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Note:
- Ammonia is covered under Equilibria
- Air and the Atmosphere is covered under Acids, Bases and Salts (flue gas
desulphurisation and catalytic converters) and Organic Chemistry
(combustion, carbon cycles and CFCs)
Contents
Nature and Classification of Matter 2 Redox 51
Elements, Compounds and Mixtures 2 Redox Reactions 51
The Particulate Nature of Matter 3
Chemical Energetics 54
Experimental Design & Purification 5
Exothermic Reaction 54
Units and Precision 5 Endothermic Reaction 55
Experiment Planning 5 Activation Energy, Ea 56
Drawing Scientific Diagrams 5 Enthalpy Change — ΔH 57
Safety and Reliability 7
Graphing Skills 9 Reaction Kinetics 58
Heating of Solids and Liquids 9 Rate of Reaction 59
Measuring and Collection of Products 9 Periodic Table 61
Separation and Purification Techniques 11 General Trends 61
Gas Identification 16 Group Trends 61
Atomic Structure 17 Qualitative Analysis 63
Atoms and Isotopes 17 Qualitative Analysis Tables 63
Ionisation Energy (IE) (IP) 18 Types of Reactions 64
Chemical Bonding and Structure 20 Equilibria (IP) 65
Octet Rule 20 Reversible Reactions 65
Types of Bonding 20 Dynamic Equilibrium 65
Allotropes 23 Le Chatelier’s Principle 66
Bonding, Structure and Properties 24 Haber Process (O Level) 67
Chemical Formulae and Equations 28 Metals 67
Chemical Formulae 28 Reactivity 68
Balancing Chemical Equations 30 Extraction 70
Stoichiometry & Mole Concept 31 Corrosion 71
Mole Concept 31 Alloys 72
Finding Formulas 31 Recycling 73
Calculations 32 Electric Cell 74
Volumetric Analysis — Titration 36 Electrolysis 75
Acids, Bases & Salts, and Ionic Equations38 Factors 77
Common Acids & Bases 38 Applications 79
Reactions of Acids & Bases 39 Organic Chemistry 81
Strength and Basicity of Acids 39 Homologous Series 82
Types of Oxides 40 Oil Refinery 87
pH of a Solution 42 Combustion, Carbon Cycle, CFCs 88
Acid Rain 43 Isomerism 91
Solubility Rules 44 Macromolecules 92
Salt Preparation Techniques 45
Ionic Equations 50
1
Nature and Classification of Matter
Elements, Compounds and Mixtures
Elements Compounds Mixtures

Made up of 1 type of atom Made up of more than 1 type of atom

Pure substances Impure substances

- Fixed proportions by mass of Varying proportions of its

components (elements) constituents

Fixed m.p. and b.p. No fixed m.p. and b.p.

Cannot be chemically split Can be separated into its Can be separated into its
into simpler substances components (elements) components through physical
through chemical methods methods
(decomposition)

- Chemical change took place No chemical change took place

when compound is formed when mixture is formed

- Properties differ from that of Properties are same as those of

its components (elements) its constituents

Bonds present: Bonds present: Types:

Metallic/non-metallic Ionic/covalent Homogeneous/Heterogeneous

Definitions
● Element: made up of only one type of atom and cannot be chemically split into simpler
substances
● Compound: made up of two or more types of elements chemically combined together
● Mixture: contains two or more substances physically combined together
● e.g. Air: 78% N2, 21% O2, 0.9% Ar, 0.03% CO2

2
The Particulate Nature of Matter
Kinetic Theory
1. All matter is made of atoms, the smallest unique particle of each element
2. Particles (atoms/molecules) have energy of motion that we feel as temperature
○ They are in constant motion, in the form of vibration and/or linear motion of
translation
3. Pressure of a gas is due to the motion of the molecules of gas striking the object bearing
that pressure
4. There is a very large distance between the molecules of a gas compared to the size of the
molecule such that the size of the molecule can be considered negligible

Physical properties
Property Solid Liquid Gas

Arrangement of particles Close together, Close together, no Far apart, no orderly

orderly orderly arrangement arrangement

Forces of attraction Stronger than in Stronger than in gas Weak or none

between particles liquid/gas

Motion of particles Vibration Vibration, translation Vibration, translation

Energy content Lower than in Lower than in gas High

liquid/gas

Shape and volume Fixed shape, volume No fixed shape No fixed shape,
(takes shape of volume
container), fixed
volume

Compressible No No Yes

Representation/model

3
State changes

States of matter diagram

Heat curve

Heat curve from below m.p. to above b.p. (B to C is m.p, D to E is b.p.)

1. At (m.p. or b.p.), (starting phase of substance) (substance) will undergo a phase transition
into (new phase)
2. At this point, the energy introduced into the (starting phase) will go into overcoming the
forces of attraction between the molecules and send molecules of (substance) into the
(new phase) instead of increasing the temperature
3. Therefore, the temperature will remain at (m.p. or b.p.) until all of the (substance) has
(melted/boiled)

Diffusion — Evidence for the Particulate Nature of Matter

● Movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
○ e.g. When we open a bottle of perfume, we can soon smell the perfume because
the invisible particles of the perfume diffuse out of the bottle to our noses
● Rate of diffusion is affected by:
○ Temperature: The higher the temperature, faster the particles move so they diffuse
faster (↑ temp. → ↑ speed of particles → ↑ rate of diffusion)
○ Mass of particles: The greater the mass, slower the particles move so they diffuse
slower
4
Experimental Design & Purification
Units and Precision
● To determine precision: derive half of the smallest division
○ e.g. Precision of measuring cylinder = ± 0.05cm3
■ Smallest division = 0.1 cm3
■ Half of the smallest division = 0.05 cm3 (2 d.p.)

Physical quantity Unit Other units

Mass g or kg 1 tonne = 1000 kg, 1 mg = 10-3 g

Time s -

Temperature °C 273.15 K = 0 °C

Volume cm3 1 dm3 = 1000 cm = 1 litre

Experiment Planning
Structure
● Give the theoretical basis of why you use a certain method to solve the question
● List the sequence
● Guiding questions:
○ What is the objective?
○ What kind of information needs to be collected?
○ Is there a reaction involved? How much reagents should be used?
○ Is separation needed?
○ Do I need to “treat” my data?

Drawing Scientific Diagrams

● Draw two-dimensional single-lined drawings representing cross-section of apparatus
● Should be drawn in proportion to each other
○ e.g. A test tube cannot be longer than a burette
● Label the diagram clearly

5
Apparatus

Drawing apparatus

6
Drying a gas
Liquid drying agent Solid drying agent

Graduated containers
Measuring cylinder Syringe

Safety and Reliability

Safety precautions
Experiment Safety precautions Reason

General Avoid direct contact with Chemicals may be toxic or

chemicals corrosive

Wear goggles Avoids chemicals from getting

into eyes

Boiling liquid in a Add boiling chips to ensure “Bumping” may occur

conical/round-bottomed flask smooth boiling otherwise, resulting in
for some time chemicals spurting out

Heating a sample in a test Move test tube/boiling tube Avoid contents of the test
tube/boiling tube with a up and down tube/boiling tube from
Bunsen burner Do not heat at just one spot spurting due to intensive
heating at one spot

7
Ensuring reliability
Experiments
Measures Reason
involving:

Filtration ● Wash residue with distilled water ● Any soluble impurity clinging
(precipitate is ● The washing is discarded onto the solid will be
the desired removed
product) ● Otherwise these soluble
impurities will add to the
mass of the solid, resulting in
inaccuracies

Filtration ● Wash the insoluble residue on the ● Any of the desired substance
(filtrate is the filter paper with distilled water clinging onto the solid is
desired ● Allow the washings to be collected washed into the filtrate
product) together with the filtrate ● Failure to do so will result in
less substance collected

Drying of ● If solvent is water, dry product in an ● Ensures that constant mass is

product oven of suitable temperature for some
which is wet time (e.g. 120 °C, 10 mins)
● After heating, cool the product then
weigh
● The process of heating for a short
duration, cooling and weighing is
repeated until two consecutive
weighing gives consistent mass
obtained
● If the mass of residue is
important, drying between
filter paper is insufficient to
remove solvent

8
Graphing Skills
Procedure
Step Description

1 Draw x-axis: Independent variable (manipulated, e.g. Mass of fertilizer added)

Draw y-axis: Dependent variable (measured, e.g. Height of plant)

2 Label the axes. Include the units

3 Select a suitable scale for each axis (The smallest interval must be a whole number)
● Graph should take up at least half of the grid

4 Plot your graph using ‘x’

5 Either join the data points using straight lines or draw a line of best fit graph
● A line of best fit can be both a straight and a curved line
● Number of data points above and below it should be about the same

● When comparing gradient, use the terms “steeper” or “less steep”

○ Gradient can have a negative value hence “greater” may be incorrect

Heating of Solids and Liquids

Solids
● Use test tube/boiling tube
● Do not use beaker/conical flask for strong heating

Liquids
● Tube/flask/beakers, depending on volume

Measuring and Collection of Products

Measuring liquid volumes
● Pipette (10.0 cm3, 25.0 cm3)
○ For fixed quantities
○ Usually 1 d
○ .p.
● Measuring cylinder (10 cm3, 50 cm3, 100 cm3)
● Burette (50.00 cm3)
○ For variable quantities
○ Usually 2 d.p.
● Beaker cannot be used to measure volume of liquids
○ Markings are only approximate

9
Measuring gas volumes
● Graduated syringe
● Gas jar (inverted measuring cylinder)

Gas collection methods

Displacement of water Downward delivery Upward delivery

NOT suitable for gases that Suitable for gases that are Suitable for gases that are
dissolve/react with water denser than air less dense than air

Density relative
Formula Name Soluble in water Collection method
to air

H Hydrogen No Less dense

CO2 Carbon dioxide Slightly Denser Displacement of water

O2 Oxygen Slightly Slightly denser

Cl2 Chlorine Soluble Denser

Downward delivery
SO2 Sulfur Dioxide Very soluble Denser

NH3 Ammonia Very soluble Less dense Upward delivery

Determining density relative to air

● Use Mr to calculate relative density
○ e.g. Air made up of 78% of N2, Mr of air ≈ 14 × 2 = 28
● If Mr of gas > Mr of air, then more dense (vice versa)

Drying of gas
● Typically, the gas will be contaminated because of the presence of water in most solutions
● Depending on the use case, may need to dry the gas in a U-tube/conical flask filled with a
drying agent (shown above)
10
 ● Drying agents:
○ Anhydrous calcium chloride (use this if the pH of gas is unknown)
○ Anhydrous calcium oxide (unsuitable for acidic gases)
○ Concentrated sulfuric acid (unsuitable for alkaline gases)
● Water vapour indicator: Anhydrous copper(II) sulfate (white → blue)

Separation and Purification Techniques

Tests for purity
● A pure substance has a fixed, constant melting point and boiling point
● The presence of an impurity:
○ Decreases the melting point of the substance and causes it to melt over a range of
temperatures
○ Increases the boiling point of the substance and causes it to boil over a range of
temperatures

Dissolving, filtering and evaporating

● Describe the steps to find the % of shell material in beach sand
1. Measure the mass of an 250 cm3 beaker using an electronic balance
2. Place the sample of beach sand in the beaker and measure the total mass. The
mass of the beach is calculated by the total mass minus the mass of the beaker. Let
this be x
3. Add the HCl acid slowly into the beaker, constantly stirring
4. Add the acid until the effervescence stops. This indicates that the acid is in excess
5. Filter the mixture
6. Wash the residue with distilled H2O
7. Dry the residue in a low-heat oven
8. Measure the mass of the residue. Let this be y

9.

