectifier circuit provides unidirectional current flow during both positive
and negative half cycle of input voltage and current flow also depends on the firing angle of thyristors.
Therefore this converter can operate as a controlled rectifier or an inverter. As a single phase full wave
controlled bridge rectifier consists of four thyristors, the gate drive circuit will be complex and
expensive. The form factor and input power factor of this converter is relatively poor. To improve the
output voltage and current form factor, a free wheeling diode DF is connected across load. When the
output voltage becomes negative, the diodes DF across load becomes forward bias and clamp the load
voltage to zero. So, this converter circuit will not be able to operate in the inverter mode. If two
thyristors of a single phase fully controlled rectifier are replaced by two diodes, the fully controlled
converter becomes half controlled converters. The different configuration of single phase bridge
controlled rectifiers is shown in Fig.4.25.
Fig.4.25 Different configuration of single phase bridge controlled rectifier
4.7.1 Single phase fully controlled bridge rectifier With R load

A single phase full wave controlled bridge rectifier consists of four thyristors and R load as shown in
Fig.4.26. The operating principle of this circuit is similar to a single phase full wave controlled rectifier
using center tap transformer and R load. In the bridge controlled rectifier circuit, diagonally pair of
thyristors “T1 & T2” or “T3&T4’’ are conduct and these thyristors are turned off by line commutation
simultaneously.
During positive half cycle of supply voltage, thyristors T1 and T2 are forward biased. When any firing
pulse is applied to T1 and T2 simultaneously at  t   , thyristors T1 and T2 will be turned on and
conduct during   t   . Subsequently current flows through T1, T2 and R as shown in Fig.4.27.
In the negative half cycle of input voltage, thyristors T3 and T4 are forward biased. Whenever any firing
pulse is applied to T3 and T4 simultaneously at t     , thyristors T3 and T4 can be turned on and
conduct during     t  2 . Then current flows through T3 and T4 and R as depicted in Fig.4.27.
Fig.4.26 Single phase full wave controlled bridge rectifier with R load
Fig.4.27 voltage and current waveforms of single phase full wave controlled bridge rectifier with R
load
4.7.2 Single phase fully controlled bridge rectifier With R-L load
Fig.4.28 shows a single phase full wave controlled bridge rectifier with R-L load. During negative half-
cycle of supply voltage, thyristors T1 and T2 are forward biased and operates in the forward blocking
sate. If the firing pulse is applied to T1 and T2 at t   , both thyristors T1 and T2 will be turned on
simultaneously and input voltage is applied across R-L load. Then, the load current flows though T1, T2
and R-L load. Due to inductive load, thyristors T1 and T2 conduct beyond t   .
Fig.4.28 Single phase full wave controlled bridge rectifier with R-L load
In the negative half-cycle of supply voltage, thyristors T3 and T4 are forward biased and these devices
operate in the forward blocking sate. When the firing pulse is applied to T3 and T4 at  t     , both
thyristors are turned on simultaneously and input voltage is applied across R-L load. Consequently, the
load current flows though T3, T4 and R-L load. As the load is inductive, thyristor T3 and T4 will conduct
beyond t  2 . This controlled rectifier circuit operates in continuous mode or discontinuous mode.
4.7.2.1 Continuous Load Current
The voltage and current waveforms of single phase full wave controlled bridge rectifier with R-L load
for continuous mode of operation are shown in Fig.4.29.
The average output voltage is
 
1 2 2V
Vo  Vav   2V sin t.dt = cos  (4.83)
 

V o 2 2V
I o  I av  = cos  (4.84)
R R
1 1
 1    2 V 2  
2
Vrms    ( 2V sin t ) 2 dt     (1  cos 2 t ).d  t  =V (4.85)
    2  
Form factor is
Vrms 2 2V 
FF  =V / cos  = (4.86)
Vav  2 2 cos 
1/ 2
 2
2 
The load ripple factor is RF  FF  1 =  2
 1 (4.87)
 8 cos  
Fig.4.29 The voltage and current waveforms of single phase full wave controlled bridge rectifier with
R-L load for continuous load current
4.7.2.2 Discontinuous Load Current
For discontinuous load current, the voltage and current waveforms of single phase full wave controlled
bridge rectifier with R-L load are shown in Fig.4.30.

1 2V
Vo  Vav   2V sin t.d t = (cos  cos  ) (4.88)
 
The average or dc load current is
Vo 2V
I o  I av  = (cos   cos  ) (4.89)
R R
1 1
1  2 1 1 2
Vrms    ( 2V sin t ) 2 dt  = 2V  {(    )  (sin 2  sin 2 )}) (4.90)
     2 
The rms output current is

1
V 2V  1 1 2
I rms  rms =  {(    )  (sin 2  sin 2  )}) (4.91)
R R  2 
R-L load for discontinuous load current
4.7.3 Single Phase Fully Controlled Bridge Rectifier With Free Wheeling Diode DF and R-L
Load
A single phase full wave controlled bridge rectifier which consists of four thyristors (T1,T2,T3 and T4), R-
L load and free wheeling diode DF as shown in Fig.4.31. In the negative half-cycle of supply voltage,
thyristors T1 and T2 are forward biased and the firing pulse is applied to T1 and T2 at t   .
Subsequently both thyristors T1 and T2 are turned on at the same time and supply voltage is applied
across R-L load. Then, the load current flows through T1, T2 and R-L load. Since load is inductive, the
load current continuously flows after t   . The load current can flow through DF as thyristors T1
and T2 are turned off due to reverse bias after t   and thyristor current is below the holding
current.
Fig.4.31 Single phase full wave controlled bridge rectifier with R-L load and free wheeling diode DF
During negative half-cycle of supply voltage, thyristors T3 and T4 are forward biased and these devices
operate in the forward blocking sate. Whenever firing pulse is applied to T3 and T4 at  t     ,
both thyristors T3 and T4 are turned on simultaneously and input voltage is applied to R-L load. So, the
load current flows through T3, T4 and R-L load. Due to presence of inductive load, the load current
continuously flows after t  2 . Then the load current flows through DF as thyristors T3 and T4 are
turned off due to reverse bias after t  2 and the current flow through thyristor is less than the
holding current. This controlled rectifier circuit operates in continuous mode and discontinuous mode.
The voltage and current waveforms of single phase full wave controlled bridge rectifier with R-L load
and free wheeling diode DF for continuous load current and for discontinuous load current are shown
in Fig.4.32 and Fig.4.33 respectively.
Fig.4.32 The voltage and current waveformsof single phase full wave controlled bridge rectifier with
R-L load and free wheeling diode DF for continuous load current
R-L load and free wheeling diode DF for discontinuous load current
Example 4.5 A single phase fully controlled bridge converter with R-L load is supplied from 230V,
50Hz ac supply. If the firing angle is 45 , Calculate average output voltage
Solution
Given: V  230V ,   45
 
1 2 2V 2 2  230
Vo  Vav   2V sin t.dt = cos  = cos 45 = 146.46V
 
 
Example 4.6 A single phase fully controlled bridge converter is supplied from 210V, 50Hz ac supply
and fed to a load which consists of R=10Ω and large inductance so that the load current is constant. If
the firing angle is 45 , calculate (a) average output voltage, (b) average output current (c) average
current of thyristor (d) rms current of thyristor (e) power factor.
Solution
Given: V  210V , f  50 Hz, R  10 A and   45
(a)At firing angle  the average output voltage is
 
1 2 2V
Vo  Vav   2V sin t.dt = cos 
 

2 2  210
 cos 45 = 133.73 V

Vo 133.73
(b) The average current is I o   = 13.373 A
R 10
I 13.373
(c) The average current of thyristor is ITav  o   6.68 A
2 2
I 13.373
(d) The rms current of thyristor is I Trms  o   9.45 A A
2 2
(e) rms value of source current I rms  I o  13.373 A
DC output is Pdc  Vo I o  133.73  13.373  1788.37 Watt
Vo I o 133.73  13.373
Power factor cos     0.636 lag
VI rms 210  13.373
4.7.4 Single Phase Half Bridge Controlled Rectifier With R Load

If two thyristors of full converter are replaced diodes as depicted in Fig.4.26, the modified controlled
rectifier circuit is called as half bridge controlled rectifier. Different types of half bridge controlled
rectifier are (i) symmetrical configurations (common cathode [Fig.4.34] or common anode [Fig.4.35])
and (ii) asymmetrical configurations (thyristors in one arm and diodes in another arm) [Fig.4.36]. The
common cathode symmetrical type half bridge converter is most commonly used as a single firing
circuit can be used to turn on both thyristors T1 and T3 as shown in Fig.4.34.
Fig.4.34 Single phase half controlled bridge controlled rectifier common-cathode with R load
Fig.4.35 Single phase half controlled bridge controlled rectifier common-anode with R load
Fig.4.36 Single phase asymmetrical half controlled bridge controlled rectifier with R load
During positive half cycle of input voltage, thyristor T1 is forward biased and operates in forward
bloacking state. When a firing pulse is applied at t   , the thyristor T1 operates in on-state and supply
voltage is connected across resistance. Subsequently current flows through T1 and D2. At t   ,
thyristor T1 is reverse biased and it is turned-off.
In negative half cycle of input voltage, thyristor T3 is forward biased. If a firing pulse is applied at
 t     , the thyristor T3 becomes ON and supply voltage is applied across resistance. Then current
flows through T3 and D4. At t  2 , the thyristor T3 is reverse biased and it is turned- off. The voltage
and current wave forms of single phase half bridge controlled rectifier are shown in Fig.6.37.
Fig.4.37 Voltage and current waveforms of single phase half bridge controlled rectifier with R load

