Marine Coatings
organisms);
Marine coatings are distinguished from other coatings
by their intended use. Most are classified as heavy-
duty industrial coatings that have been tested and
proven for use in the arduous marine environment.
Typically, marine coatings are thin films of poly-
meric or metallic materials (typically less than 500 µm
thick) which are used to protect and modify the
exposed surfaces of structural materials used in the
marine environment. The coating prevents the struc-
tural material from being degraded by the environ-
ment. Typical coating films are formed from inorganic
compounds suspended in a liquid solution of polymers
and volatile organic solvents or, in some cases, water.
The liquid coating is applied by brushing, spraying, or
rolling. The wet film is converted into a dry, hard
coating film by one of two mechanisms:
(i) solvent evaporation—the volatile solvent evapo-
rates and leaves behind a dry, hard film;
(ii) chemical curing (drying)—the solvent evaporates
and initially leaves a viscous, sticky film. Subsequent
chemical reactions in the film convert it into a hard,
dry film.
Coating films can also be formed from solid plastics
and metals. Fluidized-bed or electrostatic spray pro-
cesses typically apply solid plastics in the form of a dry
powder. In either process the dry powder adheres to
the surface and subsequent heating melts the powder
and forms a solid film. Alternatively, the dry polymeric
powder may be applied using a special spray gun
where it is melted and sprayed as molten plastic. The
cooling of the molten plastic forms the film. Solid
metals are applied by either dipping the object into a
bath of molten metal (e.g., galvanized zinc) or by
spraying molten metal (typically aluminum or zinc)
on to the surface to be protected. The process of
spraying molten metal on a surface is called spray
metallizing.
This article emphasizes the types of coating systems
used on the ships of the US Navy. There are two
reasons for this emphasis. First, the US Navy uses
virtually all of the generic coatings used by the
commercial marine industry and reflects industrial
practices. Second, the US Navy publishes speci-
fications that give the public access to performance
and formulation specifications.
1. Functions of Marine Coatings
Marine coatings serve two basic functions. First, they
help to prevent the deterioration of materials caused
by exposure to the marine environment. Second, they
impart physical and chemical properties to surfaces
that cannot be obtained in any other way. Typical uses
of marine coatings are to:
(i) prevent biological fouling of the underwater hull
of a ship (the attachment and growth of marine
(ii) protect metallic structures (hull, equipment, and
electronics) from damage due to corrosion and the
elements;
(iii) protect cargoes from contamination;
(iv) provide safety warnings and informational
markings;
(v) provide cosmetic and camouflage colors;
(vi) roughen walking surfaces to prevent slipping
and sliding on wet, moving decks;
(vii) provide a high dielectric strength barrier needed
for effective, economic cathodic protection;
(viii) reduce fire hazards.
2. The Marine Environment
The marine environment is characterized by constant
exposure to salt water, sunlight, abrasion, and sea life.
Unprotected metals corrode rapidly, lose strength,
and become more susceptible to damage from the
stresses of wind and waves. Marine coatings form a
protective barrier between the environment and the
material to which it has been applied. This protection
allows the material to retain its original mechanical
and dimensional properties.
Constant moisture, ranging from high-salinity sea-
water to nearly distilled water from rain and con-
densation is a characteristic of the marine environ-
ment. The constant spray and splash of water, coupled
with the salt-concentrating effect of drying, causes
materials to be degraded much more rapidly than
would be the case away from the sea. Surface tem-
peratures range from below 0 mC to as high as 75 mC for
a dark surface on a sunny day. The thermal shock
caused by alternating exposure to hot sun, cold
seawater, and rain severely stress materials used in the
marine environment.
3. Antifouling Coatings
Antifouling coatings are unique to the marine en-
vironment. They are used to prevent the settlement
and growth of marine organisms on structures im-
mersed in the ocean. The ocean is swarming with the
planktonic forms of barnacles and other sessile marine
organisms. Any object immersed in the ocean is rapidly
colonized by a wide variety of organisms ranging from
microscopic bacteria and algae to barnacles, tube-
worms, bryozoa, oysters, and mussels. The accumu-
lation of microscopic organisms is called microfouling
while the accumulation of larger organisms is termed
macrofouling. The settlement and growth of these
organisms (collectively referred to as marine fouling)
have significant adverse effects on structures in the
marine environment. Marine fouling can increase a
1
Marine Coatings
ship’s fuel consumption by 10–20%, as well as in-
creasing sailing time with its attendant costs. Marine
fouling on stationary structures adds mass and surface
area, thereby increasing the force of wave action.
Marine fouling inside pipes used by seaside power
plants roughens the surface (increases friction), re-
duces inside diameter, and increases the power require-
ments for pumping. In very severe cases, marine
fouling can block completely the flow of water through
pipes. Even microscopic fouling (bacterial films) can
interfere with the effectiveness of power plants by
reducing heat transfer through heat exchangers.
3.1 Principles of Fouling Control by Coatings
Coatings are primarily used to control macrofouling,
having little or no effect on microfouling. The most
common form of antifouling coating acts by releasing
toxic compounds into the seawater adjacent to the
surface. These chemicals prevent the settlement and
growth of fouling by killing the settling organisms (or
disrupting their biochemistry) before they become
permanently attached. Many chemicals have been
used in antifouling coatings but only copper metal and
organic coatings containing cuprous oxide or various
chemical forms of tributyltin oxide have been shown
to have long-term effectiveness and to be suitable for
general use.
To be effective, the antifouling coating’s toxic
compounds must release their toxic ingredients slowly
and continuously. Three general mechanisms are used
to achieve this effect.
Type 1: insoluble binder–soluble toxic compound.
The binder does not dissolve and the toxic compound
dissolves slowly. The dissolving toxin leaves behind a
porous film that allows the toxic compounds below the
surface to dissolve.
Type 2: soluble binder–soluble toxic compound.
The binder slowly dissolves as the toxic compound
dissolves and the combined action of dissolving both
materials exposes fresh toxins to the seawater.
Type 3: soluble toxic binder. The binder is
chemically combined with the toxic compound. Sea-
water slowly attacks the link between the toxic
compound and the binder, which results in release of
the toxin and dissolution of the coating.
