Human Physiology &

Pathophysiology

NERVOUS SYSTEM
LEARNING OUTCOMES:

1. List the major functions of the

nervous system;
2. Define each division & subdivisions
of nervous system;
3. Identify the types of cells that make
up the nervous system with its
structure and function;
 Major Functions of Nervous System:
1. Receiving of sensory inputs
2. Integrating information
3. Controlling muscles and glands
4. Maintaining homeostasis
5. Establishing and maintaining mental
activity
Main Divisions of the
Nervous System:
1. Central Nervous
System (CNS) –
consists of the
brain and spinal
cord

2. Peripheral
Nervous System
(PNS) – consists of
all the nervous
tissue outside the
CNS (nerves &
ganglia)
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Sensory Division / Afferent Division:

conducts action potentials from
sensory receptors to CNS by sensory
neurons
Enteric Nervous System (ENS): unique
subdivision of PNS that has both
sensory and motor neurons contained
wholly within the digestive tract.
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Motor Division / Efferent Division: conducts action
potentials from the CNS to effector organs, such as
muscles & glands by motor neurons

Somatic Nervous System – innervates skeletal

muscle; mostly under voluntary control
Autonomic Nervous System – innervates cardiac
muscle, smooth muscle, and glands; mostly under
involuntary control
1. Sympathetic Division
2. Parasympathetic Division
Cells of the Nervous
System:
1. Neurons / Nerve Cells – receive stimuli, conduct
action potentials, and transmit signals to other
neuron or effector organs; has three parts:
▪ Cell Body: contains a nucleus and processes stimulus
▪ Dendrites: receive stimulus from other neurons or sensory
receptors
▪ Axon: transmits stimulus to a gland, muscle, organ, or
other neuron
2. Glial Cells / Neuroglia – supportive cells of CNS &
PNS; do not conduct action potentials; carry out
different functions that enhance neuron function and
maintain normal conditions
Myelin Sheaths – fatty, protective wrapping around axons
of some neurons that are formed by oligodendrocytes
(CNS) and Schwann cells (PNS); serve as an excellent
insulator that prevents almost all ion movements across
cell membrane

✔ Nodes of Ranvier: gaps in the myelin sheath where the ion

movement occurs & action potential develops
 Organization of
Nervous Tissue:
1. Gray Matter – consists of groups of neuron cell bodies &
their dendrites, where there is very little myelin
▪ Cortex – located on the surface of brain
▪ Nuclei – clusters of gray matter located deeper within the brain
▪ Ganglion – a cluster of neuron cell bodies in PNS

2. White Matter – consists of bundles of parallel axons

with their myelin sheaths, which are whitish in color
▪ Nerve Tracts / Conduction Pathways – found on the CNS which
propagate action potential from one area of the CNS to another
▪ Nerves – bundles of axons located in the PNS
Electrical Signals of Nervous System: include
the resting membrane potential, action
potential, synapse, and reflexes

Resting Membrane Potential – is the point of

equilibrium at which the tendency for K+ to
move down its concentration gradient out
of the cells is balanced by the negative
charge within the cell, which tends to
attract the K+ back into the cell

Sodium-Potassium Pump – is required to

maintain the greater concentration of Na+
outside the cell membrane and K+ inside;
occurs to compensate for the constant
leakage of ions across the membrane.
 Two Basic Ion Channels:
1. Leak Channels – always open; K+ channels are much
greater than Na+ channels
2. Gated Channels – closed until opened by specific signals
▪ Chemically Gated: opened by neurotransmitters or other
chemicals
▪ Voltage-Gated: opened by a change in membrane
potential
Types of Action
Potential Conduction:
▪ Continuous Conduction – occurs in unmyelinated
axons; an action potential in one part of a cell
membrane stimulates local currents in adjacent parts
▪ Saltatory Conduction – occurs in myelinated axons;
an action potential ‘jumps’ from one node of Ranvier
to the next along the length of the axon
Synapse – a junction where the axon of one
neuron interacts with another neuron or with cells
of an effector organ; involved the release of
neurotransmitter

Three Major Components:

1. Presynaptic Terminal –
end of axon; has
synaptic vesicles that
store neurotransmitters
2. Postsynaptic Membrane
– membrane of the
dendrite or effector cell
3. Synaptic Cleft – space
separating the
presynaptic terminal &
postsynaptic membrane
Neurotransmitters:
Reflexes – involuntary reactions in response to a
stimulus applied to the periphery & transmitted
to CNS; allow a person to react to stimuli more
quickly; no conscious thought is required.