Stirrer: Ensures heat is distributed evenly throughout the water

Slow heating rate: Ensures that the temperature increases slowly so that the melting
point/boiling point can be observed accurately

11
Separating suspensions
Decanting
● Usually used when suspension contains dense, large, insoluble
solid particles
● After allowed to settle, the denser solid particles will settle to the
bottom
● The top layer of the liquid is then poured away

Filtration
● Usually used when suspension contains small, insoluble particles
● Solid particles will be trapped by the filter paper while the liquid will
pass through the filter paper
● Residue: Solid particles collected on the filter paper
● Filtrate: Liquid particles collected in the conical flask

Separating funnel
● Used to separate immiscible liquids
○ Immiscible: when liquids do not mix and form separate layers

Separating solutions
Evaporation to dryness
● Used to recover solutes with high thermal stability (does not decompose
upon strong heating)
● Solution is heated to evaporate all the solvent, leaving behind the solute
Crystallisation
● Used to recover solutes that tend to decompose upon strong heating
(thermally unstable)
● Solution is heated until it becomes saturated, then allowed to cool to room
temperature
○ Many crystals contain water of crystallisation
■ Water of crystallisation: The water molecules inside the crystal
that give the crystal its shape
○ Excessive heating during crystallisation would drive off this water of crystallisation
and crystals would not form (thermally unstable)
● The saturated solution is then filtered to attain the solute
○ Saturated solution: Solution contains the maximum amount of solute that can
dissolve in a fixed amount of solvent at a given temperature
● e.g. Crystallisation of copper(II) sulfate from its solution
1. Heat the solution of copper(II) sulfate in an evaporating dish
2. When about one-third of the solution is left, stop heating - this is a saturated
solution
3. Let the solution cool and crystals would appear. This is because on cooling, the
solubility of the copper(II) sulfate solute decreases, and the undissolved solute
appears as crystals

Sublimation

12
 ● Used to recover solids which sublime easily on heating
○ e.g. Solids that sublime under room conditions: ammonium chloride, iodine, dry ice
(solid carbon dioxide), naphthalene (mothball)
● Mixture must be dry and solid
● Substances must be stable to heat
● Cotton wool is used to seal to minimise escape of vapour, while allowing heated air to
escape
● e.g. A sample of ammonium chloride is contaminated with some common salt
1. Heat the mixture in an evaporating dish with an inverted filter funnel over the
mixture
2. The ammonium chloride sublimes and its vapour then solidifies as a deposit on the
cooler surface of the inverted funnel

Simple distillation

Simple distillation setup

● Used to recover the solvent from a solution

● Solution is heated until it boils, then the solvent vapour rises and enters the condenser
● In the condenser, the vapour is cooled and condenses into the pure solvent, which is
collected as distillate in the conical flask
● Boiling chips are added to ensure smooth boiling and to prevent splattering
● e.g. To get water from sea water
1. Boil sea water (together with boiling chips) in a flask connected to a condenser
2. Pump cooler water into the jacket of the condenser
3. The water vapour/steam in the flask enters the condenser and is condensed back
into water, which is collected in the conical flask as the distillate

Boiling chips: Smooth boiling (by allowing formation of smaller air bubbles)
Thermometer position: To measure the temperature of the pure vapour exiting the flask,
determining the b.p. of the solvent
Cool water entering the bottom of the condenser: Ensures that bottom of condenser is the
coolest, so any vapour that did not condense initially would condense here, hence no vapour can
escape

Fractional distillation

13
 Fractional distillation setup

● Used to separate a mixture of miscible liquids with different boiling points

● Two or more solvents can be separated from the solution
● The liquid will the lowest boiling point will distill out first, followed by the other liquids
with higher boiling points
● A fractionating column is fitted to the distillation flask and the condenser
● e.g. To separate a mixture of water and ethanol (b.p. 100 °C, 78 °C)
1. Put the ethanol-water mixture in a flask that is linked to a fractionating column,
which is in turn linked to a condenser, as shown in the diagram above
2. Heat the mixture with an electric heater
■ Ethanol is highly flammable and no naked flame should be used to heat it
3. The heat vapourises the ethanol and water and drives the vapours up the
fractionating column
■ Water has a higher b.p. (100 °C) than ethanol (78 °C), thus the water vapour
condenses in the fractionating column and the water drips back into the flask
■ The ethanol vapour reaches the top of the column and passes into the
condenser, and is thus condensed, forming ethanol liquid as the distillate

Glass beads: Increases the surface area for the condensation of vapour, making separation of the
two vapours more efficient
Thermometer readings: First, ethanol vapour (78 °C), then after all the ethanol vapour has
entered the condenser, water vapour (100 °C)
Cool water entering the bottom of the condenser: Ensures that bottom of condenser is the
coolest, so any vapour that did not condense initially would condense here, hence no vapour can
escape

14
Paper Chromatography
● A technique of using a solvent to separate a mixture into its individual
components by its relative solubility in the solvent
● Used only when small amount of mixtures are available
● Identify substances by comparing to chromatogram of known samples
● More soluble compounds → travel faster + further from start line
● To note (For Practical):
○ Use pencil to draw start line (pen → dyes in ink will dissolve in
the solvent and separated → confusion)
○ Solvent starts below the start line (to prevent soluble
components in sample from dissolving directly in solvent
before moving up chromatogram)
○ Spots of samples must be small (Components move upwards and laterally, could
possibly merge → confusion)
○ Solvent front should be near the top before taking out chromatogram (ensuring
more complete separation of different components in samples)

●
● Distance travelled
○ By solute: Starting line to middle of ink spot
○ By solvent: Starting line to solvent front
● Use locating agents for colourless substances to make them visible when coloured

Reverse osmosis
● High pressure is used to force impure water through a membrane which has millions of
tiny holes/pores
● Only water molecules can pass through the pores, leaving solute particles behind
● One of the methods used to create NEWater

15
Gas Identification
Observations
Gas Test reagent Positive observation

Sulfur Dip filter paper into acidified ● Purple potassium manganate(VII) turns
Dioxide, potassium manganate(VII) colourless
SO2 Hold it at mouth of test tube

Hydrogen, Insert the lighted wooden splint ● Effervescence observed

H2 into the test tube ● Gas extinguish the lighted splint with a
pop

Oxygen, Insert a glowing splint into the test ● Effervescence observed

O2 tube ● Gas reignites the glowing splint

Chlorine, Test gas with moist blue litmus ● Pale green/yellow gas
Cl2 paper ● Blue litmus paper turns red and then
bleached

Ammonia, Test gas with moist red litmus ● Colourless pungent gas
NH3 paper ● Moist red litmus paper turns blue

Carbon Pass the gas through calcium ● Effervescence observed.

dioxide, carbonate solution (limewater) ● A white precipitate formed in the lime
CO2 water.

16
Atomic Structure
Atoms and Isotopes
● Atoms tend not to exist by themselves, and may lose or gain electrons to achieve the
noble gas configuration, by doing so become charged particles called ions
● Atoms that lose electrons become positive ions (cation) and the opposite, anion

Subatomic particles
Particle Relative charge Relative mass Location

Proton 1+ 1 Nucleus

Neutron 0 1 Nucleus

Electron 1- 1/1840 Electron shells

Symbol of an atom

Symbol of an atom

● A: mass (nucleon) number, the number of protons and neutrons

● Z: atomic (proton) number, the number of protons
● For any element, all atoms have the same number of protons and electrons

17
Isotopes
● Atoms with the same number of protons but with different numbers of neutrons
35 37
○ e.g. Chlorine-35 and chlorine-37, 𝐶𝑙 and
17
𝐶𝑙
17
● Isotopes have the same number of electrons → same chemical properties, since chemical
properties depend on the transfer and redistribution of electrons
● Isotopes have different numbers of neutrons → different physical properties, since they
have different masses
● The relative atomic mass is the mean/average of the relative isotopic masses of the
different isotopes
○ Represents the average mass of one atom, taking into account the different isotopes
and their relative abundances
○ e.g. In nature, chlorine isotopes occur in the ratio of about 3:1 (75% chlorine-35,
25% chlorine-37)
■ The Ar of chlorine: (35 × 75%) + (37 × 25%) = 35.5

Ionisation Energy (IE) (IP)

● The amount of energy needed to remove one electron from a gaseous atom
○ 1st IE is the energy required to remove first electron from one neutral atom
■ Cl (g) → Cl+ (g) + e-
○ 2nd IE is the energy required to remove second electron from the same ion
■ Cl+(g) → Cl2+ (g) + e-
● Electrons are in sub-groups within each quantum shell; in each shell there are subshells

Trends
● In general, as the ionisation number ↑ IE ↑
● Although the increase in IE is generally gradual, there are big jumps at some stages

18
Subshells and Electronic Configuration (IP)

spdf orbitals

Writing electron configuration using spdf orbitals

1. Electrons are arranged in ‘shells’ or energy levels numbered 1, 2, 3 etc.
○ Also known as principal quantum numbers which describe the average distance of
the electron from the nucleus
2. Each shell consists of subshells
○ The number of subshells in each shell equals the shell number
○ The first shell has one subshell (s) and the second shell has two (s, p)
3. Each subshell contains a number of orbitals
○ A orbital is the space in which the electron is most probably located
○ The number of orbitals in each subshell depends on the type of subshell

Type of subshell No. of orbitals

s 1

p 3

d 5

f 7

4. Each orbital can only be filled by two electrons with opposite spin
5. The electrons fill the subshell with the lowest energy level first

19
Chemical Bonding and Structure
Octet Rule
● Atoms of the 1st 20 elements tend to end up with 8 e- (an octet) in their valence shell
after forming a compound
○ This is the noble gas configuration
● An octet structure is a “stable” structure
● However, there are many exceptions
○ Octet expanders are atoms (from ≥ Period 3) which can accommodate > 8 e- in their
valence shell
● ∴ Avoid using the term “fully-filled outermost shell”

Types of Bonding
Ionic bonding

Ionic bond drawing

● Occurs between metallic elements and non-metallic elements

● Oppositely charged ions attract each other and hence two ions are held together by
electrostatic forces of attraction
● Metal atoms (w/ 1, 2, 3 valence electrons) tend to lose electrons to form cations
(positively-charged ions)
● Non-metal atoms (w/ 5, 6, 7 valence electrons) tend to gain electrons to form anions
(negatively-charged ions)
● In ionic solids, the ions are arranged into a giant crystal lattice, with many ionic bonds
between oppositely-charged ions (no molecules)

20
Covalent bonding

Covalent bond drawing

● Can occur between:

○ Atoms of different elements (usually non-metal to non-metal)
○ Atoms of the same element (non-metals)
■ Molecules: 2 or more atoms held together by chemical bonds
■ Giant molecules (macromolecules): Occur when a large number of atoms are
joined together by covalent bonds (e.g. diamond)
● Atoms covalently bonded are electrostatically attracted to each other, as the shared pair of
e- is attracted by the nucleus of both attom

Metallic bonding
● Metallic bonds are the electrostatic forces of attraction between the positive metal ions
and delocalised electrons
● The outermost electrons in each metal atom are shared equally by all the metal atoms,
rather than being associated with a particular atom
● Have freely moving delocalised electrons
● Properties:
○ Conduct heat and electricity because the delocalised electrons are able to move
freely throughout the metal
○ Are malleable and ductile (twirled into wires) because atoms in the metal lattice
structure can slide over each other easily
○ Generally have high melting points because the metallic bonds are strong

Exceptions to the rules

● Exceptions to the octet rule:
○ BF3 (central boron atom has 6 e- in the outer shell)
○ XeF4 (central xenon atom has 12 e- in the outer shell)
● Generally, metal + non-metal → ionic
○ However, PbCl4 is covalent

Polar covalent bonds (IP)

Ionic and covalent bonding are two extreme models of the chemical bond, most actual bonds lie
somewhere between purely ionic and purely covalent
21
Electronegativity
● Is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons
○ e.g. if O and H form covalent bonds, O pulls shared electrons towards itself,
creating partial negative change → H will have partial positive charge
● Generally increases across the same period of the Periodic Table
● Equal electronegativity (non-polar covalent)

○ Usually same atom (e.g. H2 or Cl2)

○ “Pure” covalent bond — where electrons are shared evenly between the two atoms
● B slightly more electronegative than A (polar covalent)

○ B will attract electron pair more than A does

■ B end has more electron density than A so becomes slightly negative
■ A end which is short on electrons becomes slightly positive
● B a lot more electronegative than A (ionic)

○ Electron pair dragged right over to B’s end

○ A lost control of its electrons, and B has complete control over both electrons

A “spectrum” of bonds
● We can predict the “ionic” nature and the “covalent” nature of a bond by the
electronegativity difference (∆𝐸𝑁) between the two bonding atoms