1 2V
Vo  Vav   2V sin  t.d t = (1  cos ) (4.92)
 

Vo 2V
I o  I av  = (1  cos ) (4.93)
R R

1 1
1  2 1 1 2
Vrms    ( 2V sin t ) 2 dt  = V  (    sin 2 )  (4.94)
    2 
1
V V 1 1 2
The rms output current is I rms  rms =  (    sin 2 )  (4.95)
R R  2 
1
 1 2
Vrms  (    2 sin 2 )
Form factor is FF  = (4.96)
Vav 2 (1  cos  )
1
 1 2
  (    sin 2 ) 
Load ripple factor is RF  FF 2  1 =  2  1 (4.97)
2
 2(1  cos  ) 
 
2V 2
The dc output power is Pdc  Vav I av  Vo I o = 2
(1  cos  ) 2 (4.98)
 R
V2  1 
The ac output power is Pac  Vrms I rms =  (    2 sin 2 )  (4.99)
R  
4.7.5 Single Phase Half Bridge Controlled Rectifier With R-L Load
The common cathode, common anode and asymmetrical configurations of single phase half bridge
controlled rectifier with R-L are shown in Fig.4.38, Fig.4.39 and Fig.4.40 respectively. Due to presence
of inductance, load current flows at the end of each half cycle of input voltage.
Fig.4.38 Single phase half controlled bridge controlled rectifier common-cathode with R-L load
Fig.4.39 Single phase half controlled bridge controlled rectifier common-anode with R-L load
Fig.4.40 Single phase asymmetrical half controlled bridge controlled rectifier with R-L load
In the positive half cycle of input voltage, Thyristor T1 conducts and load current flows through T1 and
D2 from t   to  . After  t   , the input voltage is negative and passes through zero crossing
and diode D4 comes into conduction commutating diode D2.. Subsequently load current flows through
T1 and diode D4 and the amplitude of load current decays exponentially. As soon as thyristor T3 is fired
in the negative half cycle of supply voltage, thyristor T1 is to be turned off. After that load current flows
through T3 and D4 from  t     to 2 .
After t  2 , the input voltage is positive and passes through zero crossing and diode D2 becomes
into conduction commutating diode D4 . Then the load current flows though T2 and D2 and it again
decays exponentially. There after the cycle operation will be repetitive after firing T1. This controlled
rectifier circuit can able to operate in continuous or discontinuous mode. Voltage and current
waveforms for continuous and discontinuous load current mode of operation are shown in Fig.4.41
and Fig.4.42 respectively.
Fig.4.41 Voltage and current waveforms of single phase half controlled bridge controlled rectifier
with R-L load for continuous load current
The dc output voltage is

1 2V
Vo  Vav   2V sin  t.d t = (1  cos ) (4.100)
 

Vo 2V
I o  I av  = (1  cos ) (4.101)
R R
1 1
1  2  1 1 2
Vrms    ( 2V sin t ) 2 dt  = 2V  (    sin 2 )  (4.102)
    2 2 
1
V 2V  1 1 2
The rms output current is I rms  rms =  (    sin 2 )  (4.103)
R R  2 2 
Fig.4.42 Voltage and current waveforms of single phase half controlled bridge controlled rectifier
with R-L load for discontinuous load current
For more on Half

Controlled Bridge
Converter
EXERCISE
4.1 In a half-wave controlled rectifier circuit with R load, the average output voltage at firing angle 
is ____ when input voltage is 2V sint
2V
(a) VO  cos 

2V
(b) VO  (1  cos  )
2
2V
(c) VO  (1  cos )
2
2V
(d) VO  (1  cos  )

4.2 In a single phase half-wave controlled rectifier with R-L load, the free wheeling diode is connected
across load. The extinction angle  is greater than  . If the firing angle is  , the conduction period
of thyristor and free wheeling diode are
(a)   t   and   t  
(b)   t   and   t  
(c) 0  t   and   t  
(d)   t   and 2  t  
4.3 In a single phase full bridge controlled rectifier, the average dc output voltage is equal to
 
1
(a) Vo   2V sin t.dt
 

1
(b) Vo 
 
2V sin t.dt
 
1
(c) Vo   2V sin t.dt
 0
2 
1
(d) Vo   2V sin t.dt
 
4.4 In a single phase semi-converter, the average dc output voltage is equal to
 
1
(a) Vo   2V sin t.dt
 0
2 
1
(b) Vo   2V sin t.dt
 
 
1
(c) Vo   2V sin t.dt
 

1
(d) Vo 
 
2V sin t.dt
4.5 If a single phase full wave controlled rectifier operates in continuous conduction mode, each
SCR conducts for ______duration
(a)  (b) 2 (c)    (d)   

4.6 If a single phase full controlled rectifier operates in discontinuous conduction mode and
extinction angle  is greater than  , each SCR conducts for ______duration
(a)  (b)   (c)    (d)   
4.7. If a single phase semi converter operates in continuous conduction mode, each SCR
conducts for ______duration
(a)  (b)  (c)    (d)   
4.8 A freewheeling diode is connected across R-L load to provide
(a) reduce utilization factor
(b) first turn on
(c) slow turn off
(d) power factor improvement
4.9 A single phase full-wave bridge controlled rectifier operates as an inverter when the firing angle in
the range_______
(a) 0    90
(b) 90    180
(c) 30    90
(d) 60    180
4.10 Which rectifier requires two diodes and two SCRs?
(a) half-wave controlled rectifier
(b) full-wave controlled bridge rectifier
(c) half controlled bridge rectifier
(d) semi-converter
4.11 Which rectifier requires four diodes?
(b) full-wave controlled bridge rectifier

(c) Half controlled bridge rectifier
(d) Semi-converter
4.12 Which circuit requires one SCR?
(b) full-wave controlled rectifier circuit using center tap transformer
(c) half-controlled bridge rectifier
(d) semi-converter
4.13 In a controlled rectifier, the load current depends on
(a) firing angle and type of load
(b) firing angle only
(c) type of load only
(d) none of these
4.14 In a single phase half wave rectifier circuit with R-L load and a free wheeling diode across the load
and extinction angle  is greater than  . If the firing angle of SCR is  , then SCR conducts for____
duration and free wheeling diode conducts for ______ duration.
(a)    , 
(b)    ,  
(c)    ,  
(d)    ,  
4.15 In a single phase half controlled rectifier with resistive load and firing angle  , the load current
is zero for _______ duration and non-zero for _____________ duration.
(a)    ,  (b)  ,    (c)    ,  (d)  ,   
REVIEW QUESTIONS
4.16 What is phase angle controlled technique of converter?
4.17 Write the applications of phase controlled rectifiers.
4.18 What is a semiconverter?

4.19 What is a full converter?
4.20 Write the advantages of freewheeling diode in single phase half wave controlled rectifier
with R-L load.
4.21 Compare between semi converter and full converter
4.22 Compare between half controlled converter and full controlled converter.
4.23 How a single phase full converter operates as an inverter.
4.24 What is the principle of phase control?
4.25 What is extinction-angle control of converter?
4.26 (a) Draw the circuit diagram of single phase half-wave controlled rectifier with R load.
Describe its working principle.
(b) Draw the voltage and current waveforms. Determine the following parameters
(i) dc output voltage (ii) Average d.c. load current (iii) rms output voltage
(iv) rms load current (v) Ripple factor (vi) regulation (vii) efficiency
4.27 Explain the operation of single phase angle full controlled rectifier. Derive the expression for
average dc output voltage.
4.28 A single phase full wave controlled rectifier circuit feeds power to a resistive load. Draw the
waveforms for input voltage, output voltage, load current and voltage across SCR for a specified firing
angle  .
4.29 (a) Draw the circuit diagram of a single phase half-wave controlled rectifier with RL load.
2V
(b) Prove that average dc output voltage is VO  (cos  cos  ) where V is rms
2
input voltage,  is firing angle and  is extinction angle.
(c) Derive the expression for rms output voltage.
4.30 Determine the output voltage of a single phase half wave controlled converter with RL load and
freewheeling diode at the firing angle  .
4.31 Draw the circuit diagram of single phase full wave controlled rectifier using centre tap
transformer with R load and determine
(a) dc output voltage (b) average d.c. load current (c) rms output voltage
(d) rms load current (e) Ripple factor and (g) efficiency
4.32 (a) Draw the circuit diagram of single phase full wave controlled rectifier using centre tap
transformer with RL load and freewheeling diode.
2V
(b) Prove that the average output voltage at firing angle  is V o = (1  cos )