Reflex Arc – the neuronal pathway by which a

reflex occurs; basic functional unit of nervous
system; smallest, simplest pathway capable of
receiving a stimulus & yielding a response.
 Five Basic Components of Reflex
Arc:
1. Sensory Receptor – pick up the
stimulus
2. Sensory Neuron – afferent; send
stimulus to interneurons in spinal
cord
3. Interneurons – located in CNS
and connect to motor neurons;
process stimulus to some reflexes
4. Motor Neuron – efferent; send
response to effector
5. Effector Organ – muscles or
glands
Neuronal Pathways are
divided into two
simplest types
▪ Converging Pathway – two or more neurons synapse with the
same postsynaptic neuron; allows transmitted information in
more than one neuronal pathway to converge into a single
pathway
▪ Diverging Pathway – axon from one neuron divides &
synapses with more than one other postsynaptic neuron;
allows transmitted information in one neuronal pathway to
diverge into two or more pathways
 Summation – this allows the integration of multiple
subthreshold local potentials from the signals in neuronal
pathways which can bring the membrane potential to
threshold & trigger action potential.

▪ Spatial Summation: occurs when

the local potentials originate from
different locations on the
postsynaptic neuron (ex: from
converging pathways)

▪ Temporal Summation: occurs

when local action potentials
overlap in time;
Spinal Cord – extends
from the foramen
magnum at the base
of the skull to the 2nd
lumbar vertebra; its
inferior end where the
spinal nerves exit is
called cauda equina
(resembles a horse’s tail)
Organization of Spinal Cord:

Gray Matter – mainly collection of cell bodies at the center of spinal

cord that is shaped like letter H or butterfly;
consists of four structures:
Posterior Horns: contain axons which synapse with interneurons
▪ Dorsal Root Ganglion – contains cell bodies of pseudo-unipolar
sensory neurons & axons that originate in the periphery of the body;
Anterior Horns: contain somatic neurons
Lateral Horns: contain autonomic neurons
Central Canal: fluid-filled space in the center of the cord
Organization of Spinal Cord:

White Matter – located at the superficial portion; each half

is organized into three columns: dorsal / posterior,
ventral / anterior, and lateral columns. Each column
contains two nerve tracts/pathways:
Ascending Tracts: consist of axons that conduct action
potentials toward the brain
Descending Tracts: consist of axons that conduct action
potentials away from the brain
Spinal Cord Reflexes:

Knee-Jerk Reflex / Patellar Reflex Withdrawal Reflex / Flexor Reflex

1. Spinal Nerves – arise along
spinal cord from union of
dorsal & ventral roots.

✔ All contain axons from both

sensory and somatic motor
neurons (mixed nerves)
✔ Categorized by region of
vertebral column from which
they emerge –31 pairs in total
✔ Dermatome - area of skin
supplied with sensory
innervation by a pair of spinal
nerves;
Plexus – area
where neurons of
spinal nerves come
together &
intermingle
Brain – consists of its
major regions which
are the brainstem,
the cerebellum, the
diencephalon, and
the cerebrum.
Brainstem – connects
the spinal cord to
the remainder of
brain
Brainstem
Location Prominent Features Function
Component
regulates heart rate, blood vessel
inferior portion; Pyramids – two enlargement at uppermost part
Medulla diameter, breathing, swallowing,
continuous with (anterior); involved in conscious control of skeletal
Oblongata vomiting, hiccupping, coughing,
spinal cord muscle
sneezing, balance

superior to serves as functional bridge between

Arched Footbridge – anterior surface; aids in
Pons medulla cerebrum & cerebellum, breathing,
assisting functions of medulla oblongata
oblongata swallowing, balance, chewing, salivation