Electronegativity difference (∆𝐸𝑁) Nature

0 ≤ ∆𝐸𝑁 < 0. 5 Non-polar covalent

0. 5 ≤ ∆𝐸𝑁 < 2. 0 Polar covalent

2. 0 ≤ ∆𝐸𝑁 < 4. 0 Ionic

Polar molecules
● Since the H-Cl bond is polar, the HCl molecule is polar
● A polar molecule interacts well with other polar molecules
○ ∴ Polar molecules (e.g. HCl) can dissolve in water since water molecules are polar
● Dipole moment: When there is a partial positive and partial negative pole in the molecule

22
Allotropes
Different forms of the same element, where the atoms are arranged and bonded differently

Diamond vs. graphite

Property Diamond Graphite Reason for difference

Melting point 3700 °C 3300 °C -

Density 3.5 g/cm3 2.2 g/cm3 -

Appearance Colourless, Black, shiny -

transparent powder
crystals

Hardness Hardest natural Soft. Used as a Diamond

substance solid lubricant to ● Structure consists of many carbon
(e.g. Drill tips, reduce friction atoms strongly and covalently
glass cutters) friction bonded in tetrahedral units, making
the substance very strong
● This makes diamond very hard as a
substance

Graphite
● Structure consists of parallel layers
of carbon atoms
● Although the atoms are covalently
bonded within each layer, the
intermolecular forces between the
layers are weak and allow the layers
to slide against one another
● This makes graphite soft and
slippery

Electrical Does not Conducts Diamond

conductivity conduct electricity ● Each of the carbon atom’s four
electricity valence electrons is involved in
covalent bonding with other
carbon atoms
● Therefore, no delocalised
electrons move freely and conduct
electricity

Graphite
● Each carbon atom is covalently
bonded to three other carbon
atoms
● Leaves each carbon atom with one
valence electron not in bonding
● This electron becomes delocalised
and moves freely to conduct
electricity
23
Bonding, Structure and Properties
● Elements and compounds can have one of two structures
○ Simple Molecular
■ Contain individual separate units; units are simple molecules
○ Giant
■ Many particles joined together by strong bonds into a large network
■ No separate units
■ Particles are atoms or ions
■ Have high melting and boiling points; likely to be solids at r.t.p

● Properties of a substance are determined by the structure and the types of bonding in the
structure
○ Volatility
■ High or low bp/mp
○ Conductivity
■ Whether the substance conducts electricity readily
○ Solubility
■ Whether the substance dissolves readily in water(polar solvent) or in
non-polar organic solvents

24
Properties of substances with different structures
Property Structure Description

Melting/ Ionic High; eg. NaCl m.p = 801 °C, Al2O3 m.p = 2050 °C
boiling points
Reason
The positive and negative ions are held together in the lattice by
ionic bonds, which are strong electrostatic forces of attraction,
thus a lot of heat energy is needed to break these bonds

Applications
Ionic compounds are thus used as refractory materials, which are
heat-resistant materials with high melting points
e.g. MgO - to line the inside of furnaces, Al2O3 - used inside
spark plugs

Simple Low; eg. CH4 m.p = -182 °C, S2 m.p = 144 °C

Molecular
Reason
The bonds between the molecules are weak intermolecular
forces, thus the heat energy required to break them is low

Note
The strong covalent bonds between the atoms in a molecule are
not readily broken down by heat, thus the molecule remains
intact when the substance changes state

Giant High; eg. Si m.p = 1650 °C, Diamond m.p = 3700 °C, Graphite
Molecular m.p = 3300 °C

Reason
Atoms in the lattice are held together by strong covalent bonds
which require a lot of heat energy to break.

Metallic Generally high; eg. Al m.p = 660 °C, Fe m.p = 1535 °C, Cu m.p =
1083 °C

Reason
Electrostatic forces of attraction between the positive metals
ions and ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons are strong and a lot of
heat energy is required to overcome these forces

Exceptions
The Group I metals and mercury have lower m.p/b.p.

Electrical Ionic In molten/aqueous state

conductivity
Reason
(Has freely In molten/aqueous states, ions can move around freely and hence
moving can act as charge carriers to conduct electricity.
charged
particles - Why are ionic compounds insulators in the solid state?

25
usually free In the solid state, the ions are held in fixed positions in the lattice.
electrons or The ions are not able to move around and thus ionic compounds
ions) cannot conduct electricity in the solid state.

Simple Never
Molecular
Reason
Made of neutral molecules, thus there are no mobile charged
particles to carry charges and conduct electricity

Exceptions
Polar covalent molecules like HCl, HNO3, and H2SO4 can dissolve
in water to form acidic solutions containing free ions thus
allowing an electric current to pass through

Giant Never
Molecular
Reason
Made up of neutral atoms, thus there are no mobile charged
particles to carry charges and conduct electricity

Exception
Graphite is the only non-metal that is a good conductor of
electricity

Each carbon atom is bonded to three others in the graphite

lattice. The four valence electron is delocalised within each layer
and acts a mobile charge carrier to conduct electricity

Metallic In liquid and solid states

Reason
Metallic lattice consists of positive ions surrounded by a ‘sea’ of
electrons. These delocalised electrons can act as charge carriers
to conduct electricity.

Solubility in Ionic Ionic compounds can be dissolved in water, but cannot dissolve
solvents (IP) in non-polar solvents

(“Like Reason
dissolves like” Water molecules are polar molecules and thus can interact with
principle) the ions and weaken the ionic bonds. This causes the ions to
separate, hence the compounds dissolves
Water, a
polar Non-polar organic solvents do not interact with ions and hence
molecule will are unable to weaken the strong electronic forces of attraction
dissolve between the oppositely charged ions
substances
with charged Simple Most covalent substances do not dissolve in water, but they
particles Molecular will dissolve in organic non-polar solvents
(NaCl) or
substances Example
Iodine is only partially soluble in water, but dissolves very well in
26
with polar hexane, a non-polar solvent
molecules
(NH3) Exception
Small polar molecules, such as HCl and NH3, are soluble in
water.
The more polar a molecule is, the more soluble it is in water.

Giant Not soluble in any type of solvent

Molecular
Examples
Sand (SiO2) and diamond (C) do not dissolve in polar solvents
such as water or non-polar solvents such as hexane

Metallic Not soluble in any type of solvent

Molecular
However, many metals react with water. The very reactive
metals, like sodium, react very quickly with water and may be
observed as “dissolving” in water

This is not a physical dissolving but is a chemical change - new

substances are formed

27
Chemical Formulae and Equations
Chemical Formulae
Types of formula
Molecular formula
● Shows all the atoms in one molecule
● Each element shown once
● e.g. C2H4O2: Each acetic acid molecule is made up of 2 carbon atoms, 4 hydrogen atoms
and 2 oxygen atom

Empirical formula
● Simplest ratio of the elements present
● Multiple compounds can have the same empirical formula
● e.g. Empirical formula of CH3COOH is CH2O, while the empirical formula of formaldehyde
is also CH2O

Structural formula

● Shows clearly how all the atoms are joined to each other (in this case, CH3 is bound to a
carboxyl group)

28
Common ions
Positive ion Formula Negative ion Formula

Sodium Na+ Chloride Cl-

Potassium K+ Hydroxide OH-

Lithium Li+ Iodide I-

Ammonium NH4+ Nitrate NO3-

Silver Ag+ Nitrite NO2-

Hydrogen H+ Manganate(VII) MnO4-

Barium Ba2+ Hydrogen carbonate HCO3-

Calcium Ca2+ Carbonate CO32-

Copper(II) Cu2+ Dichromate(VI) Cr2O72-

Iron(II) Fe2+ Oxide O2-

Lead(II) Pb2+ Sulfate SO42-

Magnesium Mg2+ Sulfite SO32-

Manganese(II) Mn2+ Sulfide S2-

Zinc Zn2+ Silicate SiO32-

Aluminium Al3+ Nitride N3-

Iron(III) Fe3+ Phosphate(V) PO43-

Note: Metals ≠ metal ions

● Metals are represented using their symbols as found in the periodic table
○ e.g. Ca, Fe, Na, Au

29
Chemical formulae of covalent substances
● Many covalent substances do not have systematic names, their formulae have to be
familiarized
● Many elemental gases are covalent in nature, existing in diatomic molecules
○ e.g. H2, O2, Cl2, N2
● Common covalent compounds:

Name Formula Name Formula

Ammonia NH3 Carbon dioxide CO2

Methane CH4 Carbon monoxide CO

Sulfur dioxide SO2 Sulfur trioxide SO3

Note: SO3: Sulfur trioxide (colourless acidic gas), SO32-: Sulfite (negative ion)

Balancing Chemical Equations

● Substances on the left are reactants and substances on the right are products

Solubility and state

Soluble substances (aq)
● All nitrate salts
● Most chloride salts
○ Except lead(II) chloride (PbCl2), silver chloride (AgCl)
● Most sulfate salts
○ Except lead(II) sulfate, barium sulfate, calcium sulfate
● Carbonates, hydroxides and oxides of sodium, potassium and ammonium (SPA)
○ Most other metal carbonates, hydroxides and oxides insoluble

Acids (aq) Formula Alkalis (aq) Formula

Hydrochloric acid HCl Sodium hydroxide NaOH

Nitric acid HNO3 Potassium hydroxide KOH

Sulfuric acid H2SO4 Aqueous ammonia NH3

Elements
● Elemental metals exist as atoms
○ e.g. Na, Zn, Ca
● Elemental gases tend to exist as diatomic molecules
○ e.g. O2, H2, Cl2

30
Stoichiometry & Mole Concept
Mole Concept

Concepts
Avogadro’s Number
● 1 mole = 6 × 1023 (number of particles)

Molar mass
● The mass of one mole of a substance
● Numerically equal to the relative atomic mass/relative molecular mass of the substance
(g/mol)

Misconceptions
● Mr does not have units
○ However, the molar mass, numerically the same as Mr, has the unit g mol-1
● Mr is like a constant
○ ∵ Does not change and does not multiply
○ Incorrect: Mr of 5H2O = 18 x 5 = 90
○ Correct: The mass of 5 mol of H2O = 18 x 5 = 90 g
● No plural form

Finding Formulas
Finding empirical formula
The empirical formula of a compound gives the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms or ions
present in the compound

31
Example
Compound of sulfur contains 2.40% hydrogen, 39.0% sulfur and 58.6% oxygen

H S O

Mass (g) / 2.40 39.0 58.6

Assuming 100 g,
mass1

Amount (mol) 2.40 ÷ 1 = 2.40 39.0 ÷ 32 = 1.22 58.6 ÷ 16 = 3.66

Divide by smallest no. 2.40 ÷ 1.22 = 2.00 1.22 ÷ 1.22 = 1.00 3.66 ÷ 1.22 = 3.00
of mol

Simplest ratio (round 2 1 3

to nearest integer)

∴ Empirical formula of the compound is H2SO3

1
Note: If actual masses are given, just write “Mass (g)” instead of “Assuming 100 g mass”

Finding molecular formula

The molecular formula represents the actual composition of a compound composed of molecules

Example
If the empirical formula of naphthalene is C5H4, what is the molecular formula?

Mr of C5H4 = 5(12) + 4(1) = 64

Mr of naphthalene = 128
● Note: Write only when it has to be calculated from periodic table
Since 128 ÷ 64 = 2, Mr of naphthalene is twice the Mr of the empirical formula

∴ Molecular formula of the compound is C10H8

Calculations
Percentage composition by mass
Steps
1. Find Mr of the part of the compound you want to find
2. Find Mr of entire compound

3.

