ARTIFICIAL

INTELLIGENCE
AND EXPERT
SYSTEMS

MODULE 4
LECTURE 6

Kamanasish Bhattacharjee
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Analytics, SCOPE, VIT
UNIVERSAL INSTANTIATION

All greedy kings are evil

∀ x King(x) ∧ Greedy(x) ⇒ Evil(x)

King(John) ∧ Greedy(John) ⇒ Evil(John)

King(Richard) ∧ Greedy(Richard) ⇒ Evil(Richard)
King(Father(John)) ∧ Greedy(Father(John)) ⇒ Evil(Father(John))
UNIVERSAL GENERALIZATION

Person(John)
Person(Richard)

∀ x Person(x)
EXISTENTIAL INSTANTIATION

∃ x Crown(x) ∧ OnHead(x, John)

Crown(C1) ∧ OnHead(C1, John)

EXISTENTIAL INTRODUCTION /
GENERALIZATION
There are many students in the class.
All the students appeared for English examination.
Every student did ot get good marks in English.
Asish got good marks in English.
Priyanka got good marks in English.

There are some students who got good marks in English.

PROPOSITIONALIZATION
Converting FOL to Propositional Logic

∀ x King(x) ∧ Greedy(x) ⇒ Evil(x) King(John) ∧ Greedy(John) ⇒ Evil(John)

King(John) King(John)
Greedy(John) Greedy(John)
Brother(Richard, John) Brother(Richard, John)

King(Richard) ∧ Greedy(Richard) ⇒ Evil(Richard)

FIRST-ORDER INFERENCE RULE

The inference that John is evil—that is, that {x/John} solves the query Evil(x)—works
like this:
to use the rule that greedy kings are evil, find some x such that x is a king and x is
greedy, and then infer that this x is evil
PROPOSITIONALIZATION
Converting FOL to Propositional Logic

∀ x King(x) ∧ Greedy(x) ⇒ Evil(x) King(John)

King(John) Greedy(John)
Greedy(John) Brother(Richard, John)
Brother(Richard, John) King(John) ∧ Greedy(John) ⇒ Evil(John)
PROPOSITIONALIZATION
Converting FOL to Propositional Logic

∀ x King(x) ∧ Greedy(x) ⇒ Evil(x) King(John)

∀ y Greedy(y) Greedy(John)
King(John) Greedy(Richard)
Brother(Richard, John) Brother(Richard, John)
King(John) ∧ Greedy(John) ⇒ Evil(John)

GENERALIZED MODUS PONENS

UNIFICATION

The UNIFY algorithm takes two sentences and returns a unifier for them if one exists.
AskVars(Knows(John, x)): whom does John know?
UNIFY(Knows(John, x), Knows(John, Jane)) = {x/Jane}
UNIFY(Knows(John, x), Knows(y, Bill)) = {x/Bill, y/John}
UNIFY(Knows(John, x), Knows(y, Mother(y))) = {y/John, x/Mother(John)}