The most recent advances in toxic antifouling
coatings have been in coatings that work by the type 3
mechanism. Type 3 coatings have been developed
based on both copper oxide and tributyltin com-
pounds. These coatings, commonly referred to as
ablative or self-polishing coatings, are designed to
erode slowly in service. As they erode they become
smoother and release toxins that prevents fouling. A
typical erosion rate is 50 to 75 micrometers per year. In
principle, the service life of these coatings is solely
limited by the amount of coating applied. If a five-year
service life is needed, a coating thickness of 375 µm
2
(5i75 µm yrV") would be required to give the desired
performance.
In response to environmental restrictions being
imposed on toxic-containing antifouling coatings, a
new class of antifouling coatings based on a new
principle has entered the marketplace. These nonstick
antifouling coatings, which are typically based on
silicone or fluorinated polymer chemistry, do not
contain toxic compounds and are designed to reduce
the ability of fouling organisms to gain purchase on
the ship’s hull. By reducing the ability of the fouling
organisms to adhere firmly, the fouling can then be
removed by water flowing over the moving hull. This
technology is new, and cost and efficacy are still being
determined.
The US Navy specification MIL-PRF-24647 details
the performance requirements for ship antifouling
coatings.
3.2 Copper-based Coatings
Copper-based antifouling coatings have been suc-
cessfully used since the early days of wooden sailing
ships when they were applied as sheets of pure copper
metal or as overlapping copper nails. Modern copper-
based antifouling coatings rely upon cuprous oxide as
the principal toxic agent and contain up to 75 vol.%
cuprous oxide.
Copper-based coatings are commonly formulated
to work by type 1 or type 2 mechanisms. Their
effectiveness is highly variable and they can prevent
fouling for about two years. The most common cause
of failure is for the surface to be depleted of toxic
compound without exposing the toxic compound
inside the coating to seawater. This is attributed to the
formation of copper(II) reaction products, such as
oxychlorides, which form on the surface of the paint
and seal the surface. A typical copper-based anti-
fouling paint is described in US Navy specification
MIL-A-15931.
Advances in copper-based antifouling coatings have
resulted in ablative coatings that gradually erode at a
rate of 50–75 µm yrV". The service life of these coatings
is, in principle, limited only by the amount of coating
applied.
3.3 Organotin-based Coatings
The most common and most successful organotin-
based antifouling coatings use organometallic com-
pounds containing tributyltin (TBT) groups. TBT is
commonly introduced into coatings as tributyltin
oxide, tributyltin fluoride, or as a part of an acrylic
copolymer that has hydrolyzable tributyltin side
chains. All three mechanisms are used to make
effective antifouling coatings. Many other organotins
(triphenyltin, tributyltin acetate, tributyltin fluoride,

and others) have also been used. Ships coated with
ablative organotin coatings have been shown to
remain fouling free for periods in excess of seven years.
The service life of these coatings is, in principle, limited
only by the amount of coating applied. Organotin
antifouling coatings are now subject to regulations
banning their use in many countries around the world.
In addition, environmental agencies and marine in-
dustry organizations continue to increase regulatory
control.
4. Corrosion Control Coatings
The two general types of marine corrosion control
coatings are those intended for intermittent exposure
to moisture and those designed for continuous im-
mersion service. The intermittent exposure systems are
typically used on the exterior portions of structures
above the waterline, while continuous exposure
systems are used in ballast tanks, wet bilges, fuel\
ballast tanks, and on the underwater portions of
structures. The primary difference between these
systems is the mechanism used to protect the metal.
Continuous immersion systems use high dielectric
strength insulating layers coupled with cathodic pro-
tection systems to prevent corrosion. Intermittent
exposure systems rely on the formation of a high
dielectric strength insulating layer and\or chemical
inhibition to prevent corrosion. These coatings need to
have low permeability to moisture and ions.
4.1 Principles of Corrosion Control by Coatings
Corrosion occurs when a material which corrodes (an
anode), is connected electrically to a material which
corrodes slowly, if at all (a cathode), and both
materials are connected by an electrolyte (e.g., sea-
water). Steel corrodes because, under normal condi-
tions, anodic and cathodic areas are formed at
different locations on its surface. The fact that the
areas are part of the same piece of material provides
the electrical connection between them. Water and
salts from the environment provide the electrolyte and
complete the corrosion cell. Oxygen is essential for the
reaction to occur and an alkaline condition is created
at the cathode (protected area) as a result of the
corrosion reaction. Corrosion is controlled by break-
ing the electrical path between the anode and cathode,
minimizing access to oxygen of the metal, or by
providing an alternative (cathodic) material that
is allowed to corrode in preference to the pro-
tected material (see Marine and Natural Waters:
Corrosion).
4.2 Barrier Coatings
The most common, and most economical, way to slow
or stop the corrosion reaction is to use a coating to
form a barrier between the metal and the electrolyte.
Marine Coatings
The chemical properties of the material used to form
the film determine the coatings effectiveness as a
barrier. For this reason, coatings are often referred to
by the generic name of the material used to form the
film. For example, the term epoxy coating refers to
coatings that use epoxy compounds to form the dry
film.
4.3 Chemically ActiŠe Coatings
Chemically active corrosion control coatings are made
with ingredients that actively counter the electro-
chemical reactions that cause corrosion. Two basic
mechanisms are involved—cathodic protection and
corrosion inhibition.
(a) Cathodic (zinc-rich) coatings. Cathodic protec-
tion (sacrificial) coatings contain zinc metal that
corrodes in preference to the underlying steel. The
coating gradually corrodes to protect the underlying
structure. Inorganic and organic zinc-rich coatings
are the most widely used coatings of this type. They
form hard, durable films and are particularly useful
for protecting areas subject to intermittent im-
mersion. These coatings corrode even in the absence
of corrosion of the substrate. They are also rapidly
corroded by exposure to acid or to alkali. They are
frequently topcoated with epoxy, vinyl, or other bar-
rier coats to prevent their self-corrosion (zinc-rich
coatings should not be topcoated with alkyds
because zinc corrosion products destroy alkyd films).
The cathodic protection properties of topcoated zinc
coatings become active only when the topcoat is
damaged and the zinc\steel substrate starts to cor-
rode.
Coatings which contain aluminum pigment and
metal spray aluminum coatings are generally con-
sidered to be barrier coatings and not cathodic
protection coatings. Aluminum reacts with seawater
to form very insoluble oxides that fill voids in the
coating and form an effective barrier coating. These
oxides also prevent the aluminum from providing
electrochemical protection.