Example
Tin(II) fluoride (SnF2): Find the percentage composition by mass of each element in compound
[Ar: Sn = 119, F = 19]

32
Mr of SnF2 = 119 + 2(19) = 157
Percentage of Sn by mass = 119 ÷ 157 × 100% = 75.8%
Percentage of F by mass = 38 ÷ 157 × 100% = 24.2%

Rate of diffusion
● Gases undergo effusion (a kind of diffusion), which means they can pass through very
small openings
● Factors that affect the rate of diffusion of gases:
○ Temperature (higher temperature → higher rate of diffusion)
○ Concentration (steeper concentration gradient → higher rate of diffusion)
○ Mass of particles (higher mass → lower rate of diffusion)
■ It follows that gases with higher Mr diffuse slower

Calculations involving masses

● All atoms present in the reactants are also present in the products
● A balanced equation shows the no. of molecules, atoms or ions taking part in the reaction

Steps
1. Convert any given mass (g) to amount (mol)
2. Read the theoretical mole ratio from the balanced equation
3. Use simple proportion to find the result (mol)
4. Convert the result (mol) to grams (g)

33
Example
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O; 2.80g of O2 gas burnt, calculate mass of water

Molar mass of O2 = 16 + 16 = 32 g mol-1

From the equation, mole ratio of O2 : H2O = 1 : 2

Thus, 0.0875 mol of O2 is burnt to produce 2 × 0.0875 mol of H2O
Molar mass of H2O = 2(1) + 16 = 18 g mol-1
Mass of water = 2 x 0.0875 × 18 = 3.15 g

Limiting reactant
Steps
1. Find how many moles of each reactant is present
2. Limiting reactant is the reactant with the lesser amount present

Example
Magnesium and oxygen react to form magnesium oxide:

2Mg (g) + O2 (g) → 2MgO (g)

If 6.00g of magnesium and 2.00 g of oxygen are allowed to react determine:

● The limiting reactant

● The reactant in excess (in mol)

● The mass of MgO formed

34
Molar volume of gases
● Molar volume of gases: 24 dm3 at r.t.p. (20 °C & 1 atm)
● In a reaction where reactants and products are all gases, we can use the mole ratio to
determine the volume ratio
○ e.g. 15.0 cm3 of H2 will react completely with 5.0 cm3 of N2 to form 10.0 cm3 of NH3
■ 3H2 (g) + N2 (g) → 2NH3 (g)
Percentage purity & percentage yield

Concentration of a solution
A solution is a homogeneous mixture containing a substance (solute) dissolved in another
substance (solvent)
● Aqueous mixture: Water as solvent
● Saturated solution: Maximum amount of solute dissolved in a solution
● Concentration of solution: How much solute is dissolved in a solvent

Ways of measuring the concentration of a solution

● Molarity (in M or mol dm-3)

○
○ Number of moles of solute per unit volume of solution
○ Written as ‘mole concentration of (compound)’ or [compound]
● Mass concentration (in g dm-3)

○
○ Number of grams of the solute per unit volume of solution
○ Written as ‘mass concentration of (compound)’

35
Volumetric Analysis — Titration
General
● When measuring liquids, make sure the lower meniscus touches the desired line
● You do not always have to measure 0.00 cm3 for the burette
● Do as many titration runs as you need, but keep in mind the time limit
● Tick 2 best titration results, and show your working when calculating the average
○ Accuracy: Should be within 0.20 cm3 of supervisor’s value
○ Concordance: Both titration results within 0.10 cm3 of each other
● All readings must be 2 d.p. (e.g. 0.00 cm3, not 0 cm3)

Calculations
1. Write balanced equation for the reaction
● 2NaOH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) → Na2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)
2. Calculate the amount of the standard solution used in the experiment
● Amount of NaOH used = 0.100 mol dm-3 x 24.40/1000 dm3 = 0.00244 mol
3. Determine the amount of the unknown solution that must have reacted
● 2 mol NaOH requires 1 mol H2SO4 for complete reaction
● 0.00244 mole NaOH will require 0.00122 mole H2SO4
● Thus, there is 0.00122 mole of H2SO4 in the 25.0 cm3 of solution
4. Calculate the concentration (mol dm-3) of sulfuric acid
● Since 0.00122 mole of H2SO4 in the 25.0 cm3 of solution
● Concentration = 0.00122/25.0 x 1000 = 0.0488 mol dm-3

Steps
1. Rinse all of your glassware (burette, pipette, conical flasks, filter funnel) with distilled
water
2. Fill the pipette with the solution to be used to the 25.00 cm3 mark. Open the tap and
allow a bit of the solution to run through. Close the tap, flip the burette, taking care to
turn the burette so that the solution rinses the sides of the burette when being poured out
3. Fill the pipette again with the solution to be used to the 0.00 cm3 mark.
4. Draw the other solution to be used into the pipette (to the line above the bulb). Remove
the pipette bulb to allow solution to drain, taking care to turn the pipette so that the
solution rinses the sides of the pipette when being drained
5. Draw 25.00 cm3 of the solution into pipette, and ensure there are no air bubbles in the
solution
6. Transfer the solution to a conical flask rinsed with distilled water (done in step 1)
7. Drain the solution into the conical flask, making sure to scratch the bottom of the flask
with the pipette tip to get out the last drop of solution
8. Add 2 drops of indicator to conical flask and place white tile below it
9. Scout titration: Release solution in burette, swirl continuously, ensure solution falls in the
centre of the flask. Stop immediately once color change occurs. Record final reading in
table
10. Repeat Steps 3, 5-8

36
 11. Accurate titration: Release solution in burette, swirl continuously, ensure solution falls in
the centre of the flask. At around 1.5 cm3 before the reading from the scout titration,
adjust the tap so that the solution is added dropwise, making sure to swirl after every
drop. Stop immediately once color change occurs. Record final reading in table.
12. Repeat Steps 10 and 11 for as many times as required

Table
Titration number 1 2 3

Final reading / cm3

Initial reading / cm3

Volume of P used / cm3

Best titration results (🗸)

37
Acids, Bases & Salts, and Ionic Equations
Common Acids & Bases
Acids
Common name Chemical name Formula Description

Hydrochloric acid Aqueous hydrogen chloride HCl Strong acid, monobasic

Nitric acid Aqueous hydrogen nitrate HNO3 Strong acid, monobasic

Sulfuric acid Aqueous hydrogen sulfate H2SO4 Strong acid, dibasic

Carbonic acid Aqueous hydrogen carbonate H2CO3 Weak acid, dibasic

Acetic acid Aqueous ethanoic acid CH3COOH Weak acid, monobasic

Alkalis
Common name Chemical name Formula Description

Caustic soda Sodium hydroxide NaOH Strong alkali

Caustic potash Potassium hydroxide KOH Strong alkali

Slaked lime Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 Strong alkali (but only

slightly soluble in water)

Ammonia solution Aqueous ammonia NH3 (aq) Weak alkali

Definitions of Acids & Bases (IP)

Acid Base

Arrhenius Substance that ionizes in water to Substance that ionizes in water to

produce H+ ions produce OH- ions

Bronsted - Lowry H+ (proton) donor H+ (proton) acceptor

Hence
Based on these definitions, a base is any metal oxide or hydroxide
● Alkali: Soluble bases

Note: For an acid to display its properties, it needs to be dissolved in water

● Presence of H+ ions in aqueous solution give acids their acidic properties

38
Reactions of Acids & Bases
Reactants Products

Acid + base (neutralization reaction) Salt + water

Acid + reactive metal (Au, Ag, Cu not reactive) Salt + hydrogen

Acid + carbonate Salt + water + carbon dioxide

Base + ammonium salt Salt + water + ammonia

Alkali + aqueous salt (some) Salt + insoluble hydroxide

Observations of reactions involving acids & bases

1. Production of gases (Effervescence)
2. Production of solids (Report colour of precipitate)
3. Dissolving of solids to form a solution (Report colour of solution)
4. Colour change of pH indicator

Note: Observations should not include inferences

Strength and Basicity of Acids

For an acid ‘HA’ dissolving in water, it may be represented as follows:

HA (l) + H2O (l) → H3O+ (aq) + A- (aq)

We say that the acid molecules have “ionized”

The A in HA does not stand for a particular element, but for the atom or group of atoms bonded
to hydrogen in the molecule
● e.g. Hydrochloric acid ‘HA’ would be HCl, and ‘A- ’ would be Cl-
● e.g. Ethanoic acid ‘HA’ would be CH3COOH, and ‘A- ’ would be CH3COO-

Strength
● Strong acids: Completely ionized in aq solution
○ e.g. HCl → H+ + Cl-
● Weak acids: Partially ionized in aq solution, with a high proportion of the acid remaining in
the undissociated form
○ Representation of weak acid: CH3COOH ⇌ CH3COO- + H+

39
Basicity
● Monobasic acids have 1 replaceable hydrogen
○ ∴ Able to form 1 salt
○ E.g. HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
● Dibasic acids have 2 replaceable hydrogen atoms/molecule
○ ∴ Able to form 2 salts
○ H2SO4 + NaOH → NaHSO4 + H2O
○ H2SO4 + 2NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2H2O
● Tribasic acids provide up to 3 hydrogen ions per molecule when dissolved in water
○ e.g. H3PO4 → PO43- + 3H+

Types of Oxides

Oxide classifications summary

● An oxide is a compound of oxygen and one other element

○ e.g. Sodium nitrate (NaNO3) is not considered an oxide

Metal oxides
● Ionic compound
● Metal ion and oxide ion
● All other metal oxides (not given as examples) can be assumed to be basic oxides
● Note: Metal hydroxides behave like metal oxides, hence properties are the same

40
Basic oxides
● Vast majority of metal oxides
● React with acids to form salts (hence “basic oxides”)
○ e.g. MgO + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + H2O
● Mostly insoluble
○ Solubility rule 6: All (metal) oxides and hydroxides are insoluble, except for Group I
oxides and hydroxides
○ A few oxides dissolve in water to form alkalis
■ e.g. Sodium and potassium oxide → sodium and potassium hydroxide
● Examples:
○ Sodium oxide, Na2O
○ Magnesium oxide, MgO
○ Copper(II) oxide, CuO

Amphoteric oxides
● React with both acids and bases to form salts (hence “amphi-”)
○ e.g. Al2O3 + 6HCl → 2AlCl3 + 3H2O
● All 3 examples (below) insoluble in water
○ Solubility rule 6: All (metal) oxides and hydroxides are insoluble, except for Group I
oxides and hydroxides
● Examples (ZAP):
○ Zinc oxide, ZnO
○ Aluminium oxide, Al2O3
○ Lead(II) oxide, PbO

Non-metal oxides
● Covalent compound
● Non-metal and oxygen
● All other non-metal oxides (not given as examples) can be assumed to be acidic oxides

Acidic oxides
● Vast majority of non-metal oxides
● Reacts with bases to form salts (hence “acidic oxides”)
○ e.g. CO2 + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3 + H2O
● Examples:
○ Carbon dioxide, CO2
○ Sulfur dioxide, SO2
○ Nitrogen dioxide, NO2

41
Neutral oxides
● Do not react with acids or bases
● Examples (HOW NOW BROWN COW):
○ Water, H2O
○ Nitric oxide, NO
○ Carbon monoxide, CO

pH of a Solution
● A quantitative measure of the extent of alkalinity/acidity of a solution
● Formula: pH = -log10 [H+]
● [H+] refers to the concentration of H+ ions (mol dm-3) (not no. of mol of H+ ions)
● pH can extend beyond the 0-14 range
● Affected by 3 factors:
○ Strength
○ Basicity
○ Concentration of H+ ions

Solution Relative concentration of ions pH

Acidic [H+] > [OH-] pH < 7

Neutral [H+] = [OH-] pH = 7

Alkaline [H+] < [OH-] pH > 7

Universal indicator
At 25 °C:
Type Strong acid Weak acid Neutral Weak alkali Strong alkali

Colour of
Orange/
Universal Red Green Blue Violet
Yellow
Indicator

pH range 1-3 4-6 7 8-11 12-14

Other indicators
Indicator Acid Base

Methyl orange Red (pH<3.5) Yellow (pH > 4.1)

Litmus Red (pH<7) Blue(pH > 7)

42
Acid Rain
● Acid deposition
○ Wet part: Refers to acidic rain, fog and snow
○ Dry part: Refers to acidic gases and particles
● “Normal” rain is weakly acidic (with small amounts of acidic gases e.g. CO2), but acid rain
has pH < 4
● Winds blow the compounds that causes dry + wet acid deposition across borders,
therefore acid pollution can spread all over the globe
● Primary causes of acid rain: SO2 (sulfur dioxide) and NOx (oxides of nitrogen)