4.33 (a) Draw the circuit diagram of single phase bridge converter with R load. Explain its
working principle.
(i) dc output voltage (ii) Average d.c. load current and (iii) rms output voltage
4.34 (a) Draw the circuit diagram of single phase half-controlled bridge rectifier with R load.
Discuss its working principle.
(i) dc output voltage (ii) Average d.c. load current and (iii) rms output voltage
Problems
4.35 A single phase 210V, 1.5 kW heater is connected a half wave controlled rectifier and it is supplied
from a 210V, 50Hz ac supply. Calculate the power absorbed by the heater if the firing angle is (a)
  60 and (b)   45
4.36 A single phase half wave controlled rectifier is connected across R-L load and feeds from a 220V,
50Hz ac supply. If R=20Ω and L=0.05H, Compute (a) the firing angle to ensure no transient current
and (b) the firing angle for the maximum transient.
4.37 The voltage across secondary winding of a single phase transformer is 210V, 50 Hz and the
transformer deliver power to resistive load of R  2 through a single phase half wave controlled
rectifier. When the firing angle of thyristor is 90 , determine (a) average dc output voltage (b) average
dc output current (c) rms output voltage (d) rms output current (e) form factor (f) voltage ripple factor
(g) rectification efficiency (h) transformer utilization factor and (i) PIV of thyristor.
4.38 A single phase full-wave midpoint controlled rectifier is fed from a 230V, 50Hz ac source and it
is connected a resistive load R=20Ω. Calculate (a) the output voltage, (b) form factor, (c) ripple factor,
(d) efficiency, (e) transformer utilization factor at   30 . Assume turn ratio of transformer is 1:1
4.39 A single phase fully controlled bridge converter with R-L load is supplied from 210V, 50Hz ac
supply. If the firing angle is 45 , Calculate average output voltage.
4.40 A single phase fully controlled bridge converter is supplied from 220V, 50Hz ac supply and fed to
a load which consists of R=10Ω and large inductance so that the load current is constant. If the firing
angle is 45 , calculate (a) average output voltage, (b) average output current (c) average current of
thyristor (d) rms current of thyristor (e) power factor.
PRACTICAL
3. Use CRO to observe the output waveform of half wave controlled rectifier with resistive
load and determine the load voltage
Aim:
1. To study the performance and waveforms of half-wave controlled rectifier with resistive load.
2. To plot a graph of variation of output voltage Vo with respect to firing angle α
Apparatus:
SCR TY604/2N 6394/TYN 612; Transformer +12V - 0 -12V, 500mA; Resistance R 1kΩ, 1 Watt;
Synchronized UJT triggering circuit; Voltmeter 0-20V DC; Ammeter 0-1A; Digital multi-meter 0-20V DC,
0-1A; Dual Trace 10 MHz CRO
Circuit Diagram:
Fig.4.43 Circuit diagram for the test “Use CRO to observe the output waveform of half wave controlled
rectifier with resistive load and determine the load voltage”
Theory:
Half wave controlled rectifier is a circuit which converts AC input voltage into controlled DC output
voltage using controlled device like SCR by varying firing angle α. In this controlled rectifier, the output
voltage can be controlled in only positive half cycle of input ac voltage. The output voltage is
unidirectional dc output. The detail operating principle, voltage and current waveforms of half wave
controlled rectifier is described in section 4.3.
Single phase half wave controlled rectifier has its main applications in low power DC drives. This
controlled rectifier can also be used in portable handheld instruments, flexible speed controlled
industrial drives, and battery charger.
Precautions:
6. Initially all switches of the power supplies are at off condition.
7. Do not increase the gate current more than rated value of SCR.
9. Use appropriate heat sink for proper cooling of SCR.
Procedure:
7. Make the circuit connection using all required equipment as per the circuit diagram
8. Switch on power supply
9. Measure AC input voltage at secondary of transformer using voltmeter/multi-meter
10. Connect CRO across the input ac supply to observe as well as measure the input voltage
11. Connect CRO across the load to observe as well as measure the output voltage
12. Observe the output voltage waveforms at different firing angles.
13. Draw the input and output voltage waveforms on graph paper at different firing angles
observing the waveforms in CRO.
14. Using observation table, plot graph for variation of output voltage with respect to firing
angle α
Observation Table:
Table 4.1 Observation Table for Half wave rectifier
Sr.No. Firing angle Measured output voltage (Vo) Calculated output voltage (Vo)
α in degree
VIVA Questions Related to Half wave rectifier
2. State the effect on output voltage when there is no gate pulse
3. State the effect on output voltage when gate pulse is applied at 180ᵒ
4. Explain the performance and working principle of half-controlled rectifier with relevant
waveforms for resistive load.
5. What will be the output voltage Vo if firing angle α=90ᵒ
4. Draw the output waveform of Full wave-controlled rectifier with R load, RL load,
freewheeling diode and determine the load voltage
Aim:
1. To study the performance and waveforms of full-wave controlled rectifier with
resistive load, RL load and freewheeling diode.
Apparatus:
SCR TY604/2N6394/TYN 612; Diode 1N4001-T; Transformer +12V - 0 -12V, 500mA; Resistance
R 1kΩ, 1 Watt; Inductance L 100mH, 500mA; Synchronized UJT triggering circuit; Voltmeter 0-20V DC;
Ammeter 0-1A; Digital multi-meter 0-20V DC, 0-1A; Dual trace 10 MHz CRO
Circuit Diagram:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig.4.45 Circuit diagram for the experiment “Draw the output waveform of full wave controlled
rectifier with (a) R load, (b) R-L load, and (c) R-L load with freewheeling diode and determine the
load voltage”
Theory:
Single phase full wave controlled rectifier is a circuit which converts AC input voltage into controlled
DC output voltage using controlled device like SCR by varying firing angle. For full-wave controlled
rectifier, two SCRs are connected across the center tapped secondary. The gates of SCRs are supplied
from synchronized UJT triggering control circuits. One SCR conducts during the positive half cycle of
input voltage and other SCR conducts during the negative half cycle of input voltage. Therefore, in this
controlled rectifier, output voltage can be controlled in positive as well as negative half cycle of input
ac voltage. The output voltage is always dc output and unidirectional current flows through the load.
The detail operating principle, voltage and current waveforms of full wave controlled rectifier is
described in section 4.6. This converter is used in various applications such as battery charging, speed
control of dc motors and portable handheld instruments.
Precautions:
2. Do not increase the gate current more than rated value of SCR.
4. Use appropriate heat sink for proper cooling of SCR.
Procedure:
1. Make the circuit connection using all required equipment as per the circuit diagram
2. Switch on power supply
3. Measure AC input voltage at secondary of transformer using voltmeter/multi-meter
4. Connect CRO across the input ac supply to observe as well as measure the input voltage
5. Connect CRO across the load to observe as well as measure the output voltage
7. Observe the output voltage in CRO by varying firing angle for following load
a) R Load
b) R-L Load
c) R-L load with freewheeling diode
angle α
Observation Table:
Table 4.2 Observation Table for Full wave rectifier with R load
Sr.No. Firing angle Measured output voltage (Vo) Calculated output voltage
(Vo(cal))
α in degree
Table 4.3 Observation Table for Full wave rectifier with R-L load
Sr.No. Firing angle α Measured output voltage (Vo) Calculated output voltage
in degree (Vo(cal))
Table 4.4 Observation Table for Full wave rectifier with R-L load with free-wheeling diode
Sr.No. Firing angle α Measured output voltage (Vo) Calculated output voltage
in degree (Vo(cal))
VIVA Questions on Full wave-controlled rectifier
2. State the effect on output voltage when there is no gate pulse
3. State the effect on output voltage when gate pulse is applied at 180ᵒ
4. Explain the performance and working principle of full-wave controlled rectifier with
relevant waveforms for R-L load with free-wheeling diode.
5. State the effect on output voltage if freewheeling diode is open circuit

KNOW MORE
Thyristor rectifier converts an AC voltage to a DC voltage at the output and the power flow is
bidirectional between the AC and the DC side. The circuit operation depends on the state of the AC
source and the firing angle α of single phase and three phase controlled rectifier when the source
inductance Ls is neglected. When the firing angle of thyristors is zero, the controlled rectifier circuit
behaves as diode rectifier with inductive load. When firing angle is more than 0° and less than 90°,
converter act as rectifier and when firing angle is more than 90° and less than 180°, converter acts as
inverter and power flows from the dc to the ac side. The performance of converter depends on the
source inductance Ls. To study the influence of source inductor Ls on converter, please scan the QR
code as given below. To study the detailed operation of three phase controlled rectifier, dual converter
and commutation overlap, we scan the following QR codes.
For more on the controlled

rectifier with source inductance
For more three phase controlled

rectifiers
For more on Dual Converter and

Communication Overlap
References
1. Sugandhi, Rajendra kumar and Sugandhi, Krishna kumar, Thyristors: Theory and
Applications, New Age International (P) ltd. publishers, New Delhi
2. Bhattacharya,S.K., Fundamental of Power Electronics, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. Noida
3. Jain & Alok, Power Electronics and its Applications, Penram International Publishing(India)
Pvt. Ltd, Mumbai
India, Noida
5. Sing,M.D. and Khanchandani, K.B., Power Electronics, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd,
New Delhi
Delhi

Industrial Control
5 Circuits
UNIT SPECIFIES
 Different industrial applications of Power electronics devices