(b) Corrosion-inhibition coatings. Corrosion-inhi-
biting coatings contain inorganic or organic com-
pounds that are slightly soluble in water, and which
cause chemical reactions that impede the corrosion
reaction by polarizing the corrosion cells. The most
common inorganic corrosion inhibitors are slightly
soluble chromate, molybdate, and borate com-
pounds. Coatings made using these inhibitors are
most effective in areas of intermittent exposure to
moisture. Seawater immersion reduces their effective-
ness by diluting the inhibitor concentration at the
metal and by the chemical action of the chloride ion,
which interferes with the action of the inhibitor.
3
Marine Coatings
Amine and polyamide compounds, which increase
the pH under the coating, are effective corrosion
inhibitors that slow the corrosion reaction. The com-
pounds can be added to the coating or may be part of
the binder (e.g., amine or polyamide cured epoxy
coatings).
5. General Chemical Types of Coatings
Marine coatings are usually applied as systems that
include several different generic types of coatings to
take advantage of the good properties of each coating
while avoiding the disadvantages of each. Mixed
coating systems are covered below in Sect. 7. Standards
for describing surface preparation, which is the key to
obtaining good coating performance, are described
under Sect. 6.
The estimated service life of a coating is taken as the
time in years until the first maintenance painting is
required. This is defined as the time until the object
shows rusting of 0.1–0.3%, NACE Rust Grade 7 or 8.
The range of service life for a given generic type of
coating is large. The paint manufacturer, the specific
paint formulation, the quality of the ingredients in the
paint, the type of surface preparation, and the skill of
the applicator all influence how well a paint will
perform.
5.1 Alkyd Coatings
Alkyd coatings are frequently used as anticorrosive
primers and topcoats in interior areas and as cosmetic
topcoats over high-performance primers in exterior
areas. Alkyd coatings are primarily used for hab-
itability spaces, storerooms, and equipment finishes.
Modified alkyds, particularly silicone alkyds, have
excellent weathering properties and are good dec-
orative and marking coatings. They are very useful for
protecting wood and plastics from the weather.
Alkyds are not recommended for immersion service
or for use in areas that are routinely subject to
accidental immersion (e.g., entrance compartments
from weather decks). The alkali generated by the
corrosion reactions rapidly attacks the coating and
leads to early failure. Alkyds should not be applied
over zinc-rich primers because the alkaline zinc cor-
rosion products attack them.
Alkyd coatings require chemical catalysts (driers) to
cure. Typical catalysts are mixtures of metal salts of
fatty acids (e.g., neodymium, cobalt, and manganese
salts of organic acids). Coatings typically dry to the
touch by solvent evaporation within one hour but take
up to 24 hours before they can be handled without
damaging the coating. Depending on the catalysts and
the ambient temperature and humidity, it will take
several days to several weeks before the coating is fully
cured.
4
Alkyd coating systems are not recommended for
exterior marine service due to their short service life
and the need for frequent maintenance painting. Alkyd
coating systems (3 coats, 125 µm dry film thickness
(DFT), on steel cleaned to meet the Commercial Blast
Cleaned standard, SP 6) would be expected to last an
average of two years in a seacoast environment. If
applied over a hand wire-brushed or power tool-
cleaned surface the estimated service life is less than 6
months.
5.2 Chlorinated Rubber
Reacting natural rubber with chlorine forms chlori-
nated rubbers. By themselves chlorinated rubbers are
not suitable for use as coatings and must be blended
with other compounds to produce good coatings.
Coatings made from chlorinated rubbers that have
been blended with highly chlorinated additives provide
tough, chemically resistant coatings. These coatings
cure by solvent evaporation. Freshly applied films are
normally dry to the touch within one hour and fully
dried within 7 days. Chlorinated rubber coatings are
particularly useful where fast drying, particularly at
low temperatures (0–10 mC), is required. The rate of
drying and time to final dry depends on the ambient
temperature, ventilation, and solvents used in the
coating.
Typical chlorinated rubber paints contain approxi-
mately 40 vol.% solid material and each gallon will
cover approximately 16 m# at 25 µm DFT. These
coatings are normally applied at 50–75 µm DFT and
the practical coverage is approximately 6.25 m# lV".
The high content of volatile organic compounds limits
their use to regions that do not have air pollution
control regulations that restrict their use.
Chlorinated rubber coatings are noted for their
toughness, water impermeability, and chemical re-
sistance. They are softened by heat and are not suitable
for sustained use at temperatures above 65 mC. Maxi-
mum performance of chlorinated rubber coatings is
obtained by applying them in three coats over a near-
white blast-cleaned surface. Under these conditions
the expected service life in a marine environment is
eight years in atmospheric exposure or seven years
immersed in seawater. When applied over a com-
mercial blast-cleaned surface, the service life drops to
six years for atmospheric exposure and less than five
years for seawater immersion.
5.3 Coal Tar
Coal tar coatings are made from processed coal tar
pitch dissolved in suitable petroleum solvents. They
form a film by evaporation of the solvent and solvents
can dissolve the film. Coal tar films provide very good
corrosion protection. The dry film is damaged by

direct exposure to sunlight, which causes rapid, severe
cracking. Without expensive processing, most coal tar
resins are very dark colored and the only colors that
can be made from them are black or silver\black
(made by using flake aluminum for pigment). Coal
tars are normally blended with other resins to improve
their light stability, to increase their chemical re-
sistance, and to increase the number of colors avail-
able. Common blending resins include vinyl and epoxy
materials. Users of coal tar containing products should
evaluate the effect of the carcinogenic nature of coal
tars on workers’ safety requirements at the location.
5.4 Coal Tar Epoxy
Coal tar epoxy paints are blends of epoxy resins with
coal tars. The coatings are packaged with the epoxy
portion in one container and the curing agent (either
amine or polyamide type) in a second container. The
coatings must be thoroughly mixed prior to use and
must be used before the mixture solidifies. The liquid
coating forms a film by solvent evaporation and
continued chemical reaction between the epoxy resin
and the curing agent. The length of time for which the
mixed coating is suitable for use is called its ‘‘pot life’’
and is different for each unique formulation. Com-
monly used coatings have a pot life ranging from two
to eight hours at 25 mC.
These paints typically contain approximately
80 vol.% solid material and each gallon will cover
approximately 32 m# at 1 µm DFT. These coatings are
normally applied at 8–10 µm DFT and the practical
coverage is approximately 3.5 m# l−".