Superior Colliculi – 2 mounds; involved in visual

reflexes & receive touch & auditory input
smallest region;
Inferior Colliculi – major relay centers for auditory coordinated eye movements, controlling
Midbrain superior to the
nerve pathways in CNS pupil diameter, lens shape
pons
Substantia Nigra – black nuclear mass that is
involved in regulating general body movements
Reticular Formation – a group
of nuclei scattered throughout
the brainstem
✔ Function: regulates cyclical
motor function (respiration,
walking, chewing)
✔ This is a major component of
the Reticular Activating
System, which plays an
important role in arousing
and maintaining
consciousness, and in
regulating sleep-wake cycle
Cerebellum – attached to the brainstem by several
large connections called cerebellar peduncles;
Cerebellum – major function is that of a comparator
where it compares the intended action to what is
occurring and modifies the action to eliminate
differences.
Diencephalon –
part of brain
between
brainstem &
cerebrum
consisting of the
thalamus,
epithalamus, &
hypothalamus
 Component Location Characteristics Function

consists of cluster of nuclei shaped like a yo-yo

influences moods & detects pain
Thalamus largest part
Interthalamic Adhesion – centrally connect the two large, (unlocalized)
lateral parts

consists of few small nuclei

small area
superior & emotional & visceral response
Epithalamus Pineal Gland – an endocrine gland that influences the
posterior to to odors
thalamus onset of puberty & controlling some long-term cycles that
are influenced by the light-dark cycle

contains several small nuclei

plays a central role in
maintaining homeostasis,
Infundibulum – a funnel-shaped stalk that extends from
control of body temperature,
most inferior part; the floor of hypothalamus to pituitary gland
Hypothalamus hunger, thirst, sexual pleasures,
below thalamus
rage, fear, relaxation after meal,
Mammillary Bodies – visible swelling on posterior part of control the secretion of hormone
hypothalamus that are involved in emotional responses to from pituitary gland
odors and memory
Cerebrum –
largest part of the
brain which is
divided into right &
left hemisphere by
longitudinal
fissure
 Lobes of Cerebral Hemispheres:
1. Frontal Lobe – vital in control of voluntary motor functions,
motivation, aggression, mood, & olfactory reception
2. Parietal Lobe – principal center for receiving & consciously
perceiving most sensory information such as touch, pain,
temperature, and balance
3. Occipital Lobe – functions in receiving and perceiving visual
input
4. Temporal Lobe – involved in olfactory & auditory sensations;
plays an important role in memory
• Psychic Cortex: anterior & inferior portion of temporal lobe
associated with abstract thought & judgment
5. Insula / Fifth Lobe – deep within the lateral fissure; it
processes interoception – the sensory information on
physiologic condition of body (heartbeat & blood pressure
regulation & gastric motility)
Cerebral Cortex –
located at the surface of
cerebrum that is
composed of gray matter

Functions: controls
thinking, communicating,
remembering,
understanding, & initiates
involuntary movements
Prominent Features:
• Gyri – folds on cerebral cortex that greatly
increase the surface area
• Sulci – intervening grooves; shallow indentations
• Central Sulcus – separates the frontal and
parietal lobes
• Lateral Fissure – separates most of the
temporal lobe from the rest of cerebrum
Sensory Areas of the Cerebral Cortex:
• Primary Sensory Areas – where ascending tracts project &
sensations are perceived; this includes visual cortex in occipital lobe,
primary auditory cortex in temporal lobe, & taste area in insula
• Association Areas – cortical adjacent to primary sensory area;
involved in the process of recognition
• Primary Somatic Sensory Cortex / General Sensory Area –
located in parietal lobe posterior to central sulcus; receives
information directly from sensory fibers or from thalamic neurons

Motor Areas of Cerebral Cortex:

• Primary Motor Cortex –control voluntary motor movements
• Premotor Area –motor functions are organized before initiation
• Prefrontal Area –motivation & regulation of emotional behavior and
mood; accounts for foresight to plan and initiate movement
Sensory Functions
Ascending Tracts – pathways that transmit information via
action potentials from the periphery to various parts of brain
Somatic Motor Functions
include involuntary (no conscious thought) and
voluntary movements (consciously activated).
Feedback Loops / Circuits from Neural Circuits of Basal Nuclei:
• Stimulatory Circuit – initiate an action, facilitate muscle
activity such as rising from a sitting position
• Inhibitory Circuit – inhibit random movements especially at
rest of the trunk and limbs
Communication between
Hemispheres

Commissures – connections
between two hemispheres
intended to share the
received sensory information.
Corpus Callosum: the
largest of commissures; a
broad band of nerve tracts at
the base of longitudinal
fissure
Right Cerebral Hemisphere Left Cerebral Hemisphere

receives sensory input from and controls receives input from and controls muscular
muscular activity in the left half of the body activity in the right half of the body

more involved in functions such as 3D or more analytics, emphasizing such skills as

spatial perception and music ability mathematics and speech
 Speech – has two major cortical areas:
1. Sensory Speech / Wernicke Area – in parietal lobe;
functions in understanding & formulating coherent speech
2. Motor Speech / Broca Area – in frontal lobe; controls
movement necessary for speech
Brain Waves & Consciousness: different levels of
consciousness revealed by patterns of electrical
activity in the brain.