 Burglar’s alarm system
 Battery charger using SCR
 Emergency light system
 Temperature controller using SCR
 Illumination control/fan speed control using TRIAC
 Switch mode power supply (SMPS)
 UPS: off-line and online
 SCR based AC and DC circuit breakers
The above practical applications of the topics are discussed for generating curiosity and
questions of short and long answer types marked in two categories following lower and higher
order of Bloom’s taxonomy. A list of references and suggested readings are illustrated in this
unit so that learners can go through them for practice and get detailed knowledge. It is also
be noted that some QR codes have been incorporated in different sections of this unit for
getting more information on various topics of interest.
After discussion the content related to theory, there is a “Know More” section at end of this
unit which is related to laboratory experiments. This section has been carefully designed so
that the supplementary information provided in this section becomes beneficial for the
learners. Usually, this section highlights the initial activity, examples of some interesting facts,
analogy, and history of the development of the power electronics devices focusing the salient
observations and finding, timelines starting from the development of the concerned topics
up to the recent time, applications of the subject matter for our day-to-day life, and industrial
applications of power electronics devices.
RATIONALE
This unit on “Industrial Control Circuits” can be able to provide detail information regarding
different industrial applications of power electronics devices. This unit can helps students to
get a primary idea about burglar’s alarm system, battery charger using SCR, emergency light
system, and temperature controller using SCR. The illumination control/fan speed control
using TRIAC, switch mode power supply (SMPS), UPS: off-line and online and SCR based AC
and DC circuit breakers are also described elaborately to help students to know about the
applications of power semiconductor devices.
PRE-REQUISITES
Electrical machines and power system
UNIT OUTCOMES
U5-O1: To explain about industrial control circuits
U5-O2: To describe burglar’s alarm system

U5-O3: To learn about construction and working principle of battery charger using SCR and
emergency light system
U5-O4: To discuss about construction and working principle of temperature controller using
SCR and illumination control/fan speed control using TRIAC
U5-O5: To understand the concept of switch mode power supply (SMPS) and UPS: off-line
and online
U5-O6: To explain aspects of SCR based ac and dc circuit breakers
U5-O7: To troubleshoot the burglar’s alarm, emergency light system, speed control system,
and temperature control system
Industrial Control Circuits | 275

U5-O1 3 2 2 3 3
U5-O2 3 2 2 3 3
U5-O3 3 2 2 3 3
U5-O4 3 2 2 3 3
U5-O5 3 2 2 3 3
U5-O6 3 2 2 3 3
U5-O7 3 2 2 3 3
5.1 Introduction
Presently power electronics devices have been intensively used in industrial control
circuits such as power supplies, converters, inverters, battery chargers, temperature
control, variable speed motor drives, renewable energy sources, transmission of electric
power in dc and ac, electric vehicles, robot arm drives, washing machines and it is also
contributing to the development and evaluation of new structures for processing of
electrical energy. With the evaluation of microprocessors and advanced control theories,
power electronics are playing an important role in development of our society. Hence
the design, development and optimization of power electronics and controller devices
are required to achieve the optimal use of electrical energy in consumer electronics
circuits. In this unit, circuits based on power electronics devices such as burglar’s alarm
system, battery charger using SCR, emergency light system, temperature controller using
SCR, illumination control and fan speed control using TRIAC, SMPS, UPS: Off-line and
Online, and SCR based AC and DC circuit breakers are described elaborately.
5.2 Burglar’s Alarm System

Burglar’s alarm is an utility system which is used in order to safe-guard property against
theft. It uses a very simple sensor like fine wires. Fig. 5.1 shows the circuit diagram of a
burglar alarm system. Initially switch S1 is kept in ON position and the loop circuit A-B
consists of a length of fine wire which is fixed on all windows and ventilators of the house
at such a height so that the fine wire will be broken whenever anyone want to enter into
the premises. The variable resistance R1 is used for sensitivity control. Whenever the
loop circuit A-B is closed, the relay is de-energised. When the loop circuit A-B is closed,
transistor T1 turns ON. Consequently, most of the voltage is dropped across R 5 and base
emitter junction of transistor T2 gets reverse biased. Subsequently transistor T2 operates
in an OFF state and the relay is not energised. Whenever the loop wire A-B is broken,
the base of T1 becomes open and T1 turns OFF and the voltage across resistance R5
becomes zero. Consequently the base emitter junction of transistor T2 becomes forward
biased which turns ON the transistor T2. Subsequently relay is energised and gets closed
and bell starts ringing. This circuit can be used to protect the vehicles when it is kept in
open space of the premises.
Fig.5.1 Circuit diagram of a burglar alarm

5.2.1 Equipment Required
Sl. Item with specification Quantity
No.
1 Power Transistor T1 (BC 147) 1
2 Power Transistor T2 (SL100) 1

Sl. Item with specification Quantity

No.
3 9V DC Power supply 1
4 Variable resistance/Potentiometer R1- 4.7 kΩ, 1/2 1

Watt
5 R 2- 1.2 kΩ, 1/2 Watt 1
6 R 3- 4.7 kΩ, 1/2 Watt 1
7 R 4- 4.7 kΩ, 1/2 Watt 1
8 R 5- 10Ω, 1/2 Watt 1
9 R 6- 1.2 kΩ, 1/2 Watt 1
10 R 7- 560Ω, 1/2 Watt 1
11 Switch S1 1
12 Relay: 9V, 1A 1
13 Speaker /Electric buzzer, 6V 1
14 Cabinet for alarm 1
15 Bakelite sheet, wires, solder -
5.2.2 Applications
Burglar alarm has the following applications:
(i) Burglar alarm is used to protect property against theft.
(ii) It can be used as alarm against theft in houses, cars and other premises
(iii) It can also be used as standard equipment in stores and business offices for security
purpose.
5.3 Battery Charger using SCR

Usually the battery chargers are used to control the charging current by continuously
comparing the terminal voltage of battery with the constant reference voltage across zener
diode. When the battery is fully charged, SCR (T1) will be turned off and also disconnect the
battery from the charging circuit. Therefore, the battery will not be over charged and it
becomes healthy. Fig.5.2 shows the circuit diagram of battery charger using SCR. This circuit
consists of following elements:
(i) Single phase ac supply
(ii) Step down transformer
(iii) Rectifier circuit
(iv) SCR
(v) Zener diode for voltage regulation and
(vi) Battery to be charged
Fig.5.2 Circuit diagram of battery charger using SCR
Here input voltage is 230V, 50Hz single phase ac supply and 230V/15V-0-15V, 2A step down
transformer is used to provide ac supply to full wave rectifier comprising diodes D1 and D2.
Initially 230V, 50Hz ac supply is provided to the step-down transformer which converts the
high voltage into low voltage and 15V ac can be obtained from the secondary winding of
transformer. During the positive half cycle of supply voltage, D1 is forward biased and
operates in conduction state and D2 is reverse biased and operates in non-conducting state.
In the negative half cycle of supply voltage, D2 is forward biased and operates in conduction
state and D1 is reverse biased and operates in non-conducting state. Hence the full wave
rectified dc output voltage is obtained from point A.
A zener diode (Dz1) with breakdown voltage of 12V used as a voltage regulator to regulate
the voltage level of the circuit. Therefore the terminal voltage at point B will be 12V due to
the presence of zener diode. Usually the rectified output voltage at A is more than at terminal
B, and the SCR (T1) is forward biased. When switch S1 is ON and a gate current flows through
gate cathode of SCR, SCR will starts to conduct and current flows through load. As current
flows through the battery, battery will be charged and energy can be stored in the battery.
Whenever the rectified output voltage is less than the terminal voltage at B, SCR (T1) will be
reverse biased and it will be turned-off and current will not flow through battery. The rating
of breakdown voltage of the zener diode and the transformer depends on the charging
potential of the battery.
5.3.1 Drawbacks of Battery Charger Using SCR
The drawbacks of battery charger using SCR are given below:
(i) This charging method takes quite a long time during charging of battery.
(ii) As filter circuit is not present, ripples are exist in output of rectifier
(iii) The process of charging and discharging is slow
(iv) This circuit is suitable for charging batteries up to medium ampere-hour rating.
5.3.2 Equipment Required:
Sl. No. Item with specification Quantity
1 SCR T1 TYN 604 , 4A 1
2 Transformer 230V/15-0-15V, 2A, 50 Hz 1
3 12V Battery 1
4 Diodes D1, D2 1N 5008 2
5 Zener diode Dz 1A 15 V 1
6 Diode D3 1N 4001 1
7 R 1- 470Ω, ½ Watt 1
8 Current limiting resistance R 2- 4.7Ω, 10 Watt 1
9 Bakelite sheet, wires, solder, plug On-OFF switch -
10 DC voltmeter 1
11 DC Ammeter 1
5.3.3 Applications
Battery charger using SCR has the following applications:
`(i) It can be used as an automatic battery charger
(ii) It can be used to charge batteries of electronic toys
(iii) It is available as a portable circuit and can be carried anywhere.
For more on Battery charger