Coal tar epoxy films have a high chemical resistance
and a high dielectric strength and they easily form
thick films. The high dielectric strength makes them
particularly suitable for use near anodes in cathodic
protection systems where the high current densities in
these areas can damage other types of coatings. Coal
tar epoxy coatings are known to exude low molecular
weight fractions that cause recoating problems. Users
of coal tar-containing products should evaluate the
effect of the carcinogenic nature of coal tars on
workers’ safety requirements at their location.
Maximum performance of coal tar epoxy coatings is
obtained by applying them in two coats over near-
white blast cleaned surfaces. Typical coating thickness
is 200 µm DFT per coat for a total DFT of 400 µm or
more. The expected service life of these coatings is
seven years in seawater immersion and eight years in
atmospheric marine exposure. The coatings should
not be used in immersion service if a near-white blast
cleaning cannot be obtained.
5.5 Epoxy
Epoxy coatings for marine applications are typically
formed by the chemical reaction of a bisphenol A-type
Marine Coatings
epoxy resin with a ‘‘curing agent’’ (e.g., amines, amine
adducts, or polyamide resins) as in coal tar epoxy
films, with similar packaging of epoxy and curing
agent.
The US Navy has published a specification for
epoxy anticorrosive coatings approved for general,
tank, and hull use on its ships. This specification,
MIL-P-24441, contains formulations with different
levels of volatile organic compounds (ranging from
300 to 340 g lV") and allows selection of coatings for
use in areas where air pollution management districts
restrict the amount of solvents in coatings. The
formulations also included a zinc-rich epoxy coating
formulation. Performance requirements for commer-
cial (proprietary formula) epoxy anticorrosive
coatings are detailed in MIL-PRF-23236.
Epoxy coatings typically dry to the touch within
three hours and are fully cured after seven days at
25 mC. The time to full cure is highly dependent on
ambient and surface temperatures during the curing
period. The curing reaction slows rapidly at temper-
atures below 10 mC.
Epoxy coating films are strongly resistant to most
chemicals and make excellent anticorrosion coatings.
They are one of the principal materials used to control
corrosion in the marine environment. Epoxy coatings
chalk when exposed to intense sunlight and are
typically used with cosmetic topcoats (e.g., silicone
alkyds) that have higher resistance to sunlight.
Maximum performance is obtained with a three-
coat epoxy system applied over a near-white (SP 10)
blast cleaned surface. The expected service life in
saltwater immersion is six years while the service life in
the marine atmosphere is eight years. The coatings
should not be used in immersion service if a near-white
blast cleaning cannot be obtained.
At the end of the twentieth century, marine coatings
manufacturers introduced solventless (100% solids)
epoxy coatings for use in ship cargo and ballast tanks.
The coatings are applied in two coats, at 500–750 µm
per coat, for a total DFT of 1000–1500 µm. Some ship
owners have estimated that, if properly applied, a
service life in tanks of 20 years may be obtained.
5.6 Inorganic Zinc
Inorganic zinc coatings consist of powdered zinc metal
held together by a binder of inorganic silicate. The
binder is formed by the polymerization of sodium
silicate, potassium silicate, lithium silicate, or hydro-
lyzed organic silicates. The liquid coating forms a film
by evaporation of water and organic solvents followed
by the chemical reactions between the silicates, zinc
dust, and curing agents. A variety of curing mecha-
nisms are used to form the final coating film. The
coatings are frequently packaged as multicomponent
paints. All parts must be mixed thoroughly before
application. After mixing, inorganic zinc coatings have
a pot life of 4–12 hours. Water must evaporate from
5
Marine Coatings
these coatings before they can form films. High
humidity, poor air circulation and low temperatures
hinder evaporation of water and can significantly
retard drying and curing. At the same time, water is
needed to allow the binder to cure and low humidity
can prevent curing.
Inorganic zinc paints contain approximately
50 vol.% solid material and each gallon will cover
approximately 20 m# at one micrometer DFT. These
coatings are normally applied at 60–90 µm DFT and
the practical coverage is approximatezly 5.6 m# lV".
When applied as a single coat over near-white (SP
10) blast-cleaned steel these coatings have an expected
service life of six years in a marine environment.
Applications over commercial blast (SP 6) reduce the
atmospheric service life to five years. Because they are
primarily zinc, the same environments that damage
zinc can corrode them. For this reason, inorganic
zinc coatings are not recommended for long-term
immersion service in saltwater.
The Department of Defense (DOD) describes the
following types of inorganic zinc coatings.
(a) Inorganic self-curing, aqueous solŠent (MIL-P-
24648, Type I, Class 1, Composition B). The binder
is water-soluble and consists of alkali metal silicates,
quaternary ammonium silicates, phosphates, and
their modifications. Water is the solvent for these
coatings and they cure by the evaporation of the
water followed by reactions of the binder with car-
bon dioxide and moisture in the air. Typical formu-
lations are dry to the touch within one-half hour and
are fully cured in seven days. There must be sufficient
humidity to allow the binder to cure.
(b) Inorganic postcuring, aqueous solŠent (MIL-P-
24648, Type I, Class 2, Composition B). The binder
is water-soluble and consists of alkali metal silicates,
phosphates, and their modifications. Water is the
solvent for these coatings and the dry film is formed
by evaporation of the water. A curing compound
must be applied to the dry film to convert it into a
film that cannot be dissolved in water. Curing com-
pounds (consisting of water solutions of acid amine
phosphate salts) are used to wet the dry film
thoroughly and start the curing process. Typical
formulations are dry to the touch within one-half
hour and are fully cured in seven days.
(c) Inorganic self-curing, organic solŠent (MIL-P-
24648, Type II, Class 1, Composition B). The inor-
ganic binder is not water-soluble and consists of
titanates, organic silicates, and polymeric modifi-
cations of these silicates. The dry film is formed by
solvent evaporation followed by reactions of the
binder with moisture in the air. Typical formulations
6 systems require the use of a third component
are dry to the touch within one-half hour and are
fully cured in seven days. There must be sufficient
humidity to allow the binder to cure.
5.7 Organic Zinc
Zinc as used as a pigment with many different binders
to form organic zinc coatings. The primary feature of
these coatings is that the coating film is electro-
chemically active and reacts to provide cathodic
protection to the steel substrate. MIL-P-24648 (Type
II, Class 1, Composition A) is a performance specifi-
cation for this type of coating. These coatings are not
as durable mechanically, or as resistant to high
temperatures, as the inorganic zinc coatings.
