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4th Micro Feee
4th Micro Feee
Operational Amplifiers and Application signal sources, displays and measuring systems.
They are used in linear applications like voltage follower, differential amplifier, inverting
amplifier, non-inverting amplifier, etc. and non-linear applications like precision
Introduction
rectifiers, comparators, clampers, Schmitt trigger circuit, etc.
An operational amplifier, or op-amp, is the most important and versatile analog IC. It is a
direct coupled multistage voltage amplifier with an extremely high gain. With the help of op- Ideal Op-Amp
amp, the circuit design becomes very simple. The variety of useful circuits can be built without Fig. 2 gives the representation of ideal and practical op-amps.
the necessity of knowing about the complex internal circuitry.
Fig. 1 shows circuit symbol and circuit model of an op-amp.
1. Infinite voltage gain (𝑨𝒐𝒍 = ∞): The voltage gain, also known as differential open loop
Fig. 1 Circuit symbol and model of an op-amp gain is infinite in an ideal op-amp.
An op-amp has two input terminals – an inverting input 𝑉1 and a non-inverting input 𝑉2, 2. Infinite input impedance (𝒁𝒊𝒏 = ∞): The input impedance is infinite in an ideal op-amp.
and an output 𝑉𝑜. It requires two power supplies: +𝑉𝐶𝐶 and −𝑉𝐸𝐸. It has a very high input This means that no current can flow into an ideal op-amp.
impedance 𝑍𝑖𝑛, a very low output impedance 𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡 and a very high gain 𝐴.
3. Zero output impedance (𝒁𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝟎): The output impedance is zero in an ideal op-amp.
Advantages of Op-Amps This means that the output voltage remains the same, irrespective of the value of the load
connected.
Low cost
Small size 4. Zero offset voltage (𝑽𝑶𝑺 = 𝟎): The presence of the small output voltage even when 𝑉1=
𝑉2 = 0 is called offset voltage. In an ideal op-amp, offset voltage is zero. This means the
Versatility output is zero if the input is zero.
Flexibility 5. Infinite bandwidth (𝑩𝑾 = ∞): The range of frequencies over which the amplifier
Dependability performance is satisfactory is called its bandwidth. The bandwidth of an ideal op-amp is
infinite.
Applications of Op-Amps
6. Infinite CMRR (𝑪𝑴𝑹𝑹 = ∞): The ratio of differential gain to common mode gain is
Op-amps have become an integral part of almost every electronic circuit which uses called common mode rejection ratio (CMRR). In an ideal op-amp, CMRR is infinite. This
linear integrated circuits. means that the common mode gain is zero in an ideal op-amp.
Op-amps are used in analog signal processing and analog filtering. 7. Infinite slew rate (𝑺 = ∞): Slew rate is the maximum rate of change of output voltage
They are used to perform mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, with time. In an ideal op-amp, slew rate is infinite. This means that the changes in the
multiplication, integration, differentiation, etc. output voltage occur simultaneously with the changes in the input voltage.
8. No effect of temperature: The characteristics of an ideal op-amp do not change with the Pin 6 is the output terminal
changes in temperature.
Pin 4 is for −𝑉𝐸𝐸 (𝑉−) supply and pin 7 is for +𝑉𝐶𝐶 (𝑉+) supply
9. Zero PSRR (𝑷𝑺𝑹𝑹 = 𝟎): Power supply rejection ratio (PSRR) is defined as the ratio of
Pins 1 and 5 are offset null pins. These are used to nullify offset voltage
the change in input offset voltage due to the change in supply voltage producing it,
keeping other power supply voltage constant. In an ideal op-amp, PSRR is zero. Pin 8 is a dummy pin and no connection is made to this pin
3
Equivalently, the double-ended differential mode can be represented by a single source Common Mode Rejection Ratio
connected between the two inputs, as shown in Fig. 6(b).
Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is the ability of an op-amp to reject a common
Common Mode mode signal. It is defined as the ratio of open-loop voltage gain 𝑨𝒐𝒍 to common mode gain
In the common mode, two signal voltages of the same phase, frequency, and amplitude 𝑨𝒄𝒎.
are applied to the two inputs, as shown in Fig. 7. 𝑨𝒐𝒍
𝑪𝑴𝑹𝑹 =
𝑨𝒄𝒎
The higher the CMRR, the better. A very high value of CMRR means that the open-loop
gain, 𝐴𝑜𝑙, is high and the common-mode gain, 𝐴𝑐𝑚, is low.
CMRR is a large value and is often expressed in decibel as
𝑨𝒐𝒍
𝑪𝑴𝑹𝑹 = 𝟐𝟎 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 (𝑨 ) 𝒅𝑩
𝒄𝒎
Fig. 7 Common mode operation
Maximum Output Voltage Swing 𝑽𝑶(𝒑−𝒑)
When equal input signals are applied to both inputs, they tend to cancel, resulting in a
With no input signal, the output of an op-amp is ideally 0 V. This is called the quiescent
zero output voltage. This action is called common-mode rejection. Its importance lies in the
situation where an unwanted signal appears commonly on both op-amp inputs. Common-mode output voltage. When an input signal is applied, the ideal limits of the peak-to-peak output signal
rejection means that this unwanted signal will not appear on the output and distort the desired are ±𝑉𝐶𝐶. In practice, however, this ideal can be approached but never reached. 𝑉𝑂(𝑝−𝑝) varies
signal. with the load connected to the op-amp and increases directly with load resistance.
The open-loop voltage gain of an op-amp is the internal voltage gain of the device and Input Offset Current
represents the ratio of output voltage to input voltage when there are no external components. Ideally, the two input bias currents are equal, and thus their difference is zero. In a
Generally 𝐴 is expressed in decibel (dB) as 𝑨 = 𝟐𝟎 𝒍𝒐𝒈 (𝑽𝒐 practical op-amp, however, the bias currents are not exactly equal.
𝑜𝑙 𝒐𝒍 𝟏𝟎 ) 𝒅𝑩 .
𝑽𝒅
The input offset current, 𝐼𝑂𝑆, is the difference of the input bias currents, expressed as an
Common Mode Gain absolute value.
If we apply two input voltages which are equal i.e. if 𝑉1 = 𝑉2, then ideally the output must 𝑰𝑶𝑺 = |𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟐|
be zero. But practically, the output voltage not only depends on the difference voltage but also
depends on the average common level of the two inputs. Such a common level is called common Input Bias Current
𝑽𝟏+𝑽𝟐
mode signal 𝑽 𝒄 = 𝟐 . The input bias current is the average of the two input currents of the op-amp. It is
calculated as follows:
The differential amplifier produces the output voltage proportional to common mode
signal and the output voltage is given as 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐
𝑰𝑩𝑰𝑨𝑺 =
𝟐
𝑽𝒐 = 𝑨𝒄𝒎𝑽𝒄 It is the dc current required by the inputs of the amplifier to properly operate the first
𝑽𝒐
where 𝐴 𝑐𝑚 is the common mode gain given by 𝑨𝒄𝒎 = stage. The concept of input bias current is illustrated in Fig. 8.
𝑽𝒄
Slew Rate
Slew rate is defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage in response to a
step input voltage.
∆𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝑺𝒍𝒆𝒘 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 = 𝑺 =
∆𝒕
where ∆𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = +𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − (−𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥). The unit of slew rate is volts per microsecond (𝑉/𝜇𝑠).
Fig. 8 Input bias current
Operation of an Op-Amp
Input Impedance
An op-amp is basically differential amplifier which amplifies the difference between the
Two basic ways of specifying the input impedance of an op-amp are the differential and two input signals.
the common mode.
Fig. 11 shows the basic operation of an op-amp as inverting and non-inverting amplifiers.