using SCR
5.4 Emergency Light System using SCR

Emergency light system is an illumination device which can be designed using SCR. In presence
of 230V, 50Hz, single phase ac supply, the lamp will not glow as the SCR operates in turned-
off state and simultaneously battery will be charged. Whenever ac supply is disturbed, the
lamp will glow immediately. The storage battery will provide the energy to lamp for a certain
period depending on the amp-hr rating of battery.
Fig.5.3 shows the circuit diagram of emergency light system using SCR. In this circuit, input
voltage is 230V, 50Hz single phase ac supply and 230V/6-0-6V, 1A step down transformer is
used to provide ac supply to full wave rectifier, which consists of diodes D1 and D2. At first
230V, 50Hz ac supply is provided to the step-down transformer which converts the high
voltage into low voltage and 6V ac can be obtained from the secondary winding of
transformer. In the positive half cycle of supply voltage, D1 is forward biased and operates in
conduction state and D2 is reverse biased and operates in non-conducting state. During the
negative half cycle of supply voltage, D2 is forward biased and operates in conduction state
and D1 is reverse biased and operates in non-conducting state. Thus the full wave rectified dc
output voltage is obtained from point X.
When the ac supply voltage is available, the 250µF, 25V capacitor get charged through
resistance R1 and its upper plate is positive charged and the lower plate is negatively charged.
As the negative polarity is applied at the gate, SCR operates in turned-off sate and lamp will
not glow but dc battery should be charge through the diode D3 and resistance R3. When the
ac supply is disturbed, the 250µF capacitor starts discharging through diode D3, resistance R3
and R2. After certain time, SCR T1 will be forward biased and gate terminal will be positive
polarity, then SCR T1 will be turned-on and starts conducting. Consequently the lamp is
connected to battery and it starts to glow. DC battery also discharges through SCR T1. At the
moment, ac power supply is reinstated, the SCR T1 will be automatically turned-off and lamp
will be switched-off and the battery will start getting charged.
Fig.5.3 Circuit diagram of emergency light system using SCR
1 SCR T1 TYN 604 , 4A 1
2 Transformer 230V/6-0-6V, 1A, 50 Hz 1
3 6V Battery 1
4 Diodes D1, D2 1N 5008 2
5 Diode D3 1N 4001 1
6 R 1- 22Ω, 2 Watt 1
7 R 2- 440Ω, ½ Watt 1
8 R 3- 1Ω, 2 Watt 1
9 Capacitor C1 250µF, 25V 1
10 Lamp 6V, 20W 1
11 6V, 4 amp-hr Battery 1
5.4.2 Applications
Emergency light system using SCR has the following applications:

(i) It can be used as an emergency light
(ii) It is available as a portable circuit and can be carried anywhere.
5.5 Temperature Controller using SCR

Fig.5.4 shows the circuit diagram for temperature controller using SCR. Single phase 230V,
50Hz ac supply connected to series connected diode D1 and capacitor C1. Resistance R1 and
temperature detector resistor (RTD) R2 are connected in series and then it is connected in
parallel with capacitor C1. The voltage across R2 is applied to gate and cathode of SCR. Diode
D2 is parallel connected across SCR and heater is connected in between ac supply and anode
of T1 as shown in Fig.5.4.
During the positive half cycle of input voltage, D1 is forward biased and capacitor C1 is charged
up to the positive peak of the supply voltage. As C1 remains charged, current flows through
R1 and R2. Then voltage Vg is applied between gate and cathode of SCR. Subsequently SCR will
be turned-on as it is forward biased and current flows through heater and SCR. During the
negative half cycle of supply voltage, current flows through diode D2 and heater. Therefore,
temperature can be controlled by varying the conduction time of SCR T1 during positive half
cycle of ac supply only.
Resistance R2 is temperature dependent resistance. The value of R2 decreases as temperature

increases and its value increases as temperature decreases. For any change in temperature,
R2 changes and voltage across R2 i.e. Vg changes accordingly. Then this voltage controls the
SCR triggering which control the heater operation to maintain temperature at certain level.
When the temperature decreases at certain level, R2 increases, then Vg voltage increases and
SCR is switched ON and the conduction period of SCR is increased as the triggering angle is
reduced. Consequently, the heater operation is controlled by SCR T1 to maintain the
temperature at certain level.
Fig.5.4 Circuit diagram for temperature controller using SCR

1 SCR T1 400V, 4A 1
2 Capacitor C1 0.047µF, 400V 1
3 R 1- 27Ω, ½ Watt 1
4 R 2- 220kΩ, ½ Watt RTD 2
5 Diodes D1, D2 1N 5008 1
6 Heater 250V, 100W 1
5.5.2 Applications
Temperature controller using SCR has the following applications:

(i) It can be used as temperature controller
(ii) It can be used for room temperature control

5.6 Illumination control / fan speed control using TRIAC

AC voltage controller circuits are used in domestic light dimmers, electric fan speed control,
small motor controls and control of small ac power domestic appliances. This circuit can
replace the conventional dimmerstat. The advantage of ac voltage controller over a
dimmerstat that it is economical and voltage can be varied from the minimum value to
maximum value. The illumination or speed of fan can be controlled from a minimum value
to maximum value by using TRIAC. In this circuit, an R-C triggering circuit along with DIAC is
used to turn-on a TRIAC.
Fig.5.5 shows the circuit diagram for illumination control using TRIAC. In this ac voltage
controller, TRIAC is fired by a R-C triggering circuit and a DIAC. The capacitor C2 is charged
through a variable resistance R 3 and fixed resistance R2. When the voltage across the
capacitor C2 is equal to or more than the break-over voltage of DIAC, triac is fired and it starts
to conduct. The firing angle of TRIAC can be controlled by changing the value of variable
resistance R3 (potentiometer). In case of fan speed control, lamp load is replaced by electric
fan in Fig.5.5.
Fig.5.5 Circuit diagram for illumination control using TRIAC

During the positive half cycle of supply voltage, a positive gate signal is applied to TRIAC to
turn-on it. When R3 is significantly large, the voltage across capacitor C2 (VC2) does not exceed
the diac breakdown voltage. Therefore DIAC operates in off-state and TRIAC will also operate
in off-state. Subsequently, if R 3 decreases, the voltage across capacitor C2 increases and VC2
exceeds the breakover voltage of DIAC. As VC2 exceeds the breakover voltage of DIAC, DIAC
operates in on-state and it can trigger the TRIAC. In the same way, the similar operation takes
place in the negative half cycle of supply voltage. A R-C snubber circuit (R 1=47Ω, ½ Watt and
C1=0.1µF, 600V ) is connected across TRIAC to supress the undesired transients appearing
along with ac supply.
When the firing angle of TRIAC is less, the voltage applied across load (lamp/fan) is more and
hence intensity of light (illumination) or fan speed will be high. If the firing angle of TRIAC is
more, the voltage applied across load (lamp/fan) is less and hence intensity of light
(illumination) or fan speed will be low. Hence the illumination of lamp and the fan speed can
be controlled using TRIAC. In this circuit DIAC exhibits a negligible resistance in the both
directions when it conducts.
1 TRIAC 400V, 4A BT136 1
2 DIAC 32V, 5mA DB3 1
3 R 1- 47Ω, ½ Watt 1
4 R 2- 1kΩ, ½ Watt 1
5 R 3- 220kΩ, ½ Watt Potentiometer 1
8 Lamp 250V, 60W 1
9 Electric Fan 250V, 60W 1
5.6.2 Applications
Illumination/fan control using TRIAC has the following applications:

(i) It can be used as illumination controller
(ii) It can be used as fan speed controller

5.7 SMPS ( Switch Mode Power Supply)
In several industrial applications, dc voltage of different voltage levels with respect to ground
such as +5V, -5V, +6V, -6V, +9V, -9V, +10V, -10V, +12V, -12V, +15V, and -15V are required. In
SMPS, the electrical isolation between the dc source and load is used to provide protection
to load. Actually transformer is used for electrical isolation. If normal silicon steel core
transformers are used, there will be high hysteresis loss due to high switching frequency of
dc to dc converters and the wide hysteresis-loop. Therefore, ferrite-core transformer is used
for electrical isolation to reduce hysteresis loss with narrow hysteresis-loop.
Fig.5.6 shows a circuit diagram for an isolated dc to dc converter. This circuit generates two
dc voltage Vo1 and Vo2 from a same dc supply. The amplitude of output voltage depends upon
the turn ratio of isolating transformers and turn-on and turn-off time of switch S. These
converters can be act as step up, step-down, buck, boost, buck-boost converters. This type of
isolated dc to dc converter is called as switch mode power supply (SMPS).
Fig.5.6 Circuit diagram for switch mode power supply (SMPS)

The most commonly used SMPS are
(i) Fly-back converter

(ii) Forward converter
(iii) Push-pull converter
(iv) Half bridge converter
(v) Full bridge converter
5.7.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of SMPS
The advantages and disadvantages of SMPS are given below:
Advantages of SMPS
(i) Due to high frequency operation, SMPS has smaller size, less weight and high
efficiency compared to conventional linear dc power supply.
(ii) The output voltage of SMPS is less sensitive with respect to input voltage variation.
Disadvantages of SMPS
(i) SMPS generates both the electromagnetic and radio frequency interference due to
high switching frequency.
(ii) To reduce radio frequency noise, filter circuit should be used on both input and output
of SMPS
5.8 UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) : Off-line and On-line
There are several critical applications where a sudden power failure causes a great deal of
public inconvenience and there will be huge economic losses. Some examples of critical load
are hospital intensive care units, process control plants, a large computer network systems,
safety monitoring system of a plant, and communication systems etc. An uninterruptible
power supply (UPS) system is required to provide continuous power without interruption in
all critical loads. Usually, the two types of UPS configurations are commonly used such as
(i) Off-line UPS where load normally connected to ac supply and
(ii) On-line UPS where load normally connected to inverter