Pollutants
Pollutant Sources Effects Minimising the Effect

SO2 Combustion of ● Damage the lungs, ● Remove sulfur from

sulfur-containing fossil causing bronchitis fossil fuels before
fuels (in power stations ● Combine with water in they are burnt;
and motor vehicles) the atmosphere to form ● Remove SO2 from the
strong acids (sulfuric waste gases formed
and nitric acid): when
● Causes the formation of sulfur-containing
acid rain fossil fuels undergo
● Acid rain damages combustion → this is
architecture (anything called flue gas
made of metal and desulphurisation.
stone). ● Calcium carbonate is
● Acid rain lowers pH of used:
water bodies and soil,
NOx Produced by car killing aquatic life and Fit cars with catalytic
engines: trees converters:
Under high temp, it 2NO + 2CO → N2 + 2CO2
combines to form NO
which then converts to
NO2 by reacting with
oxygen.
N2 + O2 → 2NO
2NO + O2 → 2NO2

43
Treating excessive acids
● In soils
○ Bases such as quicklime (CaO) / slaked lime (Ca(OH)2) used
○ Should not be added with nitrogenous fertilizers (e.g. NH4NO3)
■ Ammonium salts + base → Ammonia gas escapes into the atmosphere,
rendering fertilizer ineffective
■ Therefore should alternate between fertilizing the soil and de-acidifying the
soil in each planting cycle
● Acidic lakes
○ CaO/Ca(OH)2 used to “lime” acidic lakes, although limestone (CaCO3) may
sometimes be preferable
■ CaCO3 insoluble in H2O, thus removing acid + excess limestone remains
undissolved → pH of H2O = 7 (acts as a buffer)
■ CaO/Ca(OH)2 used to render the water alkaline

Solubility Rules
1. Most chlorides, bromides and iodides are soluble in water
○ Except: Lead(II), Silver (SL: Student Leader)
2. Most sulfates are soluble in water
○ Except: Lead(II), Calcium, Barium (PbBaCa)
3. All carbonates are insoluble in water
○ Except: Sodium, Potassium, Ammonium
4. All oxides and hydroxides are insoluble in water
○ Except: Group I
○ Ca(OH)2 is sparingly soluble
5. All Sodium, Potassium, Ammonium compounds are soluble in water
6. All nitrates are soluble in water

44
Salt Preparation Techniques
A salt is a product of a reaction between an acid and a base/alkali
A salt is an ionic compound, comprising cation (+ve) and anion(-ve)
● Usually chlorides, sulfates and nitrates

To consider the best method of salt preparation, consider

1. Is the salt soluble? (Link to solubility rules)
2. Solubility of the leftover reactants and products other than the salt
3. The method to separate the salt from the leftover reactants and other products

45
Precipitation — for insoluble salts
● The formation of an insoluble solid (precipitate) when 2 aqueous solutions are mixed
○ Should not be formed by reacting a solid with a solution
○ ∵ The solid ppt. would form an insoluble layer on the solid reactant, thus stopping
the reaction prematurely as the aq. solution could no longer react with the
remaining reactant → cannot isolate salt
● To form the precipitate, one of the reactants must contain the cation, while the other
contains the anion of the ppt.
○ Both ions must be in aqueous solutions
● Recommendation:
○ Aq. metal nitrate (for cation) + Grp I metal compound (for anion)
● Procedure:
1. Mix the two aq. solutions
2. Filter mixture to obtain insoluble salt as the residue
3. Wash residue with distilled water, removing any excess aq reactants/products
4. Dry the solid between sheets of filter paper

Precipitation to prepare barium sulfate salt

Note: Why is it not important for exact volumes to be used?
● Since the salt product is insoluble in water, it is easily removed by filtration leaving any
excess reactant in the filtrate

46
Titration — soluble salts using soluble bases/carbonates with an acid
● Refer to titration in mole concept for more details
● It is important to ensure that exact volumes of acid and alkali are used so that the final
mixture will then contain only the salt and water with no leftover reactants

Steps
Process Steps

Titration 1. Titrate the corresponding aq acid and aq base/carbonate with a suitable

indicator. Note the endpoint

2. Repeat titration without indicator. Product will contain only salt + H2O

Crystallisation 3. Heat the product solution to evaporate H2O (until about ⅓ its volume) to
obtain saturated solution

4. Cool the solution to ↓ solubility of salt. Salt should then crystallise out of
the solution as solids

5. Filter the mixture to obtain crystals as the residue

6. Dry the crystals between sheets of filter paper

Titration to prepare sodium sulfate salt

47
Excess base — soluble salts with an insoluble base/carbonate and an acid
● A reactive metal may be used

Steps
Process Steps

Excess base 1. Add excess base/carbonate/reactive metal into a specific volume of acid,
stirring and heating until no more can dissolve (ensure complete reaction
with the acid)

2. Filter the mixture to obtain the soluble salt as the filtrate. Leftover
excess base/carbonate/metal = residue

Crystallisation 3. Heat the product solution to evaporate H2O (until about ⅓ its volume) to
obtain saturated solution

4. Cool the soln to ↓ solubility of salt. Salt should then crystallise out of the
soln. as solids

5. Filter the mixture to obtain crystals as the residue

6. Dry the crystals between sheets of filter paper

Excess base to prepare zinc sulfate

48
Reacting acid with metal is not always suitable
Salts that are not prepared
Reasons
by reacting an acid + metal

Insoluble salts (e.g. calcium
sulfate)
Thin layer of insoluble salt forms on the surface of the metal,
thus blocking the acid from coming into contact with the
metal.
Reaction thus stops prematurely leaving most metal
unreacted

Lead(II), Copper(II), Silver salts All 3 metals are unreactive metals, thus they do not react with
dilute acids

Group I salts Grp I metals react with both the acid and the water. Although
some salt would form, the corresponding hydroxide will also
form

49
Ionic Equations
● When a substance react, not all particles take part in the reaction
● Ionic equation is an equation that shows specifically which atoms/ions/molecules take part
in the reaction.
● The aim is to eliminate the spectator ions
○ Spectator ions - free ions present at the start and end of reaction, they remain
unchanged by the reaction

5 steps in writing ionic equation

● Step 1: Write the balanced chemical equation
● Step 2: Put in state symbols.
● Step 3: Write out the free ions in aqueous state.
● Step 4: Cancel away corresponding spectators ions on left hand side and right hand side of
the equation
● Step 5: Writing down the uncancelled formulas gives the ionic equation
● Note:
○ Water soluble substances are in the aqueous state
○ Substances in solid, liquid or gaseous state do not form free ions
○ Leave in simplest form: E.g. H+ + OH- → H2O and not 2H+ + 2OH- → 2H2O
○ Number of each type of atom on both sides and net charge are balanced

50
Redox
Redox Reactions
● Oxidation and reduction occurs simultaneously in a complementary manner

Definition 1 — Gaining/losing e-
● Oxidation: Losing electrons
● Reduction: Gaining electrons
● “OIL RIG”: Oxidation Is Loss of e-, Reduction Is Gain of e-

Half equations
Reactions involving a transfer of e- viewed as two halves
● One shows oxidation, other shows reduction

Example
Consider the redox reaction: 2Na + 2Cl2 → 2NaCl

Combining half equation:

Step Process

1 Check the number of electrons lost = gained. If not, multiply a suitable number
● ∴ Multiply Eqn 1 by 2 to get 2Na → 2Na+ + 2e-

2 Put the LHS formulae together & the RHS formulae together
● ∴ 2Na + Cl2 + 2e- → 2Na+ + 2e- + 2Cl-

3 Cancel away the electrons on both sides and “combine” the ions (if necessary)
● ∴ 2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl

Note: Half equations contain electrons while balanced redox equations do not

Definition 2 — Oxidation number

● An artificial construct; assign a number to an element to help understand redox
● Roman numerals are used to indicate oxidation no. when writing substance names
○ e.g. Manganese(IV) oxide, MnO2: IV refers to the oxidation state of +4 for Mn
● Oxidation: Oxidation number increases
● Reduction: Oxidation number decreases

Note: The oxidation number is preceded by “+” or a “-” sign (+1, not 1+)

51
Assigning oxidation numbers
No. Rule

1 Elements uncombined with other elements are assigned oxidation no. of 0

2 Simple ions: Oxidation no. = charge on the ion

3 Polyatomic ions: Sum of oxidation no. = charge on the ion

4 Hydrogen: Oxidation no. = +1

● Except in metal hydrides where oxidation no. = -1

5 Oxygen: Oxidation no. = -2

● Except in peroxides where oxidation no. = -1

6 Group I elements in their compounds: Oxidation no. = +1

Group II elements in their compounds: Oxidation no. = +2
Aluminium in its compounds: Oxidation no. = +3

7 Group VII: Many oxidation no., but usually -1

8 The sum of oxidation no. of all the elements in a molecule/compound = 0

Redox questions
● State the substance that is oxidized & the substance that is reduced
● State whether the oxidation state of the element involved increased/decreased
● State the oxidation number of the element involved before and after the reaction,
indicating the substances involved

Example: Explain why the following is a redox reaction: Zn (s) + CuO (s) → ZnO (s) + Cu (s)

The oxidation state of Zn increased from 0 in Zn to +2 in ZnO ∴ Zn is oxidised

The oxidation state of Cu in CuO decreased from +2 in CuO to 0 in Cu ∴ CuO is reduced

Assigning oxidation state

● For an ionic compound with >2 elements it is easier to assign oxidation state by first
identifying the ions

Example
Find the oxidation state of chromium in K2Cr2O7
● Easier to assign the oxidation state of chromium by focusing on the ion Cr2O72-
instead of the whole formula
● -2 = 7(-2) + (2)(OS of Cr)
∴ Oxidation state of Cr is +6

52
Reducing and Oxidising Agents
● Reducing agent: Substances causing reduction while itself undergoes oxidation
○ *Common reducing agents: Metals potassium, calcium, barium, sodium and
magnesium, and also compounds that contain the H− ion
● Oxidising agent: Substances causing oxidation while itself undergoes reduction
○ *Common oxidizing agents: Oxygen, hydrogen peroxide and the halogens

Test for reducing agents using aq. potassium manganate (VII), KMnO4
● Preparing acidified KMnO4: 1cm3 of KMnO4 solution + 1cm3 of H2SO4 into test tube
● Test procedure: A few drops of acidified KMnO4 to unknown substance
● Observation and conclusion:
○ Purple MnO4- solution → colourless, then MnO4- reduced to Mn2+
○ Unknown substance caused reduction → contains a reducing agent

Test for oxidising agents using aq. potassium iodide, KI

● Test procedure: A few drops of KI to unknown substance
● Observation and conclusion
○ Colourless I- solution → brown, then I- oxidised to I2
○ Unknown substance caused oxidation → contains oxidising agent
○ If the brown colour is too faint (low [I2]), add a few drops of starch solution. Dark
blue mixture confirms presence of iodine

Assumption: No other coloured substances present in the mixture when using reagents
Note: To describe colour change of redox rxn., state the colour before and after of the rxn.