However, they frequently have better compatibility
with organic topcoats and provide better anti-
corrosion properties than would otherwise be obtained
from binder without zinc. Generally, these coatings
are more tolerant of application variables than in-
organic zinc coatings. The drying and curing proper-
ties of this type of coating are determined by the
properties of the binder.
MIL-P-24441 Formula 159 contains approximately
90 vol.% solid material and each gallon will cover
approximately 30 m# at 25 µm DFT. These coatings
are normally applied at 75–100 µm DFT and the
practical coverage is approximately 8.5 m# lV".
When applied as a single coat over near-white (SP
10) blast cleaned steel these coatings have an expected
service life of three years in a seacoast environment.
Applications over commercial blast (SP 6) reduce the
atmospheric service life to two years. Since they are
primarily zinc, the same environments that damage
zinc can corrode them. For this reason, they are not
recommended for immersion service in saltwater.
5.8 Polyurethane
Polyurethane coatings used for marine coatings are
made from resins that contain the isocyanate group
and are highly reactive with compounds that contain
hydroxyl groups (e.g., water and alcohols) which are
commonly used for curing agents. Coating films are
formed by solvent evaporation followed by chemical
reactions between the polyurethane resin and the
curing agents. Common curing agents for poly-
urethane coatings include water and polyols.
Polyurethane coatings, which cure by reaction
with water, are called moisture-cured polyurethane
coatings. They are packaged in a single can and rely on
moisture in the air to cure. This type of coating is
commonly used as a cosmetic coating or as a clear
varnish.
The most important polyurethane marine coatings
are packaged as two or three component systems. One
component contains the polyurethane resin and the
second component contains an organic polyol. Some
containing catalysts (e.g., metals soaps or amine

com-pounds) to accelerate curing.
Polyurethane coatings, like epoxy coatings, must be
mixed thoroughly with the curing agent and catalyst
before use. After mixing, commonly used coatings
have a pot life of 2–6 hours. The coating film is
typically dry to touch within 12 hours and fully cured
after 14 days at 25 mC. The time to cure is highly
dependent on the ambient and surface temperature
during the curing period as well as the humidity. The
curing reaction slows down rapidly at temperatures
below 10 mC.
Polyurethane coatings form tough, chemically re-
sistant coatings and make good, high-gloss cosmetic
finishes. They have good abrasion and impact re-
sistance and are particularly useful in high wear areas.
They have good weather resistance but lose gloss when
exposed to intense sunlight. Weathered polyurethane
coatings are often difficult to recoat and topcoats will
fail to adhere unless care is taken when repainting aged
or damaged areas.
Polyurethane coatings are most commonly en-
countered as part of a coating system where the
polyurethane is used as the topcoat. A three-coat
system (1 coat inorganic zinc, 1 coat high-build epoxy,
1 coat polyurethane) applied over steel blast cleaned to
near-white (SP 10) has an estimated life of six years in
a seacoast environment and four years in saltwater
immersion service.
5.9 Spray Metallized Coatings
Molten metal is sprayed on to the surface being
protected and the metal solidifies, forming a tightly
adhering barrier. Zinc and aluminum are the most
commonly used metals for spray metallizing. Alumi-
num is generally favored for marine service due to its
longer service life and low weight.
It is generally necessary to topcoat the sprayed
metal coating to improve appearance and to gain the
maximum possible service life. Epoxy coatings are
typically used as topcoats for aluminum metal spray
coatings.
Spray metallization requires application over a
near-white (SP 10) or white (SP 5) blast-cleaned steel.
Zinc coating at 125 µm DFT has an estimated life of
six years in a marine atmospheric environment and
four years immersed in seawater. An aluminum
coating at 250–375 µm DFT and topcoated with
organic coatings (to seal the surface) has an estimated
service life of 15 years.
5.10 Vinyl
The vinyl coatings are solutions of polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) copolymers and form coatings by solvent
Marine Coatings
evaporation. Freshly applied coatings are dry to the
touch within one hour and are fully dried within seven
days. Vinyl coatings are particularly useful where fast
drying is required. Vinyl anticorrosion coatings con-
tain large amounts of volatile organic compounds and
their use is severely restricted by air pollution control
regulations. The primary vinyl coatings used in the
marine environment are vinyl antifouling coatings.
(a) Vinyl antifouling coatings. Vinyl antifouling
coatings have been the principal antifouling coatings
used since the late 1940s. These coatings consist of a
binder of vinyl and wood rosin. Cuprous oxide is the
antifouling agent that prevents the settlement and
growth of fouling organisms. These coatings have the
same general properties as other vinyl coatings. The
strong red color of the cuprous oxide limits the color
availability to red and black\brown (when tinted
with black iron oxide). The red color is used for the
underwater hull and the black color is often used for
the waterline (boottop) area. These coatings are nor-
mally applied at 50–75 µm DFT and the practical
coverage is approximately 10 square meters per liter.
The service life of vinyl antifouling paints is highly
variable, but a service life of 24 months is typical
before barnacles and similar fouling organisms can
grow on the surface.
(b) Water-borne coatings. Water-borne coatings
are based on emulsifying the binder, pigments, and
additives with water. Single-component emulsion
coatings are used to form films by solvent eva-
poration. Copolymers of acrylic, vinyl, and styrene
compounds are typically used as the binder in this
type of coating. Single-component water-borne coat-
ings are primarily used as cosmetic topcoats over
other types of coatings and are not suitable for im-
mersion service. These coatings are normally applied
at 50–100 µm DFT.
Two-component emulsion coatings are used that
form films by solvent evaporation and continued
chemical reactions to cure the coating. Polyamide-
cured epoxy systems are commonly used as the binder
in this type of coating. Two-component water-borne
epoxy coatings have properties that are comparable to
those of their solvent-based counterparts. These coat-
ings are not packaged as emulsions but are packaged
as viscous organic coatings that must be thinned with
water prior to use. This type of coating is specified
under MIL-P-53030. These coatings dry within two
hours and are fully cured within seven days. Water
must evaporate from these coatings before they can
form films. High humidity, poor air circulation, and
low temperatures hinder evaporation of water and can
significantly retard drying and curing.