5.8.1 Off-line UPS
Fig.5.7 shows the schematic block diagram of off-line UPS where load is normally connected
to ac supply and rectifier maintains the full charge of battery. Whenever the supply fails, load
is switched to the output of inverter that takes over the main supply. In this UPS configuration,
the circuit will be break momentarily and the transfer by solid state switches which takes
about 4 to 5ms. Inverter operates only during the time when power supply fails.
Fig.5.7 Off-line UPS where load is normally connected to ac supply
5.8.2 On-line UPS
Fig.5.8 shows the schematic block diagram of online UPS where inverter operates
continuously and it’s output is connected to load. Therefore, there is no need for breaking
the power supply. The rectifier unit supplies power to inverter and maintains the charge on
standby battery. In online UPS configuration, inverter can be used to provide power supply,
to protect the load from the transients in the main supply and to maintain the desired
frequency at load. Whenever inverter fails to give supply, the load is switched to ac power
supply. The advantages of online UPS are
(i) Load will be protected from transients in ac supply
(ii) Inverter is used to provide power supply to load

(ii) Inverter output frequency must be maintained at desired value.
Fig.5.8 Online UPS where load normally connected to inverter
Nickel-cadmium and lead-acid type batteries are used in UPS system. Nickel-cadmium
batteries have the following advantages over lead-acid type batteries:
(i) The electrolyte of Nickel-cadmium (NC) batteries does not emit any explosive gas
during charging
(ii) The electrolyte of NC batteries is non-corrosive
(iii) NC batteries cannot be damaged by overcharging or discharging and these batteries
have longer life.
However the cost of NC batteries is two or three times that of lead-acid batteries. The time
period during which a bank of NC batteries can deliver power to load depends on battery size
and nature of load.
5.9 SCR Based AC and DC Circuit Breakers
The SCR based static circuit breakers are capable of providing a fast and reliable interruption
to a continuous current. Usually static circuit breakers are two types such as (i) SCR based AC
Circuit Breakers and (ii) SCR based DC Circuit Breakers. In this section both static circuit
breakers are described elaborately.
5.9.1 SCR Based AC Circuit Breakers
Fig. 5.9 shows the SCR based AC circuit breaker where SCRs are used as static ac switch. Both
T1 SCR and T2 SCR are turned on at the instant when load current is passing through zero.
Fig.5.10 shows the triggering pulses applied to T1 and T2 along with voltage and current
waveforms. At the instant ωt=α, if triggering pulse is applied to T1, it will be turned on as T1 is
forward biased. At the instant ωt=π+α, if triggering pulse is applied to T2, it will be turned on
as T2 is forward biased and T1 is turned off due to reverse biased. Hence current continuously
flows through the circuit. At ωt=4π+α, if the triggering pulse is not applied to T1, it will not be
turned on. T2 is already turned off just before ωt=4π+α. Therefore, the continuity of circuit is
broken.
Fig. 5.9 SCR based AC circuit breaker
Whenever turn-off command is received by the control circuit due to fault in the system, the
application of triggering pulse will be withdrawn and accordingly circuit will be broken. If the
turn-off command is received at ωt=5π+α, load current will be broken only at ωt=6π+α, and
a delay of π radian or a half-cycle is required. When the turn-off command is received at 5π+α
<ωt<6π+α, circuit can be broken at ωt=6π+α. Consequently, the maximum delay time for
breaking the circuit is one half-cycle i.e. π/ω seconds.
Fig. 5.10 Voltage and current waveforms of SCR based AC circuit breaker
5.9.2 SCR Based DC Circuit Breakers
Fig.5.11 shows the SCR based DC circuit breaker. The operating principle of this circuit is
similar to class-C commutation. When the main SCR T1 is turned-on, load voltage ( voltage
across load resistance R 1) is equal to supply voltage Vs and capacitor C starts to charge
through the path Vs+ – R2 – C+ – C- – T1 – Vs-. The capacitor C will be charged with right side
plate positive charged. Since the main SCR T1 is switched ON and operates in conduction
state, the load current flows through load resistance R1. Whenever it is required to break the
load current, the auxiliary SCR T2 should be turned ON. As the auxiliary SCR T2 is turned ON,
SCR T1 is reverse biased and it should be turned off and the circuit will break.
As T1 is forced commutated, capacitor C will be charged from +Vs to –Vs, through the path
Vs+ – R1 – C- – C+ – T2 – Vs-. As soon as C is charged to –Vs, the current flow through load
becomes zero and simultaneously current flows through R1 is below the holding current of T2
and then T2 will be turned off.
Fig.5.11 SCR based DC circuit breaker
Exercise
Fill in The Blanks
5.1 An utility system which is used in order to safeguard property against theft is known as
______________. ( Burglar’s alarm)
5.2 _________________are used to control the charging current by continuously comparing
the terminal voltage of battery with the constant reference voltage across zener diode.(
Battery charger)
5.3 Whenever ac supply is disturbed, the lamp will glow immediately in ______________.
(Emergency light system using SCR)
5.4 An utility system which is used for room temperature control is known as____________.(
Temperature controller using SCR)
5.5 AC voltage controller circuits are used in___________, and ______________. (

domestic light dimmers, electric fan speed control)
5.6 The most commonly used SMPS are__________, _______________
and_______________. (Fly-back converter, Forward converter, Push-pull converter)
5.7 _____________UPS where load normally connected to ac supply and _________ UPS
where load normally connected to inverter. (Off-line, Online)
5.8 The operating principle of SCR based DC circuit breaker is similar to _____________
commutation. (class-C)
5.9 Give a list of industrial applications of power electronics.
5.10 Write the applications of Burglar’s alarm
5.11 What are the drawbacks of battery charger using SCR?
5.12 Give a list of applications of emergency light system
5.13 What are the advantages and disadvantages of SMPS? Write applications of SMPS.
5.14 Write the difference between off-line UPS and on-line UPS.
5.15 Why are transformers used in SMPS?
5.16 Explain the operating principle of Burglar’s alarm system with circuit diagram.
5.17 Draw the circuit diagram of battery charger using SCR and describe operating principle
briefly.
5.18 Provide a list of applications of Battery Charger using SCR?
5.19 Describe the operation of emergency light system using SCR with circuit diagram.
5.20 Write the application of temperature controller using SCR.
5.21 Draw the circuit diagram for temperature controller using SCR and describe the circuit
operation briefly.
5.22 Write short notes on the following:
i) Fan speed control using TRIAC
ii) Illumination control using TRIAC
iii) SMPS
iv) AC circuit breakers

v) DC circuit breakers
5.23 Explain the operating principle of SMPS with circuit diagram.
5.24 Draw the schematic block diagram of ‘off-line UPS’ and explain operation of each block
briefly.
5.25 Describe the operation of ‘on-line UPS’ with schematic block diagram.
5.26 What is SCR based AC circuit breakers? Explain it’s operating principle and “voltage and
current waveforms”.
PRACTICAL
1. DIAC and TRIAC Phase Control Circuit Performance
Aim:
1. To study the performance and waveforms of ac voltage controller by using TRIAC and DIAC
Apparatus:
TRIAC BT136, DIAC DB3, Single phase 230V, 50Hz AC supply, Resistance R 1=1kΩ, 0.5W;
Variable resistance VR1 470 kΩ, 0.5W; Capacitor C=0.1µF; 60W lamp, Voltmeter 0-400V AC,
Ammeter 0-1A, Digital multi-meter 0-400V AC, 0-1A, Dual trace 10 MHz CRO
Circuit Diagram:
Fig.5.12 Circuit diagram for the test “DIAC and TRIAC Phase Control Circuit Performance”
Theory:
In single phase ac voltage controller, TRIAC is switched ON and OFF in synchronism with the
mains supply so that only a part of each half cycle is applied across the load. Fig.5.12 shows
the circuit diagram for the test “DIAC and TRIAC Phase Control Circuit Performance’. In this
circuit as ac supply voltage Vs increases, voltage across capacitor C increases due to current
following through load, resistance R1, variable resistance VR1 and capacitor C. Since the
voltage drop across C increases, the voltage drop across DIAC also increases until it reaches
to it’s break over voltage. When DIAC starts to conduct, a large amount of current is injected
into the gate of TRIAC and subsequently TRIAC will be turned on and starts conducting. The
firing angle of TRIAC can be controlled by varying VR1. This circuit can be used in domestic
light dimmers, electric fan speed control, small motor control and control of small AC
powered domestic appliances.
Precautions:
2. Do not increase the gate current more than rated value of TRIAC.
3. The applied voltage and current should not be more than the maximum rating of TRIAC.
4. Use appropriate heat sink for proper cooling of TRIAC.
Procedure:
1. Make the circuit connection using all required equipment as per the circuit diagram.
2. Keep the VR1 potentiometer at a minimum position.
3. Switch on the power supply.
4. Vary the VR1 potentiometer slowly to observe the effect on intensity of illumination of the
lamp.
5. Measure AC input voltage using voltmeter/multi-meter.
6. Connect CRO across the input ac supply to observe as well as measure the input voltage.
7. Connect CRO across the load to observe as well as measure the output voltage.
angle α.
Observation Table:
Table 5.1 Observation Table for “DIAC and TRIAC Phase Control Circuit Performance”
Sr. No. Position of Firing Measured voltage Measured Measured