53
Chemical Energetics
Exothermic Reaction

Endothermic energy level diagram

● Reaction where heat energy is released to the surroundings → temperature increase in

the surroundings
● Energy content of products is lower than reactants
○ Enthalpy or heat energy change of reaction, ΔH, will have a -ve value.
● Products are energetically more stable relative to the reactants
● e.g. Combustion, respiration, neutralisation, freezing, condensation, diluting acids
○ Combustion: Heat energy released when substance burned with O2
■ When a small amt. of the substance produces a lot of heat energy, the
substance is useful as a fuel
○ Freezing: Heat energy released when liquid molecules position closer together
forming stronger intermolecular attractions giving rise to ice

54
Endothermic Reaction

Exothermic energy level diagram

● A reaction in which heat energy is taken in or absorbed from the surroundings, causing a
temperature decrease in the surroundings
● Energy content of products is higher than reactants
○ Enthalpy or heat energy change of reaction, ΔH, will have a positive value
○ Note: Include + sign when writing ΔH value
● Products are energetically less stable relative to reactants
● e.g. Thermal decomposition, photosynthesis, melting, boiling
○ Thermal decomposition: e.g. Heating of limestone, calcium carbonate
○ Photosynthesis: Light energy, instead of heat energy, is absorbed for the reaction
○ Boiling: Heat energy is absorbed to overcome the intermolecular forces in liquid
water to produce gaseous water

Common misconception
● When heat is released into the surroundings during exothermic reactions, remaining
substance ‘cools down’ → incorrect
● Surroundings refers to the container holding the container holding the reactants and
products and the thermometer used to measure temperature change
● When the reaction releases heat, this heat goes to the apparatus, thus the container
would feel hotter to the touch, and the thermometer would record a temperature increase
● This heat will also then goes back to the substance making it feel hotter to the touch
● Converse is true of an endothermic reaction

55
Activation Energy, Ea
● For a chemical reaction to occur between reactions, there must be a collision between the
reactant particles.
○ There are many collisions, but only a small fraction results in a reaction, termed
effective collisions
○ Rate of reaction depends on the frequency of effective collisions between reactant
particles
● All colliding particles require a minimum amount of energy for any reaction to occur,
termed activation energy (Ea). A collision will not produce a reaction when below Ea the
particles will just rebound from each other
○ Energy level diagrams tend to show Ea as a barrier or “energy hill” that reactants
must overcome before they can react
○ When Ea is high, the reaction is slow. Converse is true for low Ea
○ Reactions with very low Ea can take place spontaneously at low temperatures

56
Enthalpy Change — ΔH
● Heat energy change when reactants form products according to the quantities in moles
for a specified equation
● Heat energy change will depend on the quantities of reactants reacting
○ Important to specify the reaction equation when referring to a ΔH value
○ Multiplication is required to find ΔH depending on amount of reactants in moles

Calculating ΔH using bond energies

● For reactions involving gaseous molecules
● Bond energy is the energy absorbed/released in breaking 1 mole of covalent bonds in
gaseous molecules
○ Bond breaking is endothermic, energies involving in bond breaking are given a +
sign
○ Converse is true for bond making which is exothermic
● ΔH is the sum of energy for bond-breaking and bond-making
● ΔH = Total Energy of Bond Breaking - Total Energy of Bond Making

Condition ΔH

Total energy for > Total energy for ΔH positive,

Bond-Breaking Bond-Making endothermic

Total energy for < Total energy for ΔH negative,

Bond-Making Bond-Breaking exothermic

57
Reaction Kinetics
For a chemical reaction to occur between reactants, there must be an effective collision between
the reactant particles
● Effective collisions: Small fraction that results in a reaction of the many collisions
● Rate of reaction depends on frequency of effective collisions between reactant particles

Activation energy (Ea)

All colliding particles require a minimum amount of energy for any reaction to occur, termed
activation energy (Ea)
● A collision will not produce a reaction when below Ea, particles will just rebound from e.o.
● Energy level diagrams tend to show Ea as a barrier or “energy hill” that reactants must
overcome before they can react
○ When Ea is high, the reaction is slow; converse is true for low Ea
○ Reactions with very low Ea can take place spontaneously at low temperatures

Low vs. high Ea

A: Exothermic reaction with low Ea → fast since many colliding particles have energies ≥ Ea
● Reactions with very low Ea can take place spontaneously at low temperatures
B: Exothermic reaction with high Ea → slow since only a few of the collisions give particles
sufficient energy to produce a reaction
● Also will only take place if energy is supplied (usually heat, electrical, light energy)

58
Rate of Reaction
Factors
Factor Explanation / Description

Temperature ● Higher temperature → ↑ number of reactant particles having Ea

● Particles have ↑ kinetic energy → collide harder & more frequently

● For many reactions, a rise of about 10°C → double the rate of reaction

Concentration ● Higher concentration → more particles per unit volume → ↑ frequency of

effective collisions

Pressure ● At higher pressure, particles are closer → ↑ frequency of effective

(gaseous) collisions

Surface area ● ↑ surface area → ↑ area of contact between reactants → ↑ frequency of

(of solid effective collisions
reactants)
Applications
● Small pieces of solid have larger total SA than large pieces of same mass
○ Stirring causes large solid particles to break into smaller particles
∴ ↑ stirring → ↑ rate of reaction
● Very fine particles create hazards because they can react very quickly

Presence of ● A catalyst provides an alternative pathway of reaction which has lower

catalyst activation energy and remains chemically unchanged at the end of the
reaction
● Provides a site for collision to occur
● ↓ Ea → more particles with Ea → ↑ frequency of effective collisions

● Only a small amount is required to be effective, though ↑ amount of

catalyst can ↑ rate of reaction
● Note: A catalyst speeds up the reaction but itself is not chemically reacted
away

Enzymes ● Organic catalysts which control the rate of biochemical reactions in living
organisms

● Protein in nature
● Easily denatured by heat

59
Measuring
Method Description Conditions

Mass of reaction Measure decrease in mass of rxn. mixture At least one product must be
mixture gaseous

Volume of gas Measure increase in volume of gas formed At least one product must be
formed (collect in gas syringe; read at fixed interval) gaseous

Titration Measure changes in amt. of reactant/product

● Small portions of reaction mixture is
removed at fixed intervals and titrated
to check amt. of a reactant/product

Intensity of Measure changes in intensity of colour of the One reactant/product must be

colour of reaction mixture a coloured substance
reaction mixture ● Colorimeter to measure intensity of
colour

Pressure Measure the changes in pressure in a closed More suitable for reactions in
reaction vessel gaseous phase
● No. of moles of gaseous
products differ from no. of
moles of gaseous
reactants

Temperature Measure the temperature change as the

reaction proceeds

Describing rate of reactions by their gradient

● Steeper the slope of graph, the faster the reaction
● Graphs show that reaction rate is fastest at start of the reaction when reactants are at
their highest concentration
● ↓ Gradient with time, ↓ rate of reaction with time
● Reaction has stopped when gradient = 0
● Use the terms ‘steeper’ or ‘less steep’ when comparing gradients
○ Avoid ‘greater’ or ‘higher’

60
Periodic Table
General Trends
● Going across a period, from left to right:
○ Elements go from metals to nonmetals
○ Size of atom becomes smaller (atomic radius decreases)
● Atoms of elements in the same period have the same no. of electron shells
● Elements in the same group have the same no. of valence electrons, form ions &
compounds with similar formulae, and tend to have similar chemical properties

Metals vs. non-metals

Metals Non-metals

Often solids at room temperature (except Hg) Often gases (except C, P, S, Si, Br2, I2, …)

High m.p. & b.p. (except Group I) Low m.p. and b.p. (except C, Si)

Good conductors of heat and electricity Poor conductors of heat and electricity (except
graphite)

Often shiny, ductile, malleable and possess Normally dull and soft (when solid)
great tensile strength

Oxides usually basic or amphoteric Oxides usually acidic or neutral

Always form cations (positive ions) Usually form anions (negative ions)

Group Trends
Group 1 elements — Alkali metals
Properties
● Highly reactive

Trends down the group

● Density ↑
● Melting point ↓
● Reactivity ↑
○ Electron shells ↑ → atomic radius ↑ → valence electrons further from nucleus →
more easily lost

Transition metals
Properties
● High melting and boiling points
● High density
● Variable oxidation states in compounds
● Form coloured compounds
● Used as catalysts in many biological & industrial reactions
61
Group 17 elements — Halogens
Properties
● Diatomic, non-metal

Trends down the group

● Colour becomes darker
● Melting point ↑
○ Larger molecules → stronger i.m.f of attraction → ↑ energy required to overcome
● Reactivity ↓

Displacement reactions
● Occur when an element takes the place of another element in its compound
● A more reactive halogen oxidises the halide ion of a less reactive halogen (displaces it
from its salt solution)

Colours in solutions
Halogen Colour in aqueous solution Colour in organic solvent

Chlorine (Cl2) Pale yellow

Bromine (Br2) Orange Orange-red

Iodine (I2) Brown Purple

Group 18 elements — Noble gases

Properties
● Monatomic
● Generally unreactive

Uses
● Helium (He) is the element with the lowest melting point; commonly used to fill weather
balloons
● Argon (Ar), being unreactive, is commonly used to fill electric light bulbs & provide an
inert atmosphere in manufacturing industries e.g. steel production
○ Inert gas: A gas that does not undergo chemical reactions under given conditions

62
Qualitative Analysis
Qualitative Analysis Tables
H+ (aq) turns blue litmus red, OH- (aq) turns red litmus blue

Test for Gases

Gas Test and test result

Ammonia Turns damp red litmus paper blue

Carbon dioxide Forms a white ppt when bubbled into limewater

Chlorine Bleaches damp litmus paper

Hydrogen “Pops” with a lighted splint

Oxygen Relights a glowing splint

Sulfur dioxide Turns aqueous acidified potassium manganate(VII) colourless

Test for Cations

Cation Effect of NaOH (aq) Effect of NH3 (aq)

Aluminium Forms a white ppt, soluble in excess, Forms a white ppt, insoluble in excess
giving a colourless solution

Ammonium Ammonia produced on warming -

Calcium Forms a white ppt, insoluble in excess No ppt

Copper(II) Forms a light blue ppt, insoluble in Forms a light blue ppt, soluble in
excess excess giving a dark blue solution

Iron(II) Forms a green ppt, insoluble in excess Forms a green ppt, insoluble in excess

Iron(III) Forms a red-brown ppt, insoluble in Forms a red-brown ppt, insoluble in

excess excess

Lead(II) Forms a white ppt, soluble in excess, Forms a white ppt, insoluble in excess
giving a colourless solution

Zinc Forms a white ppt, soluble in excess, Forms a white ppt, soluble in excess,
giving a colourless solution giving a colourless solution

Note: Pb2+ can be distinguished from Al3+ with the addition of KI or HCl. Solution which forms
white ppt contains Pb2+.

63
Test for Anions
Anion Test Test result

Carbonate Add dilute acid Effervescence is observed,

carbon dioxide is produced

Chloride Acidify with dilute nitric acid, then add Forms a white ppt (AgCl)
aqueous silver nitrate
Iodide Forms a pale yellow ppt (AgI)

Nitrate Add aqueous sodium hydroxide then add Ammonia is produced

Devarda alloy/aluminium foil; warm carefully

Sulfate Acidify with dilute nitric acid, then add Forms a white ppt (BaSO4)
aqueous barium nitrate

Types of Reactions
Type Example

Precipitation 2NaOH (aq) + ZnCl2 (aq) → Zn(OH)2 (s) + 2NaCl (aq)

Acid-base H2SO4 + 2NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2H2O

Metal + non-metal 2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl

Combustion C + O2 → CO2
Redox
Displacement Cl2 + 2KI → I2 + 2KCl

Others 2FeCl2 + Cl2 → 2FeCl3

Decomposition CuCO3 → CuO + CO2; 2H2O2 → 2H2O + O2

Main observations
● Formation of a solid (precipitate) / gas (effervescence)
● Colour change

Solubility rules
1. Most chlorides, bromides and iodides are soluble in water
○ Except: Lead(II), Silver (PbAg)
2. Most sulfates are soluble in water
○ Except: Lead(II), Calcium, Barium (PbBaCa)
3. All carbonates are insoluble in water
○ Except: Sodium, Potassium, Ammonium
4. All oxides and hydroxides are insoluble in water
○ Except: Group I
○ Ca(OH)2 is sparingly soluble
5. All Sodium, Potassium, Ammonium compounds are soluble in water
6. All nitrates are soluble in water
64
Equilibria (IP)
Reversible Reactions
Chemical reactions that can proceed forward and backward
● Represented by a double arrow (⇌) e.g. NH4Cl (s) ⇌ NH3 (g) + HCl (g)
● Reversible reactions tend not to go into completion; a mixture of both reactants and
products is obtained regardless of duration
○ Equilibrium (mixture): Concentration of the reactants and products are constant
○ Equilibrium ≠ 50% reactants + 50% products

Dynamic Equilibrium
Rate of forward reaction = rate of backward reaction
● Equilibrium only exists in a closed system, i.e. substances do not escape/enter
● Reaction does not stop when equilibrium is attained; ∴ “dynamic” equilibrium

From 1 direction vs. from different directions

Example 1: From 1 direction (A + B)

A+B⇌C+D

As A + B reaction proceeds, conc. ↓ → frequency of collision of particles ↓ → rate of reaction ↓

As C + D reaction proceeds, conc. ↑ → frequency of collision of particles ↑ → rate of reaction ↑
Eventually, rates of reactions become equal; A + B converting into C + D at same rate as opposite
● ∴ Rate of forward reaction = rate of backward reaction

Example 2: From different directions

2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2SO3 (g)