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Assumptions 𝐼1 = 𝐼𝑓
While analyzing the operation of op-amp circuits, two assumptions are made: 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑜
=−
𝑅1 𝑅𝑓
1. Zero Input Current: Since the input resistance of an ideal op-amp is infinite, no current
flows into an op-amp. This makes the input current zero. 𝑹𝒇
𝑽𝒐 = − ( )𝑽 𝒊𝒏
2. Virtual Ground: An ideal op-amp has 𝑉an infinite gain. We know that output voltage 𝑹𝟏
𝑉 = 𝐴(𝑉 − 𝑉 ). That makes 𝑉( − 𝑉 ) 𝑜. If gain 𝐴 is infinite, that means the difference 𝑅𝑓
= Here is called the gain of the amplifier and negative sign indicates that the output is
𝑜 2 1 2 1 𝐴 𝑅1
𝑉2 − 𝑉1 = 0, or 𝑉1 = 𝑉2. inverted.
This means that the input terminals of an op-amp are always at the same Fig. 13 shows the input and output waveforms of an inverting amplifier.
potential. Thus if one terminal is grounded, the other one can be treated to be virtually
grounded.
𝑅𝑓
𝐼𝑓
𝑅1
Fig. 13 Waveforms of inverting amplifier
𝐼1 Non-Inverting Amplifier
An amplifier which amplifies the input without producing any phase shift between input
and output is called non-inverting amplifier. Fig. 14 shows a non-inverting amplifier using op-
amp.
Fig. 12 Inverting amplifier
From the circuit, the potential at node B, 𝑉𝐵 = 0.
𝑅𝑓
𝐼𝑓
From the concept of virtual ground, the two input terminals are at same potential.
Therefore, the potential at node A, 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵 = 0. 𝑅1
𝑽𝒊𝒏
𝑰𝟏 = Voltage Follower
𝑹𝟏
A circuit in which the output voltage follows the input voltage is called voltage follower.
and Fig. 16 shows a voltage follower circuit using an op-amp.
𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝑜− 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝐼𝑓 = =
𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
𝑽𝒐 − 𝑽𝒊𝒏
𝑰𝒇 = 𝑹
𝒇
Since op-amp input current is zero, 𝐼𝑓 passes through 𝑅1 as 𝐼1. That is,
𝐼1 = 𝐼𝑓
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 Fig. 16 Voltage follower
𝑅1 𝑅𝑓 From the circuit, the potential at node B, 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛.
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑜 𝑉 𝑖𝑛 From the concept of virtual ground, the two input terminals are at same potential.
= −
𝑅1 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓 Therefore, the potential at node A, 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛.
𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉 𝑖𝑛 The node 𝐴 is directly connected to the output. Hence
= +
𝑅𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅𝑓 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝐴
𝑉𝑜 1 1
= ( + ) 𝑉𝑖 Now since 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛,
𝑅𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅𝑓
𝑽𝒐 = 𝑽𝒊𝒏
𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑅𝑓 ( 𝑅 𝑅 ) 𝑉 𝑖 𝑛 In a voltage follower gain is unity (𝐴 = 1). A voltage follower is also called source
1 𝑓 follower, unity gain amplifier, buffer amplifier or isolation amplifier. Fig. 17 shows the input
𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑓 and output waveforms of a voltage follower.
𝑉𝑜 = ( ) 𝑉 𝑖𝑛
𝑅1
𝑹𝒇
𝑽𝒐 = (𝟏 + )𝑽
𝑹𝟏 𝒊𝒏
𝑅𝑓
Here (1 + ) is called the gain of the amplifier. Fig. 15 shows the input and output
𝑅1
waveforms of an inverting amplifier.