Resistance angle across DIAC voltage across output voltage
(VR1) TRIAC (Vo or VLOAD)
(α) (V DIAC)
(VTRIAC)
VIVA Questions Related to DIAC and TRIAC Phase Control Circuit Performance
1. Write specifications of TRIAC and DIAC from manufacturer data sheet.
2. State the effect on output voltage when there is no gate pulse.
3. Explain the performance and working principle of DIAC and TRIAC Phase Control Circuit
Performance.
4. If capacitor is shorted, state the effect on the TRIAC phase control circuit performance.
2. Simulate the firing angle control for DIAC and TRIAC Phase control circuit in SCILAB software
Aim:
1. To study the performance and waveforms of ac voltage controller by using TRIAC and DIAC
2. To plot a graph of variation of output voltage V o with respect to firing angle α
Circuit Diagram:
Student should write the code for simulation the firing angle control for DIAC and TRIAC Phase
control circuit in SCILAB software as shown in Fig.5.13.
Fig.5.13 Circuit diagram for simulation the firing angle control for DIAC and TRIAC Phase
control circuit in SCILAB software
Theory:
Single Phase ac voltage controller circuits are used in domestic light dimmers, electric fan
speed control, small ac motor control and control of small ac powered domestic appliances.
TRIAC is easy to use and having low cost as compared to two thyristors back to back
connection for low power applications. For phase control application, TRIAC is switched on
and off in synchronization with ac mains supply so that only a part of each half cycle is applied
across the load. The voltage and current waveforms for single phase AC voltage controller
with R load are shown in Fig.5.14.
Fig.5.14 Voltage and current waveforms for single phase AC voltage controller with R load
Assume the supply (input) voltage is VS  2V sin t
RMS output voltage across load at firing angle  is equal to

1/ 2 1/ 2
1     sin 2 
VO    ( 2V sin t ) 2 .d (t )  V 1  
     2 
The RMS output voltage can be controlled from 0 to V by changing firing angle  from 0° to 180°. The
VO
rms value of load current is I O  . The code is written in SCILAB to find output voltage and output
R
current at different firing angle.
Resource Required: Open source SCILAB software
SCILAB CODE:
1 // Firing angle control for DIAC and TRIAC Phase control circuit in SCILAB software
2 // SCILAB 5.4.1
3 // To plot a graph of variation of output voltage Vo with respect to firing angle α
4 // clear
5 // clc
6 // “--------------Enter data -----------“
7 V= input (‘Enter the rms value of supply voltage’)
8 α = input (‘Enter the firing angle of TRIAC’)
9 R= input (‘Enter the value of load resistance’)
10 for i= α : 5: 180;
11 Vo=V*sqrt((pi-i+(sin2i/2))/pi); // Vo= output voltage
12 Io=Vo/R; // Io= Output current
13 end
14 plot(Vo, i)
15 title (‘Output voltage –vs – firing angle α of single phase AC voltage controller’)
16 xlabel(‘Firing angle α ----------’);
17 ylabel(‘Output Voltage Vo ----------’);

18 xgrid;
19 plot(Io, i)
15 title (‘Output current –vs – firing angle α of single phase AC voltage controller’)
16 xlabel(‘Firing angle α ----------’);
17 ylabel(‘Output Current Io ----------’);
18 xgrid;
Procedure:
1. Open SCILAB software
2. Open new project/file
3. Write the SCILAB code
4. Execute the programme
5. Plot the output voltage vs firing angle and the plot output current vs firing angle
Observations and Calculations:
Attach printout of simulation waveforms as results.
Conclusions
Write the effect of firing angle α on output voltage Vo and load current Io.
VIVA Questions Related to DIAC and TRIAC Phase Control Circuit Performance
1. Analysis the plot output voltage vs firing angle and the plot output current vs firing angle.
2. Write the applications of SCILAB software.
3. State the effect of firing angle α on output voltage Vo and load current Io
4. What are the difficulties you have faced during simulation in SCILAB software?
3. Test the performance of given SMPS
Aim:
1. To study the performance of given Switch Mode Power Supply (SMPS)
Apparatus:
SMPS: input voltage 220V, current 5A, dc output voltage +5V, +12V, +3.3V, -5V, -12V
Digital Multimeter: 500V dc, 500V ac, current 0-200mA ac, 0-200mA dc
CRO: 20MHz Dual Trace CRO
Circuit Diagram:
Student should draw the schematic block diagram of the given Switch Mode Power Supply
(SMPS) and try to draw the detailed diagram of SMPS after disassemble of the given UPS.
Fig.5.15 Schematic block diagram for the given Switch Mode Power Supply (SMPS)
Theory:
Usually, the power supply of most of the electronic devices are supplied from standard dc power
sources. Switch-mode power supplies (SMPS) are frequently used to provide the different voltage
levels (+5V, +12V, +3.3V, -5V, -12V) of dc output power which are needed for modern electronic
appliances.
Actually SMPS converts a dc input voltage into multiple dc output voltages based on the circuit
topology such as step-down (buck), step-up (boost), and step-up/step-down (buck-boost converter).
These converters are designed using MOSFET switch, diode, output capacitor and inductor. MOSFET
operation is controlled by a controller which applies a pulse-width modulated (PWM) square wave to
the MOSFET’s gate. To maintain a constant output voltage, the controller should sense the SMPS
output voltage and varies the duty cycle D [TON/(TON+TOFF)] of square-wave. SMPS is used to provide
highly efficient and reliable dc to dc power conversion systems.
Precautions:
1. Before touching the SMPS circuit, discharge the capacitor by using suitable resistance.
2. Measure the voltage and it must be zero before starting disassemble the SMPS.
Procedure
When there is no +5V output:
1. Check the fuse
2. Then check the capacitor
3. Then check the MOSFET
4. Then check the output of the secondary winding of transformer.
5. Subsequently check all other components and replace faulty component
Observations
Sr. No. Troubleshooting Action Observation
1. Check the fuse, when there is no output voltage. If

the fuse is blown, replace the fuse with new one.
2. Then check the MOSFET, when there is no output

voltage
3. Then check the output of the secondary winding of

transformer
VIVA Questions Related to SMPS
1. What is the effect of change in ac line voltage on output voltage?
2. State the effect of duty cycle on output voltage.
3. Write the specification of SMPS.
4. Test the performance of given UPS
Aim:
To study the performance of given Uninterruptable Power Supply (UPS)
Apparatus:
UPS: Input voltage range 90V-145V, output voltage 230V, output power capacity 500VA
Digital Multimeter: 500V dc, 500V ac, current 0-200mA ac, 0-10A ac, 0-10A dc
Stopwatch: To measure backup time.
Circuit Diagram:
Fig.5.16 Circuit diagram for the given Uninterruptable Power Supply (UPS)
Theory: An Uninterruptable Power Supply (UPS) is an electrical apparatus which is used as

emergency power supply to a load. It is most commonly used in computers, data centers,
telecommunications equipment and medical equipment or any critical load. Usually, the two
types of UPS configurations are commonly used such as (i) Offline UPS where load normally
connected to ac supply and (ii) Online UPS where load normally connected to inverter.
In an off-line UPS system, the load is powered directly by the input power and the backup
power circuitry is only invoked when the utility power fails. In on-line UPS, firstly ac supply is
converted into dc and it passes through rechargeable battery for battery strings then inverting
back to 230V AC for powering the protected equipment.
Precautions:
1. UPS must be properly ground.
2. Before opening the UPS, all capacitors of UPS have to be discharged.
3. There is a possibility to have high leakage current. Therefore, the grounding conductor
should be connected first.
4. UPS should be installed on a non-inflammable surface.
Procedure
1. Measure ac supply voltage using multimeter
2. Measure ac output voltage using multimeter
3. Measure the dc voltage across rechargeable battery using multimeter.
4. Measure backup time with the help of stop watch.
Observations
Sr. No. Action when ac supply is ON Observation
1. Measure ac supply voltage using multimeter
2. Measure ac output voltage using multimeter
3. Measure the dc voltage across rechargeable battery

using multimeter.
4. Measure backup time with the help of stop watch.