Equilibrium state is independent of the direction from which it is approached (A starts w/ SO2
and O2 while B starts with SO3)
Stoichiometry (mole ratio) is intact

65
Le Chatelier’s Principle
If a system at equilibrium is subjected to a small change, the equilibrium’s response is to
counteract the change so as to minimise the effect of the change
● Note: Catalysts increase the speeds of both reactions but not the yield

Example: Haber Process

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g) + heat (or ΔH = -92 kJ)

Changing concentration
As conc. of reactant inc., position of equilibrium shifts to the right
● ∴ ↑ conc. of N2 or H2 → ↑ yield of NH3
● Condensation of ammonia into liquid also has same effect

Changing temperature
As temperature decreases, the system counteracts this by favouring the forward exothermic
reaction, thus the position of equilibrium shifts to the right and the yield of ammonia increases
● When enough heat is produced to replace heat lost, a new equilibrium is reached (w/
higher % of ammonia) → yield of ammonia increases

Temp. Exothermic reaction (X ⇌ Y + heat) Endothermic reaction (X + heat ⇌ Y)

Rate of forward and backward reactions increase

↑
Rate of forward reaction increases less Rate of forward reaction increases more

Rate of forward and backward reactions decrease

↓
Rate of forward reaction decreases less Rate of forward reaction decreases more

Note: However, low temperatures → slow speed of reaction; optimum temperature

Changing pressure
As pressure increases, the system counteracts this by decreasing the number of particles,
relieving pressure, thus favouring the forward reaction, thus the position of equilibrium shifts to
the right and the yield of ammonia increases
● To the side with lesser mol, since 1 mol of any gas occupies same volume
○ Haber Process: LHS 4 mol; RHS 2 mol

Note: However, very high pressure → safety hazard, less cost effective; optimum pressure

66
Haber Process (O Level)

Common Q&A
● Given that the rxn to produce NH3 is exothermic, why don’t we use a lower temperature?
○ Too low temperature → ↓ rate of rxn → NH3 production economically unfeasible
● Given that the forward rxn is favoured by high pressure, why don’t we use a higher
temperature?
○ High pressure = costly (special materials to withstand high pressure) + safety risk
● Why must iron be finely divided?
○ ↑ SA of catalyst exposed to reactants → ↑ rate of rxn

67
Metals
Reactivity
● Appearance of metals is due to reactivity with oxygen in air at ordinary temp.
○ K, Na, Mg react w/ O2 to form a layer of oxide → dull
○ Ag, Au less reactive → no oxide layer, retain brilliance
Mnemonic to remember Reactivity Series:
King: (K) Potassium
Nathan: (Na) Sodium
Can: (Ca) Calcium
Make: (Mg) Magnesium
All: (Al) Aluminium
Zebras: (Zn) Zinc
Fly: (Fe) Iron
So: (Sn) Tin
Please: (Pb) Lead
Cage: (Cu) Copper
All: (Ag) Silver
Animals: (Au) Gold

Measured by
● How fast metal reacts with another substance
● Amount of energy given out during reaction
● Amount of energy required to start reaction

Determined by
● The ease in which a metal atom loses its electrons
○ Partly explained by size: As atoms become larger, outer shell electrons become
further away from nucleus → attraction of positive nucleus is less on these
electrons → lost more easily

68
 Metal Reaction with cold water Reaction with steam Reaction with dilute strong acid1 Action of heat on metal carbonates

K
Displace H2 from cold Stable to heating
Na water with decreasing
Ca reactivity; corresponding
hydroxide formed
Mg Displace H2 from steam
with decreasing vigour;
Al Displace H2 from dilute strong
corresponding oxide is
(C) formed acids with decreasing vigour
Decomposes to the metal oxide and
Zn carbon dioxide
Fe
e.g. CuCO3 → CuO + CO2
Sn Do not displace H2 from
Pb water

(H)
Do not displace H2 from
Cu Do not displace H2 from dilute
steam
Ag strong acid
Decomposes to the metal, carbon
Au dioxide and oxygen

Other trends
● Strength as reducing agents decreases
● A more reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal from its solution
● All metals react with Cl2 on heating to form corresponding chloride, with decreasing vigour
● The more reactive a metal, the more thermally stable its compound
1
Note: Dilute strong acid refers to dilute HCl / dilute H2SO4; using dilute HNO3 may produce NO / NO2 instead of H2 gas
69
Extraction
● Most metals are found in the ground as compounds called minerals
● Minerals are rarely found pure; Ores: Impure minerals
● Minerals must first be separated from most of the worthless compounds in the ore, usually
by physical methods; then pure metal is extracted from the mineral by electrolysis
(electrical reduction) or chemical reduction

Methods
Depends on position in the reactivity series:

Metal Method Explanation

Na Very reactive metals

Electrolysis
Ca
A lot of energy is required to extract these
Mg metals from their compounds
Reactive metals form stable compounds
Al with strong bonds, thus to extract these
Zn metals from their compounds would
require a lot of energy
Fe
Somewhat reactive metals
Sn
Heat the metal oxides with carbon (coke)
Pb

Cu

Ag Unreactive metals Unreactive metals form few compounds,

Au Can be found free (native) in the ground can be found uncombined

Extraction of iron from Haematite (iron ore) in a blast furnace

70
Corrosion
The gradual destruction of any metal due to reaction with air, water or other chemicals
● Corrosion reactions are redox reactions

Corrosion depends on the nature of the metal oxide formed on the surface of the metal
● Aluminium reacts w/ oxygen to produce aluminium oxide which forms a thin non-porous or
impervious layer on its surface → protects metal from further corrosion by disallowing
oxygen & water from penetrating into the metal underneath
● Some metals (e.g. iron) form a porous oxide layer on its surface, which allows oxygen &
water to continue penetrating & attacking metal underneath; also tends to fall off to
expose more of the metal to corrosion

Rusting
The corrosion of iron; requires both air (oxygen) and water

Conditions to speed up rusting

1. Water contains other dissolved ionic substances
○ Aqueous sodium chloride solution / dilute acids cause iron to rust rapidly
○ ∴ Air from the sea (w/ droplets of salt soln.) and polluted air (w/ droplets of water
w/ dissolved gases e.g. sulfur dioxide) tend to speed up rusting
2. Iron touches certain metals less reactive than iron, e.g. copper
○ Iron tends to lose electrons faster than copper (∴ higher in reactivity series)
○ When in contact, iron loses electrons to copper
○ ∴ In presence of oxygen and water, iron would lose electrons to both copper and
oxygen & water, thus rusting more quickly

Rust prevention
1. Applying a protective layer, e.g. paint, oil/grease, tin/chromium (less reactive) plating
○ Disadvantage: When the layer is damaged, exposed iron will start to rust and
eventually the whole piece of iron will become rust
2. Sacrificial corrosion, e.g. galvanising
○ To connect the iron to another metal higher up in the reactivity series
○ Galvanised iron: Iron covered with a thin layer of zinc
■ Zinc is more reactive than iron ∴ in the presence of oxygen and water, zinc
atoms will form zinc ions first
■ Iron atoms remain, hence iron is prevented from rusting
■ As long as some part of zinc is in contact with some part of iron, it is
protected as both metals are conductors and movement of electrons can
occur easily
○ e.g. Iron pipes are connected to blocks of magnesium
■ Magnesium atoms lose electrons more readily than iron atoms ∴ magnesium
protects iron

71
Alloys
A mixture of two or more metals (or sometimes carbon)
● Usually made by melting components together & solidifying mixture
● ∴ Components must be soluble in each other when molten; should not separate into
distinct layers when solid

Pure metal vs. alloy when force applied

● Pure metals tend to be soft, malleable

○ Metal atoms are arranged in neat regular rows that slide across each other easily
when force is applied
● Alloying a metal (usually w/ another metal / carbon) makes it harder, stronger
○ Regular rows of metal atoms are disrupted by the presence of another type of atom
of different size → no longer slide across each other easily

Steel
Most important alloy; very good structural material due to great strength, elasticity & toughness

Types, properties
Depends on carbon content, heat treatment received (tempering) and presence of other metals
● Hardness, brittleness increase as carbon content increases

Alloy Composition Advantages Uses

Mild steel Fe: 99 – 99.5 % Harder, stronger than iron; can Construction of car bodies,
C: 0.15 – 0.25 % withstand great stress & machinery, steel rods to
strain reinforce concrete

Stainless Fe: 90 – 95 % Harder, stronger than iron; Making cutlery, surgical

steel Cr, Ni: 5 – 10 % resistant to corrosion; very instruments; used in chemical
C: Variable attractive in appearance plants

72
Recycling
● Metal is a non-renewable / finite resource, thus there is possibility of running out
● Metals, alloys generally easy to recycle; most common are aluminium, steel

Benefits Disadvantages

● Helps to conserve metals ● Costly: collecting, transporting scrap

● Saves the cost of extracting new metals
● Reduces need to extract new metals ∴
saving env., as most mining & extraction
processes damage the env. (by releasing
pollutants, destroying landscape)
● Helps prevent filling up landfills too fast
metal; sorting, separating, cleaning scrap
metals; persuading people to recycle etc.
● Some processes create pollution e.g.
smelting
● Some alloys not recycled due to difficulty
in separating compounds in alloy

73
Electric Cell
Made up of 2 electrodes immersed in an electrolyte
● Electrodes are 2 metals of different reactivities
● Electrolyte contains free, mobile ions; can be molten or aqueous

When a wire connects the 2 electrodes, electrons flow from the more reactive metal through the
wire of the external circuit to the less reactive metal
● Caused by potential difference between electrodes
● The further apart the metals are in the reactivity/electrochemical series, the greater the
voltage of the electric cell

Process
1. More reactive metal loses electrons ∴ negative electrode (anode); oxidised
○ Equation: M → M+ + e-
○ Electrons move from M through wire to other electrode
○ M+ ions produced due to oxidation of M enter the electrolyte
2. Less reactive metal receives electrons ∴ positive electrode (cathode); Y+ reduced
○ Electrons are passed to electrolyte
○ Cation in electrolyte (Y+) accepts electrons to undergo reduction

Result
● As reaction progresses, more reactive metal becomes smaller
● A substance is produced at the less reactive metal, depending on cation in electrolyte
○ e.g. H+ → H2 gas; Cu2+ → metallic Cu

Note: “Positive” / ”negative” denotes flow of electrons; functionally are neutral pieces of metals
● More reactive metal: Positive metal ions formed immediately dissolve into electrolyte
● Less reactive metal: Negative electrons are immediately channeled into electrolyte
● ∴ No accumulation of charge in both metal electrodes

74
Electrolysis
Chemical decomposition of a compound by passing a direct current through a molten compound
or a solution of the compound

Occurs in an electrolytic cell/apparatus, consisting:

● Electrolyte: A molten compound or compound in solution, conducts electricity and can be
decomposed by direct current
● Battery (or electrical source): Required to drive the flow of electrons; acts like a pump to
push electrons in a single direction
● Electrodes: Conductors by which electric current enters/leaves the electrolyte
○ Cathode: Negative electrode connected to negative terminal, site where reduction
occurs & electrons are gained by cations in electrolyte
○ Anode: Positive electrode connected to positive terminal, site where oxidation
occurs & electrons are lost by anions in electrolyte
○ Note: Anode positive, cathode negative (opposite of electric cell)

When an electric direct current is passed into an electrolyte:

● The free ions lose their random movement
● Positive ions now attracted to cathode ∴ called cations
● Negative ions now attracted to anode ∴ called anions

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Electrolytic reactions
● Essentially redox reactions; involve transfer of electrons
○ Oxidation occurs at anode where anions lose electrons (X- → X + e-)
○ Reduction occurs at cathode where cations gain electrons (M+ + e- → M)
○ Overall electrolytic equation obtained by adding half equations (X- + M+ → X + M)
● As a result of the redox reaction that occurs during electrolysis, certain products are
formed at each electrolyte
○ Discharge: Loss of charge of ions resulting in formation of products
○ Cations (typically metal/hydrogen ions) discharge at cathode
○ Anions (typically non-metal ions) discharge at anode

Ionic theory
It is the presence of freely-moving ions (charged particles) in the electrolyte that allows for
electrolysis; these come about from:
1. When ionic solids (e.g. NaCl) melt or dissolve in water, its ions can now move freely
2. When certain covalent compounds (e.g. HCl) dissolve in water, their polar molecules
ionise (dissociate to produce freely-moving ions)