Electroencephalogram (EEG) – electrodes placed on

a person’s scalp to record brain’s electrical activity;
patterns can be detected as wavelike patterns known
as brain waves.
Type of Brain Wave Description
normal person is awake but in a quiet, resting state; eyes
Alpha Waves
closed
occur during intense mental activity; have higher
Beta Waves
frequency than alpha
occur during deep sleep, in infants & patients with severe
Delta Waves
brain disorders
common in children, may occur in adults with frustration or
Theta Waves
certain brain disorders
 Memory has three stages:

1. Working Memory – task-associated memory that is required for immediate

performance of task; lasts only a few seconds to minutes; occurs mostly in
frontal lobe; storage limited to about 7 bits of information at any one time

2. Short-term Memory – can retain information for a few minutes to a few days;
stored by mechanism involving increased synaptic transmission
• Consolidation: a gradual process involving the formation of new &
stronger synaptic connections transferring this memory into long-term;
length of memory depends on how often the information is retrieved
and used.

3.Long-term Memory – can store for only a few minutes or become permanent
• Declarative Memory / Explicit Memory – involves retention of facts &
related emotional undertones
• Procedural Memory / Reflexive Memory – involves development of
motor skills; only a small amount of this memory is lost over time

Memory Engrams / Memory Traces - involve in long-term retention of a

given piece of information
Limbic System
• it influences long-term declarative memory, emotions, visceral
responses to emotions, motivations & mood
• major source of sensory input is the olfactory nerve &
responds to olfactory stimulation by initiating survival responses,
such as hunger and thirst
• lesions in this area can result to voracious appetite, increased
sexual activity, and docility
bathes & provides a protective cushion around the CNS
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS
SYSTEM
 Basic Structure:
•Preganglionic Neuron – first neuron that innervates
from CNS
•Postganglionic Neuron – second neuron that
extends to effector organs
Autonomic Ganglia – point where the preganglionic
neurons synapse with postganglionic neurons.
 Location of Location of
Divisions of ANS Preganglionic Postganglionic Cell Prominent Feature General Function
Cell Body Body

Sympathetic Chain
Ganglia – along both
sides of spinal cord Splanchnic Nerves –
axons of preganglionic “Flight-or-Flight”;
fibers that do not synapse
Sympathetic T1 to L2 Collateral Ganglia – in sympathetic chain prepares the body
located nearer target ganglia that extend to for physical activity
organs; include celiac, collateral ganglia
superior & inferior
mesenteric ganglia

Terminal Ganglia – “Read-and-Digest

Vagus Nerve – extends
Cranial nerves located near or ”;
from brainstem where its
III, VII, IX, X; embedded in walls of stimulates
Parasympathetic preganglionic neurons
Spinal nerves target organs in involuntary
supply most of thoracic &
S2 to S4 thorax, abdomen, & activities of body at
abdominal organs
pelvis rest
Autonomic Neurotransmitters:
•All autonomic preganglionic & parasympathetic postganglionic neurons
secrete acetylcholine.
• Most sympathetic postganglionic neurons secrete norepinephrine.
Diseases and Disorders
of Nervous System:

Spinal Cord Injury Aphasia

• damage to spinal cord that can
interrupt ascending and/or
descending tracts where the
sensations and/or motor
functions & reflex modulation
may be disrupted
• absent or defective speech or
language comprehension
associated with the damage to
Wernicke and/or Broca areas
Diseases and Disorders
of Nervous System:
Subdural Hematoma
• bleeding into the subdural space
caused by the damage to the
veins crossing between the
cerebral cortex & dural venous
sinuses
Hydrocephalus
• accumulation of CSF in the
ventricles due to the blockage in
openings of fourth ventricle or the
cerebral aqueduct
Diseases and Disorders
of Nervous System:
Stroke
• ISCHEMIC STROKE • HEMORRHAGIC
STROKE
results when arteries results from bleeding of arteries
supplying brain tissue are supplying the brain tissue
blocked
Effects of Aging in Nervous System:
• Sensory functions decline due to the decreasing number of sensory neurons.
• Reduced the senses of movement, posture, position, and control and
coordination of movements.
• Motor functions decline due to general decline in the number of motor
neurons.
• Reflexes decline due to slow generation and conduction of action potentials
and synaptic functions.
• Brain size and weight decrease.
• Total amount of memory loss is normally not great for most people. Older
people have the most difficulty assimilating information that is unfamiliar and
presented verbally and rapidly. Short-term memory is also decreased in most
older people. However, long-term memory appears to be unaffected or even
improved.
• Require more time to fall asleep and experience more periods of waking
during the night.
● Sensation – process initiated by stimulating sensory receptors.
● Perception – conscious awareness of stimuli received by sensory
neurons.
● Sensory Receptors – nerve endings or specialized cells capable of
responding to stimuli by developing action potentials.

Types of Sensory Receptors:

1. Mechanoreceptors – respond to mechanical stimuli, such as
bending & stretching
2. Chemoreceptors – respond to chemicals
3. Photoreceptors – respond to light
4. Thermoreceptors – respond to temperature changes
5. Nociceptors – respond to stimuli that result in sensation of pain
 Pain – group of unpleasant perceptual and emotional
experience;
has two types of pain sensation:
1. Localized, sharp, pricking, or cutting pain resulting from
rapidly conducted action potentials (ex: superficial pain)
2. Diffuse, burning, or aching pain resulting from action
potentials that propagated more slowly (ex: visceral pain)

Pain perception can be disrupted or controlled by:

Local Anesthesia
General Anesthesia
Gate Control Theory – an inherent control system which
may explain the physiological basis for several techniques
that have been used to reduce the intensity of pain
Olfaction – sense of smell
• This occurs in response to airborne molecules, called
odorants, which enter the nasal cavity.
• Olfactory Neurons: bipolar neurons within the olfactory
epithelium which lines the superior part of nasal cavity.
• There are at least 400 functional olfactory receptors in
humans & can detect an estimated 10,000 different smells.
• The only major sensation that is relayed directly to the
cerebral cortex without first passing through the thalamus.
● Olfactory Cortex: involved in both conscious perception
of smell & visceral & emotional reactions linked to odors.
Adaptation – feedback loops; inhibit transmission of
action potentials due to prolonged exposure to a given
odorant
Taste
• Specialized Epithelial Cells: form the exterior
supporting capsule

• Taste Cells: total of 40 cells forming the interior

part; each contains hairlike processes called
taste hairs that extend through taste pores (tiny
openings in the surrounding stratified epithelium)

• Many taste sensations are strongly influenced by

olfactory sensations.
Vision: visual system includes the eyes,
accessory structures, and sensory
neurons.
Accessory Structures of the Eye:
these protect, lubricate, and move the eye
• Eyebrows – prevent perspiration from running
down the forehead & into the eyes; shade from
direct sunlight
• Eyelids & Eyelashes – protect from foreign
objects
• Blink Reflex: rapid opening & closing of
eyelids; normally occurs about 20x per minute
• Conjunctiva – thin, transparent mucous
membrane covering the inner surface of eyelids &
anterior of eye;
Accessory Structures of the Eye:
these protect, lubricate, and move the eye
• Lacrimal Apparatus – consists of lacrimal gland
that produces tears which contain enzyme that
lubricates, cleanses & helps combat eye infection;
• Extrinsic Eye Muscles – six skeletal muscles
responsible for eyeball movement
Eyeball – a hollow, fluid-filled sphere
within the orbit.
1. Fibrous Tunic – outermost
layer