VIVA Questions Related to UPS
1. What is the effect of change in ac line voltage on output voltage?
2. State the effect of duty cycle on output voltage.
3. Write the specification of UPS
6. Troubleshoot the Burglar’s alarm, Emergency light system, Speed control system, and
Temperature control system
AIM :
1. Diagnose the fault of Burglar’s alarm system and rectify the problem
2. Diagnose the fault of Emergency light system and rectify the problem
3. Diagnose the fault of Speed control system and rectify the problem
4. Diagnose the fault of Temperature control system and rectify the problem
Theory:
Burglar alarm is a standard equipment which is used in stores, offices, houses, cars and other
premises for the security purpose. Emergency light is an illumination device specially designed
for emergency purposes. It operates in case of power failure. The on- time of emergency light
system depends on the ampere-rating of the battery. Thyristor/Triac based speed control system
is widely used in industrial applications such as control of machine tool and process control
system. Temperature control system is used in industrial furnace to maintain specified
temperature by controlling the ON and OFF time of heater coil. The schematic circuit diagram
and operating principle of Burglar’s alarm system, Emergency light system, Speed control
system and Temperature control system are described in detail in section 5.2, 5.4, 5.6 and 5.5
respectively.
Problem statement for

a) Burglar’s alarm system
1. Student should draw the schematic block diagram and detail circuit diagram of the given
Burglar’s alarm system.
2. The Burglar’s alarm system is not operating properly, student should diagnose the fault
and rectify the problem.
b) Emergency light system

Emergency light system.
2. The Emergency light system is not working properly, student should diagnose the fault
3. The intensity of emergency light starts decreasing, find out the fault and rectify the
problem.
c) Speed control system

Speed control system.
2. The Speed control system is not working properly, student should diagnose the fault
3. The speed of motor is suddenly drops when load is applied, find out the fault and rectify
the problem.
d) Temperature control system

2. The Temperature control system is not operating properly, student should diagnose the
fault and rectify the problem.
3. Diagnose and rectify the problem when temperature sensor is not working properly in
Procedure
a) To Repair Burglar’s alarm system
1. Usually five main faults namely battery failure, faulty sensor, loose cable
connections, faulty transistor in control panel, fault in relay and faulty alarm occur
in burglar alarm system.
2. Check the battery. If it is not working, replace the old battery with new one.
3. Check the cable. If there is any cable damage, replace the damaged cable. If there is
any loose connection, rectify it.
4. Check the sensor. Replace the faulty sensor.

5. Check all transistors in control panel. Replace the faulty transistor.
6. Check the relay. If it is faulty, try to repair it or replace by new one.
b) To Repair Emergency light system
1. The most common faults of emergency light system are battery failure, faulty lamp,
loose cable connections, faulty SCR and diodes in control panel, faulty capacitor and
fault in transformer.
2. Check the battery. If it is not at working condition, replace the old battery with new
one
4. Check the bulb. If it is damaged, replace the old bulb with new one
5. Check all diodes and SCR in control panel. Replace the faulty diodes and SCR.
6. Check the capacitor. If it is not at good condition, replace it.
7. Check the transformer. If it is faulty, try to repair it otherwise replace by new one.
c) To Repair Speed control system

1. The main faults of speed control system are fault in motor, triggering circuit not
generating triggering pulse, faulty SCR, loose cable connections, and fault in control
panel.
2. Check the motor. If it is not at normal operating condition, try to repair it or replace
by new one.
3. Check the triggering circuit. If the triggering circuit is not generating triggering pulse,
try to rectify it or replace by new one.
5. Check the SCR. If it is faulty, replace the faulty SCR.

6. Check the control panel. If it is faulty, try to repair it or replace by new one.
d) To Repair Temperature control system
1. The most common faults of temperature control system are faulty heater, faulty
temperature sensor, loose cable connections, faulty SCR, and triggering circuit not
generating triggering pulse in control panel.
2. Check the heater. If it is not working properly, try to repair it or replace by new one.
3. Check the temperature sensor. If it is faulty, replace the faulty sensor.
5. Check the SCR. If it is faulty, replace the faulty SCR.

6. Check the triggering circuit. If the triggering circuit is not generating triggering pulse,
try to rectify it or replace by new one.
Practical Related Questions:

1. What are the different faults you have found during routine servicing of Burglar’s
alarm system?
2. Write specification of the given Burglar’s alarm system.

3. When the battery charging is low, explain the effect on intensity of light in Emergency
light system.
4. Write specification of the given Emergency light system.

5. Lamp is not glowing in emergency light system after ac supply is interrupted, state
the all possible reasons.
6. Write the specification of thyristor which is used in speed control system.

7. While triggering pulse is not generated by triggering circuit to turn-on SCR, how much
voltage is applied across motor.
8. If gate terminal of SCR becomes open circuit, sate the effect on the output voltage.
9. What is the effect of load on SCR in Temperature control system?
10. When temperature sensor is not working properly in Temperature control system,
diagnose and rectify the problem.
11. Write the specification of SCR and temperature sensor which are used in given
Temperature control system.
KNOW MORE
Recently power electronics devices have been intensively used in process control industry for
various applications such as power supplies, converters, inverters, battery chargers,
temperature control, variable speed motor drives, robot arm drives and electric vehicles etc.
The design, development, and optimization of power electronics and controller devices are
highly essential for optimum utilization of power, power system stability and control, safety
of power system operation and overall improvement of power quality. Now a days Flexible
AC Transmission System (FACTS) controllers, static VAR compensator (SVC) and high-voltage
direct current (HVDC) converters are used in power system for power quality improvement.
To study the applications of power electronics devices in FACTS controllers, SVC, and HVDC
converters, we scan the following QR codes.
For more on Static var compensator
For more on FACTS

References
1. Bhattacharya,S.K and Chatterji, S., Industrial Electronics and Control, Tata McGraw Hill
Publishing Co. Ltd, New Delhi.
2. Zbar, Paul B., Industrial Electronics: A Text-Lab manual, McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd,
New Delhi.

4. Ramamoorty M., An Introduction to Thyristors and their applications, East-West Press Pvt.
Ltd., New Delhi.
Applications, New Age International (P) ltd. Publishers, New Delhi.
6. Jain & Alok, Power Electronics and its Applications, Penram International Publishing
(India) Pvt. Ltd, Mumbai.
7. Rashid, Muhammad, Power Electronics Circuits Devices and Applications, Pearson

Education India, Noida.

CO AND PO ATTAINMENT TABLE
Course outcomes (COs) for this course can be mapped with the programme outcomes (POs) after the
completion of the course and a correlation can be made for the attainment of POs to analyze the gap. After
proper analysis of the gap in the attainment of POs necessary measures can be taken to overcome the gaps.
Table for CO and PO attainment
Attainment of Programme Outcomes

Course (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
Outcomes
PO-1 PO-2 PO-3 PO-4 PO-5 PO-6 PO-7
CO-1
CO-2
CO-3
CO-4
CO-5
The data filled in the above table can be used for gap analysis.

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FUNDAMENTAL

All India Council for Technical Education

BOOK REVIEWER DETAIL

BOOK COORDINATOR (S) – English Version

Attribution-Non Commercial-Share Alike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Prof. Soumitra Kumar Mandal

Prof. Soumitra Kumar Mandal

PO6. Project Management: Use engineering management principles individually, as a team

PO-1 PO-2 PO-3 PO-4 PO-5 PO-6 PO-7

● They should follow Bloom's taxonomy in every part of the assessment.

Teacher should Student should be Possible Mode of

Students ability to Differentiate or

Students ability to Operate or Technical Presentation/

● Students should be well aware of their competency at every level of OBE.

Unit - 1 Power Electronic Devices

Unit - 2 Thyristor Family Devices

Unit -3 Turn-on and Turn-off Methods of Thyristors

Unit –4 Phase Controlled Rectifiers

Unit –V Industrial Control Circuits

Unit-1 Power Electronic Devices 1-86

1.4.2 Relation Between  and  12

1.4.3 Construction and Working Principle OF Power Bipolar Junction Transistor 16

Unit-2 Thyristor Family Devices 87-152

Unit-3 Turn-on and Turn-off Methods of Thyristors 153-210

3.2.4 dV / dt Triggering 156

3.2.5 Gate Triggering 156

Unit-4 Phase Controlled Rectifiers 211-272

Unit-5 Industrial Control Circuits 273-309

Through this unit we have discussed the following aspects:

 Different Power electronic devices

Analog and digital electronics

Electrical circuit theory

Electrical Machines and power system

List of outcomes of this unit is as follows:

U1-O1: To define power electronics

U1-O2: To list all power electronics devices

U1-O4: To give a list of applications of power transistors

U1-O5: To discuss about construction, working principle, V-I characteristics of IGBT

U1-O6: To provide a list of applications of IGBT

U1-O7: To understand the concept of single electron transistor (SET)

U1-O8: To explain aspects of Nano- technology

Unit-1 EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES

Outcomes (1-Weak Correlation; 2- Medium Correlation; 3-Strong Correlation)

CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO POWER ELECTRONICS

1.2 DEVELOPMENT OF POWER ELECTRONICS DEVICES

The insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), a three-terminal power-semiconductor device is

1.3 POWER ELECTRONICS DEVICES

 Static Induction Thyristors (SITH)

Device Symbol Voltage/current rating Operating frequency

Power 5kV/5kA 100-300kHz

Power BJT 1400V/400A 10kHz

Device Symbol Voltage/current rating Operating frequency

Power 1kV/50A 100kHz- 1MHz

Thyristors 10kV/5kA 1kHz

Light 6kV/3kA 1kHz

IGBT 3.3kV/1200A 50kHz

GTO 5kV/3kA 2kHz

Device Symbol Voltage/current rating Operating frequency

TRIAC 1200V/300A 0.5kHz

Power Diode 50 to 100 s 50 to 100 s 0.3 to 0.6 milli-ohm

Power BJT 2 s 9 to 30 s 4 to 10 milli-ohm

Power MOSFET 0.1 s 1 to 2 s 1 to 2 milli-ohm