Fig. 15 Waveforms of non-inverting amplifier 4. The output follows the input exactly without any phase shift
Now since op-amp input current is zero, 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 together pass through 𝑅𝑓 as 𝐼𝑓. That is, Also
𝐼𝑓 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 𝑉3 − 𝑉𝐴 𝑉3 − 0
𝐼3 = =
𝑉𝑜 𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑅3 𝑅3
− + = 𝑽𝟑
𝑅𝑓
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑰𝟑 =
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑹𝟑
𝑉 = −𝑅 ( + )
𝑜 𝑓
𝑅1 𝑅2 and
𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝑜 0 − 𝑉𝑜
𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓 𝐼𝑓 = =
𝑉𝑜 = − ( 𝑉1 + 𝑉2) 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
𝑅1 𝑅2
If 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅,
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𝐼2 𝑉𝑜 𝑅 + 𝑅𝑓
𝑅2 = 𝑉𝐵 ( )
Fig. 20 Non-inverting summing amplifier 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑓
𝐼1 𝑅𝑓 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑜 = ( ) 𝑉2( ) − 𝑉1
𝑅2 𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅1
𝐼2 𝑅𝑓(𝑅1 +𝑅𝑓) 𝑅𝑓
𝑅𝑓 𝑉𝑜= 𝑉2 − 𝑉1
𝐼2 𝑅1(𝑅2 + 𝑅 𝑓) 𝑅1
If 𝑅1 = 𝑅2,
Fig. 21 Subtractor 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉 2 − 𝑉1
𝑅2 𝑅1
From the circuit, the potential at node B,
If 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅,
𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝐵 = ( ) 𝑉2 𝑉 = (𝑉 − 𝑉 )
𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑓 𝑜 2 1
𝑅
From the concept of virtual ground, the two input terminals are at same potential. If 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑓,
Therefore, the potential at node A,
𝑉𝑜= 𝑉2 − 𝑉1
𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵 = ( ) 𝑉2 (3) This shows that the output is the difference between the two input signals.
𝑅 2 + 𝑅𝑓
Integrator
From the circuit,
𝑉1 − 𝑉𝐴 In an integrator circuit, the output is the integration of the input voltage. Fig. 22 shows an
𝐼1 = integrator circuit using an op-amp.
𝑅1
and
𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝑜 𝑅1 𝐼𝑓 𝐶𝑓
𝐼𝑓 =
𝑅𝑓
𝐼1
Since op-amp input current is zero, 𝐼1 passes through 𝑅𝑓 as 𝐼𝑓. That is,
𝐼1 = 𝐼𝑓
𝑉1 − 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝑜
Fig. 22 Integrator
𝑅1 𝑅𝑓
From the circuit, the potential at node B, 𝑉𝐵 = 0.
𝑉1 − 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝑜
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓 From the concept of virtual ground, the two input terminals are at same potential.
Therefore, the potential at node A, 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵 = 0.
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝐴 + 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉1
𝑅𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅𝑓 𝑅1 From the circuit,
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𝐼1 = 𝐼𝑓 𝐼1 = 𝐼𝑓
Integrating both sides with respect to t, This shows that the output is the differentiation of the input voltage. The term (−𝑅𝑓𝐶1)
𝑑𝑉𝑜 1 indicates the gain of the amplifier.
∫ 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =− 𝑅 𝐶 ∫ 𝑉 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑡
1 𝑓 Comparator
1 In a comparator circuit, the amplitude of one voltage is compared with another. In this
𝑉𝑜= − ∫ 𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑡 application, op-amp is used in the open-loop configuration with the input voltage on one input
𝑅1𝐶𝑓
1
and reference voltage on the other. Fig. 24 shows a comparator circuit using an op-amp.
This shows that the output is the integration of the input voltage. The term (− )
𝑅1 𝐶 𝑓
indicates the gain of the amplifier.
Differentiator
In a differentiator circuit, the output is the differentiation of the input voltage. Fig. 23
shows a differentiator circuit using an op-amp.
𝐶1 𝐼𝑓 𝑅𝑓 Fig. 24 Comparator
Here 𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 and 𝑉1 = 0.
𝐼1
When 𝑉𝑖𝑛 > 𝑉1 = 0, 𝑉𝑜 = +𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 ≅ +𝑉𝐶𝐶
When 𝑉𝑖𝑛 < 𝑉1 = 0, 𝑉𝑜 = −𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 ≅ −𝑉𝐸𝐸
Fig. 25 shows the input and output voltages.
Fig. 23 Differentiator
From the circuit, the potential at node B, 𝑉𝐵 = 0.
From the concept of virtual ground, the two input terminals are at same potential.
Therefore, the potential at node A, 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵 = 0.
From the circuit,
19 20