7
Marine Coatings
6. Surface Preparation and Application
Surface preparation is always important in obtaining
satisfactory performance from coatings, but it is
particularly critical for marine coatings. The marine
environment is unforgiving of mistakes in surface
preparation and application. Practices that are ac-
ceptable for inland coating work are unacceptable in
the marine environment. Experience and research
show the use of near-white blast cleaning (SP 10)
increases service life by 30–40% over that obtained by
commercial blast cleaning (SP 6). Abrasive blast
cleaning to SP 10 is the preferred surface preparation
method for most marine coatings.
6.1 AbrasiŠe Blast Cleaning
The most effective method of preparing metal surfaces
before applying coatings is abrasive blast cleaning.
This technique uses compressed air or centrifugal
force to accelerate small particles to speeds in excess of
480 kilometers per hour. The impact of the particles on
the surface dislodges surface contaminants, roughens
the surface to expose fresh metal, and provides a
profile suitable for coating. Oil and grease need to be
removed before blast cleaning the surface because
abrasive blasting does not remove oil or grease.
The most important factors in abrasive blast clean-
ing are the degree of cleanliness and the surface profile.
These factors are normally specified using industry
consensus standards developed by the American So-
ciety for Testing and Materials (ASTM), National
Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE), and the
Steel Structures Painting Council (SSPC). The stan-
dards are:
White Metal Blast Cleaning: SSPC Standard SP 5
(NACE No. 1);
Near White Blast Cleaning: SSPC Standard SP 10
(NACE No. 2);
Commercial Blast Cleaning: SSPC Standard SP 6
(NACE No. 3);
Brush-Off Blast Cleaning: SSPC Standard SP 7
(NACE No. 4).
A minimum surface cleanliness of SP 6 is required to
obtain satisfactory coating performance. An SP 10
surface cleanliness should be used in critical engin-
eering areas such as tanks, underwater areas, and
similar surfaces where maximum performance is
required.
Surface profile is the roughness of the surface as
measured by the peak to valley height. Surface profile
needs to be great enough to provide a good surface for
adhesion but not so great as to leave peaks that stick
above the surface. A profile of 25–40 µm, as measured
using plastic replica tape, is recommended for typical
marine coatings. The procedure for measuring surface
profile is given in ASTM Standard D4417-84, Method
C. It is important to recognize that the numerical value
8
for a surface profile measurement depends on the
method used. Different methods give differing values
for the same surface. A requirement for a given profile
must be stated with the method used to measure it, or
the specified profile is meaningless.
The presence of water-soluble salts on the surface of
abrasive blast-cleaned steel has been shown to cause
blistering of coatings in accelerated laboratory tests.
These tests indicated that the presence of dried
salt (sodium chloride) in concentrations of
10–20 ppm cmV# would cause blistering. In practice,
this level of salt contamination could be experienced in
marine applications due to windblown spray from the
sea or incomplete freshwater rinsing of a saltwater-
contaminated surface before abrasive blasting.
6.2 AbrasiŠe Blasting Media
The abrasive blasting medium is critical to the efficient
and safe cleaning of steel prior to painting. This
material is used in large quantities and, in the past,
little attention was paid to anything other than its cost.
This is no longer the case. Health, safety, and
environmental issues with abrasive media have fo-
cused attention on their chemistry. Environmental
requirements for disposal of hazardous wastes dictate
the use of abrasives that have low levels of lead,
arsenic, and other metals (many of which are cathodic
to steel). Evidence indicates that the presence of
cathodic materials and water-soluble salts in abrasives
can cause premature failure of coatings. Abrasives
need to be free of water-soluble salts and to have low
levels of cathodic impurities to prevent reducing the
performance of marine coatings. MIL-A-22262 is a
specification for abrasive-blasting media which defines
the requirements for abrasives that minimize the
industrial hygiene and waste hazards associated with
blasting media.
6.3 High-pressure Water Cleaning
This method is used to remove marine fouling and
other surface contamination from the exterior portion
of ships. It also removes loosely attached coatings and
rust. Used with freshwater, it can also remove water-
soluble salts that could lead to early failure of coatings.
Due to environmental regulations on dust generation,
high pressure and, more recently, ultrahigh pressure
water removal methods have gained extensive usage.
6.4 Other Methods
Power tool cleaning, hand tool cleaning, solvent
cleaning, and detergent cleaning are used for local
repairs where it is not possible to perform abrasive
blast cleaning. Abrasive blast cleaning is inappropriate

for very small areas or in situations where the dirt
generated by abrasive blasting can damage adjacent,
intact coatings or machinery. These types of pro-
cedures are described by SSPC Surface Preparation
Specifications SP 1, SP 2, and SP 3.
6.5 Application
The application of coatings is an essential step in
obtaining the maximum possible service life. The
formulator needs to create coatings that are usable in
the normal industrial environment. The user needs to
take the steps necessary to ensure that the coatings are
stored and used under the conditions that the manu-
facturer says are needed to obtain proper performance.
ASTM Standard F718-85 provides a one-sheet data
form that identifies the information that is essential for
the effective use of marine coatings.
7. Selection of Coating Systems
The selection of coating systems requires consider-
ation of many different factors, such as cost (materials
and application), temperature and humidity during
application and drying\curing surface preparation
requirements, and desired service life. Of particular
importance is the accessibility of the area for main-
tenance. Areas that can easily accessed can be coated
with poorer-performing coatings and repaired as often
as needed if economics so dictate. Areas that cannot be
easily or safely repaired, especially those that require
dry-docking for access, need to be given the best
available coating. The following discussion covers
additional considerations for specific problem areas.
7.1 Antislip Deck Coatings
Antislip deck coatings are used to provide a rough
surface that prevents the uncontrolled motion of
people and machinery on wet, slippery decks. They are
particularly important safety coatings on the weather-
exposed decks of ships and oilrigs, and on cargo and
aviation decks. Antislip coatings need to be selected
for both their mechanical roughness and their re-
sistance to lubricants and cleaning compounds used
on the decks. The most durable antislip coatings are
based on epoxy coatings that contain coarse aluminum
oxide grit.
Recommended coating system:
1 coat, 50–100 µm DFT, epoxy (2 component)
primer
1 coat, 750–2000 µm DFT, epoxy (2 component)
nonskid
7.2 Electrical Fixtures
The use of fluidized-bed powder coatings (epoxy-
based) provides the best service life. The supplier of
Marine Coatings
the fixture, or a specialized coating facility applies
these coatings.