● Sclera – firm, white, outer layer

that helps maintain eye shape,
protects internal structures, and
provides attachment sites for
extrinsic eye muscles
● Cornea – transparent; permits
entry of light & also bends or
refracts it
 2. Vascular Tunic – middle layer;
contains most of blood vessels
❖ Choroid – consists of vascular
network & many melanin-containing
pigment cells (appears black)
✔ the black absorbs light to
prevent reflection inside the
eye
❖ Ciliary Body – contains ciliary muscles
which attached to perimeter of the lens
by suspensory ligaments
❖ Iris – colored part of eye; a contractile
structure that surrounds & regulates the
diameter of pupil (an opening where
the light pass through); control the
amount of light entering the eye
✔ Circular smooth muscles of iris
constrict the pupil by
parasympathetic stimulation
✔ Radial smooth muscles of iris
dilate the pupil by sympathetic
stimulation
3. Nervous Tunic – innermost;
consists of retina which covers the
posterior 5/6 of eye and is composed
of two layers:
• Pigmented Retina – outer;
keeps light from reflecting back
in eye
• Sensory Retina – inner;
contains photoreceptors (rods &
cones) and interneurons
Three Chambers of the Eye:
● Anterior Chamber & Posterior
Chamber
○ aqueous humor: a watery fluid
produced by ciliary body that
helps maintain eye pressure,
refracts light, provides nutrients
to inner surface of eye, &
keeps eye inflated

● Vitreous Chamber
○ vitreous humor: a transparent,
jellylike substance that helps
maintain eye pressure, holds
lens & retina in place, and
refracts light
 20/20 is standardized for normal vision
Visual Fields – images seen by each eye; overlap to have depth
perception (3D or binocular vision)
Hearing and Balance: located in each ear that is
divided into three areas:
1. External Ear – extends from outside of
head to tympanic membrane (eardrum)
• Auricle –collects sound waves &
directs towards the canal
• External Auditory Canal –
passageway that opens from auricle
& transmits sound waves to eardrum
• Ceruminous Glands –produce
cerumen
• Cerumen / Ear Wax – modified
sebum;
• Tympanic Membrane / Eardrum –
thin membrane that separate the
external from middle ear causing
sound waves to vibrate
2. Middle Ear – air-filled chamber medial
to tympanic membrane which contains the
three ossicles:
• Malleus / Hammer – attached to
medial surface of tympanic
membrane
• Incus / Anvil – connects the malleus
to stapes
• Stapes / Stirrup – the base is seated
to oval window
 Two Covered Openings on Medial
Side:
1. Oval Window – separates
middle & inner ear
2. Round Window – connect the
middle with the inner ear

Two Unblocked Openings in the

Middle Ear:
• Mastoid Air Cells – in mastoid
process of temporal bone
• Auditory Tube / Eustachian
Tube – opens into the pharynx;
enables air pressure to be
equalized between the outside
air & middle ear cavity
3. Inner Ear – consists of
interconnecting tunnels and chambers
within the temporal bone:
Bony Labyrinth – filled with fluid
called perilymph; consists of three
regions:
• Cochlea – snail-shaped structure
which is involved in hearing;
contains threads in its bony core
called the spiral lamina;
• Vestibule – involved primarily in
balance;
• Semicircular Canals – involved
in dynamic equilibrium & can
sense movement to any direction;
Membranous Labyrinth – located
inside bony labyrinth; filled with a
clear fluid called endolymph
Balance / Equilibrium – a complex sensation involving
sensory input not only from the inner ear but also from the
limbs (proprioception) and visual system
Diseases and Disorders of
Vision, Hearing, and Balance:

Conjunctivitis Diplopia
• inflammation of the conjunctiva • double vision; misalignment of
two eyes
Diseases and Disorders of
Vision, Hearing, and Balance:

Color Blindness Night Blindness

• absence of perception of one or • condition that results to vitamin A
more colors deficiency characterized by
difficulty seeing in dim light
Diseases and Disorders of
Vision, Hearing, and Balance:
Glaucoma
• condition where there is an
increased pressure in the eye
caused by accumulation of
aqueous humor due to blockage
of venous ring
Motion Sickness
• characterized by nausea &
weakness caused by continuous
stimulation of semicircular canals
that creates conflicting
information reaching the brain
from different sensory sources
Diseases and Disorders of
Vision, Hearing, and Balance:
Effects of Aging on the Senses:
• Both general & special sensory functions
gradually decline.
• Free nerve endings & hair follicle receptors in
skin remain largely unchanged.
• Presbyopia – the most common age-related
condition where lenses’ ability decline &
eventually is lost.
• Presbycusis is an age-related sensorineural
hearing loss condition where hair cells in
cochlea decreases.