7.3 Freeboard Areas and Other Exterior Surfaces
AboŠe the Boottop (Waterline) Area
Zinc-rich coatings and\or epoxy–polyamide coatings
provide the anticorrosion protection while a topcoat
provides cosmetic color (and ease of maintenance
painting). Two systems are recommended:
System 1. Epoxy with silicone alkyd:
3 coats epoxy (50–100 µm DFT per coat,
250–300 µm DFT total)
2 coats silicone alkyd (50–75 µm DFT)
System 2. Zinc-rich (inorganic or organic)\
epoxy\alkyd:
1 coat zinc-rich (50–100 µm DFT)
3 coats epoxy (50–100 µm DFT per coat, 250–
300 µm DFT total)
2 coat silicone alkyd (50–75 µm DFT)
Coatings which meet MIL-P-24441 (epoxy–
polyamide), TT-E-490 (silicone alkyd), and MIL-P-
24648 (zinc-rich coatings) are suitable for use in these
areas.
7.4 Habitability Spaces
Nonflaming and intumescent coatings are the two
types of fire safety coatings used on ships and ocean
platforms. Nonflaming coatings prevent the spread of
fire and intumescent coatings are used to reduce heat
damage to surfaces that are exposed to fire. Common
nonflaming coatings are based on chlorinated alkyd
resins and on water emulsions of chlorinated
polymers. Intumescent coatings contain materials that
expand (foam) when heated to create a thick insulation
film (char) that retards damage to the surface.
Typical applications involve the use of alkyd
primers covered by chlorinated alkyd or water-borne
nonflaming coatings. Care needs to be taken to assure
that the alkyd primer is cured before applying the
water-borne coating. If the primer is not cured it is
equivalent to immersing the alkyd in water, and the
coating system will fail rapidly. Paints which meet
MIL-P-24596 (water-borne paints) and MIL-E-24607
(chlorinated alkyds) are suitable for this use.
7.5 Machinery Areas and Bilges
A three-coat epoxy system (three coats epoxy at
50–100 µm DFT per coat, 250–300 µm DFT total) over
a hand-cleaned surface (solvent, power tools, and
hand tools) is adequate for this area.
7.6 Tanks
Tanks require special care to assure proper ventilation,
humidity, and temperature throughout the coating
9
Marine Coatings
operation. Ventilation is required to remove solvent
fumes. Tank surfaces adjacent to water will be at the
temperature of the water, not the air temperature in
the tank. The temperature may be low enough to
condense moisture from the air and may substantially
slow the curing of the coating. It is good practice to use
dehumidification equipment to maintain proper
atmospheric conditions when coating tanks.
The recommended paint systems for all tanks are
epoxy–polyamide coatings (two or three coats epoxy
at 75–150 µm DFT per coat, 250–300 µm DFT total).
Polyurethane coatings are also available for tank use.
Quality assurance is mandatory for long service life. A
service life of 12 years is frequently obtained from
three-coat epoxy systems (MIL-P-24441).
(a) Fuel tanks. Coatings for fuel tanks must prevent
contamination of the fuel by corrosion products or
by materials in the coatings. They must also prevent
corrosion damage to the tank. The coatings need to
be resistant to aliphatic and aromatic petroleum
products. A three-coat epoxy system meeting MIL-
P-24441 is satisfactory for this use (three coats epoxy
at 50–100 µm DFT per coat, 250–300 µm DFT total).
Zinc coatings should not be used in fuel tanks be-
cause zinc dissolved into the fuel, particularly gaso-
line, can cause serious problems with engines.
(b) Potable water tanks. Coatings for these tanks
must prevent contamination of the potable water by
corrosion products and must not contribute any ob-
jectionable smell or taste to the water. The coatings
must not react with halogen compounds (e.g., bro-
mine or chlorine) used to disinfect the water. Care
must be taken to avoid the use of phenolic com-
pounds in any coating used for potable water tanks.
These compounds are sometimes added to epoxy
coatings to accelerate curing. Halogenated phenolic
compounds in concentrations as low as one part per
trillion can make drinking water unfit for use. Paints
suitable for use in this area are specified under MIL-
PRF-23236.
(c) Ballast tanks. These tanks are exposed both to
total immersion and partial immersion in seawater.
Marine fouling is typically not a problem. The upper
parts of the tank are constantly exposed to high hu-
midity, condensation, and salt while the lower
portions are constantly immersed and intermediate
areas alternate types of exposure. The continually im-
mersed areas can be protected by a combination of
cathodic protection and barrier coatings. Other
portions can be protected with barrier coatings.
Paints meeting MIL-P-24441 or MIL-P-23236 (two
or three coats epoxy at 75–150 µm DFT per coat,
10
250–300 µm DFT total) are suitable for use in this
area.
7.7 Exterior Underwater Areas (Including Boottop
Areas)
Exterior underwater areas need protection from cor-
rosion and from the attachment of marine fouling.
These portions of ships and structures are generally
inaccessible for routine maintenance and the coatings
chosen must give reliable performance for extended
periods of time. Corrosion control for underwater
areas usually includes the use of cathodic protection
from sacrificial anodes (zinc or aluminum) or from
impressed current cathodic protection systems.
Cathodic protection systems generate strongly alka-
line environments near the anodes and in areas where
damage exposes metal to the water. Both corrosion
control and antifouling coatings must be resistant to
the environment created by cathodic protection.
Three-coat epoxy systems (three coats epoxy at
50–100 µm DFT per coat, 250–300 µm DFT total) and
other systems that meet the performance requirements
of MIL-P-24655 are suitable for use in this area. The
antifouling paint should be vinyl antifouling paint
(MIL-P-15931) or a coating meeting the performance
requirements of MIL-P-24647.
7.8 Quality Assurance of Application Including
Surface Preparation
The effectiveness of marine coatings is largely de-
termined by the quality of the surface preparation and
application operations. The quality of these operations
needs to be assured by establishing good training
programs for painters, abrasive blasters, and in-
spectors. The ASTM F941-81 (Standard Practice for
the Inspection of Marine Surface Preparation and
Coating Application) and ASTM D4537-86 (Standard
Guide for Establishing Procedures to Qualify and
Certify Inspection Personnel for Coating Work in
Nuclear Facilities) provide guidance in this area.
The coating supplier needs to provide meaningful
and requirements for surface preparation and ap-
plication of the coatings to allow users to perform the
inspections necessary to assure that it is used properly.
This is particularly important for underwater hull
coatings.
7.9 Testing
Performance tests and property tests of materials are
the two categories of tests used for marine coatings.
Performance tests are further divided into accelerated
tests and natural exposure tests. Accelerated tests are
designed to cause failure much more rapidly than

would occur in normal use and are usually conducted
indoors under industrial laboratory conditions. Care
must be taken in the planning and conducting of these
tests to avoid making serious errors and causing
conditions that do not stress normal failure mecha-
nisms and lead to misleading results. Natural exposure
tests are conducted at field sites where corrosion or
fouling conditions are uniquely severe. The rate at
which the items degrade at their natural rate in a severe
environment is observed. Natural exposure tests are
also performed by coating part, or all, of a ship or
structure with experimental materials and following
their performance during normal use.
Property tests of materials are conducted to
establish the physical composition and identity of the
materials being tested. Such tests are run to establish
material identification characteristics, to control the
process of making the materials and to identify
chemical and physical properties that correlate with
good performance in the field. These tests are common
laboratory tests for coatings and materials and will not
be discussed further.
(a) Hot water immersion tests. Hot water immersion
tests are primarily useful for testing chemically
curing coatings (e.g., epoxy). Hot water tests range
from immersion in tap water at 49 mC to immersion
in boiling water (100 mC). These tests are particularly
useful when a coating is likely to be subjected to such
conditions as part of its normal environment. Such
environments occur in water storage tanks that re-
ceive condensing steam from distilling units or as
part of a steam propulsion plant. Care must be taken
to avoid overstressing the coating and causing
failures that would not be experienced in service.
Seemingly small (p10 mC) fluctuations in tem-
perature in a high-temperature (82 mC) tests can make
the difference between pass and fail.
The immersion times typically run from seven days
in boiling water to 70 days in 82 mC water. These tests
are used in military specifications MIL-PRF-23236
(epoxy tank coatings), MIL-P-24441 (epoxy–
polyamide paints), and MIL-P-24648 (zinc-rich
coatings).
(b) Cathodic disbondment tests. Cathodic protection
is used to extend the service life of coatings by
preventing corrosion at minor breaks in the coating
film. This allows the ship or structure to be kept in
use for long periods of time without serious damage
due to corrosion. However, cathodic protection can
damage some coatings due to the strong electrical
fields and alkaline conditions generated on the
coated steel, particularly near damaged areas.
Cathodic disbondment tests have been developed to
simulate overprotection (i.e., higher than normal
Marine Coatings
protection voltages) which could shorten the service
life of coatings used in saltwater immersion service.
This type of test is used in MIL-P-24647 (antifouling
paint) and MIL-P-24655 (underwater hull anti-
corrosion paint).
(c) Accelerated weathering tests. Accelerated weath-
ering tests have varied track record. They are widely
used as screening tests, and successful performance
suggests the material may perform adequately in ser-
vice. Good statistical correlation between actual ser-
vice life and performance under these tests is often
hard to obtain. Tests using artificial light are always
questioned if they include energetic ultraviolet radi-
ation that is not seen in sunlight, or along the sea-
shore. These tests find their primary use in develop-
ing colored topcoats for use in areas where cosmetic
considerations are critical.
The most widely recognized weathering test is to
expose test panels at natural sites where natural
corrosion conditions are much more extreme than
are found at other locations. This natural acceler-
ation provides data where questions concerning the
artificiality of test conditions are minimized.
(d ) Fouling resistance tests. The only reliable test
for antifouling effectiveness is to expose test panels
in the ocean and see how long it takes for fouling
organisms to attach and grow. At the same time, it
is important to expose a control surface (on which
organisms readily grow) to account for seasonal fluc-
tuations in fouling intensity.
Two major types of immersion tests are used. The
static immersion test involves immersing the test panel
in seawater where the normal currents circulate water
around it. Dynamic immersion tests are conducted to
determine how rapidly the coating is eroded away due
to the motion of seawater. Dynamic tests are par-
ticularly relevant for ablative-type antifouling coat-
ings. These tests alternate periods of constant move-
ment with periods of static immersion. The movement
simulates ship movement and erodes or ablates the
coating while the static exposure allows marine fouling
organisms to settle on the surface. These tests are
described in ASTM D3623-78 (Standard Method for
Testing Antifouling Panels in Shallow Submergence).
Dynamic tests are particularly important for evalu-
ating nontoxic antifouling coatings that collect fouling
when they are stationary (or moving slowly) and rely
on the force of moving through the water to remove
accumulated fouling.
(e) Field tests. Field tests are the most useful, and
most difficult, to perform and evaluate. Test methods
range from installing test racks on ships to painting
11
Marine Coatings

large portions of ships with candidate coatings. In Bibliography

the latter case there must be good reasons to expect
a performance superior to that obtained with stan-
dard materials. Large-scale ship tests always include
the possibility of rapid failure and the need to replace
the coating earlier than planned.
Ship tests are long-term projects and it takes several
years to obtain meaningful results. A major problem
with ship tests is preventing damage to the test area
due to normal maintenance. There have been cases
where test patches have been replaced with different
materials (but with the same physical appearance)
without telling the people who were conducting the
investigation. If the investigator does not know that
the test patch has been replaced he may think the
replacement is the original and that the material under
test is performing well.
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM),
Philadelphia, PA. www.astm.org
Fischer E C, Casteli V J, Rodgers S D, Bleile H R 1984 Fouling
control technology. In: Costlow J D, Tipper R C (eds.) Marine
Biodeterioration: An Interdisciplinary Study. Naval Institute
Press, Annapolis, MD, pp. 261–90
Keane J D 1995 Steel Structures Painting Manual. SSPC,
Pittsburgh, PA, Vols. 1 and 2
Munger C G, Vincent L D 1999 Corrosion PreŠention by
ProtectiŠe Coating, 2nd edn. NACE International, Houston,
TX
Treseder R S 1991 NACE Corrosion Engineer’s Reference Book,
2nd edn. NACE International, Houston, TX
United States of America Department of Defense Specifications,
Defense Standardization Program Office. www.dsp.dla.mil
H. Bleile and S. D. Rodgers

Copyright ' 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd.

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ISBN: 0-08-0431526
pp. 5174–5186

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