Metal conductors vs. electrolytes

● Metal conductors conduct electricity in solid/liquid state by movement of electrons from
atom to atom
● Electrolytes conduct electricity in solution/molten state as current is carried as a result of
movement of ions to and their subsequent reactions at the electrodes
○ Strong electrolytes can conduct large currents due to high percentage of ionisation
○ Weak electrolytes do not ionise completely ∴ do not readily conduct electricity
● Non-electrolytes do not conduct electricity because they do not ionise

76
Factors
Note: Only considered in aqueous solutions of compounds

Water contributes H+ and OH- ions as it self-ionises (H2O ⇌ H+ + OH-); During electrolysis:
● H+ ion competes with the positive ions to gain electrons at cathode
● OH- ion competes with negative ions to lose electrons at anode

This competition is called preferential / selective discharge of ions

Ease of gaining/losing electrons

Increasing Concentration Increasing
Cations Anions
preferential discharge effect preferential discharge

K+ Least easily reduced Least easily oxidised

Ca2+

Na+ F-
No effect, anions
Mg 2+
SO 4
2-
generally not
oxidised
Al3+ NO3-

Zn2+

Fe2+

Sn2+ Cl-

Pb2+ Br-
Yes
H+ I-

Cu2+ OH-

Ag+

Au3+ Most easily reduced Most easily oxidised

● Note: Ca2+ and Na+ are swapped

● e.g. Na+ and H+ present: H+ ions gain electrons more readily than Na+ ions, thus H+ is
preferentially discharged / reduced

77
Concentration effect
Increasing concentration of a given ion tends to promote its discharge from solution
● ∴ Order of discharge in electrochemical series may be reversed by this
● However, still secondary to the electrochemical series, effective only when two competing
ions are closely positioned in series

Example
Using sodium chloride solution (ions present: Na+, Cl-, H+, OH-)

Product & explanation

Concentration
Anode Cathode

Dilute Oxygen Hydrogen

Based on electrochemical series, OH- Based on electrochemical series, H+

loses electrons more readily than Cl- gains electrons more readily than Na+
∴ OH- is preferentially oxidised: ∴ H+ is preferentially reduced:
4OH- → O2 + 2H2O + 4e- 2H+ + 2e- → H2

Concentrated Chlorine Hydrogen

Conc. of Cl- is high enough for conc.
effect to take place, due to closeness
of positions of Cl- & OH- in
electrochemical series ∴ Cl- is
preferentially oxidised:
2Cl- → Cl2 + 2e-
Although conc. of Na+ high, distance
between positions of Na+ & H+ in
electrochemical series is too great ∴
H+ is still preferentially reduced:
2H+ + 2e- → H2

Nature of electrode
● Inert electrodes: Electrodes which do not take part in an electrolytic reaction, e.g.
platinum, carbon (graphite) (However, side effects may occur … )
● Active electrodes: Electrodes that can influence the ionic discharge due to their
participation in the redox process or their strong affinity for certain ions, e.g. metals like
copper, silver

Example
Electrolyte Electrode Product Explanation

Aqueous Copper anode No product collected as For every 1 mol of Cu2+ reduced to Cu
copper(II) copper anode dissolves at cathode, 1 mol of Cu is oxidised at
sulfate anode to replenish Cu2+

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Applications
Purification/refining of metals

To refine a piece of impure copper (blister copper, 98% pure)

● Impure copper made the anode
● A piece of pure copper used as cathode
● Electrolyte is a solution of a copper salt (e.g. copper(II) sulfate solution)

Process
● During electrolysis, copper atoms of anode lose electrons and copper(II) ions formed
dissolve in electrolyte
● These copper(II) ions migrate to cathode to gain electrons and form back as copper atoms,
i.e. copper is deposited on cathode
○ Reaction at anode: Cu (s) → Cu2+ (aq) + 2e-
○ Reaction at cathode: Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- → Cu (s)
● ∴ Anode becomes smaller, cathode becomes bigger. However concentration of copper(II)
sulfate remains unchanged
● Impurities (usually other metals e.g. Au, Ag) are left on anode and eventually fall off to
collect below anode

Extraction of elements
Aluminium
● From bauxite ore, which contains Al2O3, mixed with impurities like Fe2O3, SiO2
● Bauxite first purified to obtain alumina (pure Al2O3)
● Electrolysis of the molten aluminium oxide will yield aluminium
○ Cathode half-equation: Al3+ (l) + 3e- → Al (l)
○ Anode half-equation: 2O2- (l) → O2 (g) + 4e-
○ Overall equation: 4Al3+ (l) + 6O2- (l) → 4Al (l) + 3O2 (g)
● Oxygen gas attacks carbon anodes at high temperatures to form gaseous products (mainly
CO2), causing them to burn away, so they must be replaced regularly

Chlorine
● Obtained from common salt by electrolysing brine (conc. solution of NaCl)

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Electroplating

Coating the surface of one metal with another metal, to give objects an attractive appearance, a
good decorative finish and for protection against corrosion
● Typically, many articles are plated at the same time
● Sometimes a series of plating may be necessary
○ e.g. Chromium does not adhere well to steel ∴ steel first plated with copper
(provides adhesion) then nickel (sacrificial protection against corrosion) then
chromium (tarnish-free finish)
● To electroplate non-conducting material, it is first sprayed with metallic paint / coated with
graphite powder

Setup
● Object to be electroplated made the cathode, metal used to plate is made the anode
● Electrolyte is a solution containing metal ions (found in the anode)

Process
● During electrolysis, (active) anode dissolves and ions produced migrate to cathode where
they are discharged and deposited as a layer on the object
○ Anode half-equation: Ag (s) → Ag+ (aq) + e-
○ Cathode half-equation: Ag+ (aq) + e- → Ag (s)
● Concentration of electrolyte remains unchanged

80
Organic Chemistry
The chemistry of carbon compounds, especially when it pertains to compounds of plant or animal
origin

Characteristics
As a result of their molecular structure:
● Most organic compounds are covalent in nature
○ Largely non-polar and thus generally do not dissolve in water
○ However organic molecules that are polar can dissolve in water
● Most organic compounds mix well with non-polar solvents (e.g. hexane)
● Organic compounds generally have lower m.p./b.p. (than inorganic compounds)
● Many organic compounds are thermally unstable (e.g. many enzymes become denatured
when exposed to heat)
● Most organic compounds are flammable and burn exothermically in plentiful supply to
yield CO2 and H2O
● Reactions involving organic compounds tend to take place at a slower rate than the ionic
reactions of inorganic chemistry ∴ usually require heating, thorough mixing and use of
catalyst

Definitions
● Saturated organic compound: Contains atoms joined only by single covalent bonds
● Unsaturated organic compound: Contains carbon atoms joined by double/triple covalent
bonds
● Empirical formula: Simplest formula of a compound; indicates relative numbers of each
kind of atom in a molecule of a substance
● Molecular formula: Actual numbers of each kind of atom in a molecule of a substance
○ Each element is only represented once; (e.g. C2H5OH is not the molecular formula)
○ Derived from relative molecular mass of a substance and empirical formula
● Structural formula: Indicates how atoms are arranged within a molecule of a substance;
shows which/how atoms are linked together
○ e.g. CH3CH2OH (condensed structural formula)

○ e.g. (full structural formula)

81
Redox
Oxidation is generally defined as loss of electron / increase in oxidation number
● However, difficult to apply in organic chemistry, thus other definitions:

Oxidation Reduction

Gain of oxygen atom Loss of oxygen atom

Loss of hydrogen atom Gain of hydrogen atom

Examples
● When an alcohol is oxidised it gains an oxygen atom and loses hydrogen atoms

○
● When a carboxylic acid is reduced it loses an oxygen atom and gains hydrogen atoms

Homologous Series
A homologous series is a family of organic compounds which follow a regular structural pattern
● Members exhibit similar physical and chemical properties, with gradual changes as
molecular size increases
● Members share a general formula
● Functional group: An atom, a group of atoms, or a bond common to a homologous series
○ Determines the main chemical properties of the series

Alkanes
● Saturated hydrocarbons
● General formula: CnH2n+2 (n1 = 1)
● First 4: Methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8), butane (C4H10)
● Main constituents of petroleum
● Most alkanes are gases/liquids at room conditions (they have simple molecular structure)
● As no. of carbon ↑, the alkane’s b.p. and viscosity ↑ while flammability ↓
● Chemically, alkanes are inert; undergo few reactions, mainly combustion and substitution
○ Substitution: When an atom / group of atoms is replaced by another atom / group

Reactions
● Combustion: In a good supply of O2, alkanes burn to produce carbon dioxide and water
e.g. CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
● Substitution with halogens: Methane reacts with halogens in sunlight (ultraviolet light) to
give a mixture of products. Each of the four hydrogen atoms in methane may be
substituted by halogen atoms, e.g. chlorine:
○ If 1 hydrogen atom substituted, product: chloromethane (CH3Cl)
■ CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl
○ 2: dichloromethane, CH2Cl2 etc.
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Alkenes
● Unsaturated hydrocarbons with a carbon-carbon double bond (C=C)
● General formula: CnH2n (n1 = 2)
● First 3: Ethene (C2H4), propene (C3H6), butene (C4H8)
● More reactive due to carbon-carbon double bond; undergo addition reactions and also
combustion
○ Addition reactions: Two or more molecules react to give a single molecule

Reactions
● Combustion: In a good supply of O2, alkenes burn to produce carbon dioxide and water
e.g. C2H4 + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 2H2O
● Addition of hydrogen (hydrogenation): e.g. C2H4 + H2 → C2H6 (ethane)
○ Nickel is used as a catalyst, heating is required

● Addition of water (hydration): e.g. C2H4 + H2O → C2H5OH (ethanol) (or CH3CH2OH etc.)
○ Water (in form of steam) and a catalyst (phosphoric acid) are used; takes place
under high temperature (300 degC) and pressure (60 atm)

● Addition of bromine: e.g. C2H4 + Br2 → CH2BrCH2Br (1,2-dibromoethane)

○ Bromine test, test for unsaturation (occurs at room temperature)
○ When liquid/aqueous bromine is added & mixed w/ an alkene, brown colour of
bromine → colourless

83
 ● Polymerisation: e.g. ethene → poly(ethene)
○ Many small alkene molecules can link together in a repeating manner (i.e.
polymerise) to form a long-chain molecule or polymer
■ C=C double bond in each monomer breaks, allowing monomers to join,
forming a macromolecule
■ e.g. propene → poly(propene), chloroethene → poly(chloroethene) or PVC
○ Note: While monomer is unsaturated, polymer is saturated
○ Called addition polymerisation since only 1 product is formed
○ Uses: Cling film, plastic bags, plastic bottles

○ Equation for polymerisation:

■ One poly(ethene) molecule may be made from as many as 20,000 ethene
monomers ∴ “n” → very large number

Alcohols
● Contain the alcohol functional group, O-H
● General formula: CnH2n+1OH
● First 4: Methanol (CH3OH / CH4O), ethanol (C2H5OH / C2H6O), propanol (C3H7OH / C3H8O),
butanol (C4H9OH), butanol (C4H9OH / C4H10O)
● All alcohols are colourless liquids at room conditions; 4 above are soluble in water
● Uses:
○ As a solvent
○ In alcoholic drinks
○ As a fuel for motor vehicles (in some countries)

84
Preparation of ethanol
1. From ethene: C2H4 + H2O → C2H5OH
○ A mixture of ethene and steam is passed over a catalyst at a high temperature and
pressure

2. By fermentation: C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

○ The slow decomposition of organic compounds induced by microorganisms like
yeast
■ Active factors actually responsible for the chemical reaction are the enzymes
present in the microorganisms
○ Underlying reaction is the catalytic conversion of the sugar, glucose into ethanol by
the enzyme zymase present in yeast; carried out in an oxygen-free environment as it
is anaerobic
○ Sugar may come from fruit, honey or molasses; although in many parts of the world
the starting material is starch from potatoes, rice or barley
○ Dilute solutions of ethanol obtained after are usually conc. and purified by fractional
distillation

Reactions
● Combustion: C2H5OH + 3O2 → 3H2O + 2CO2
● Dehydration: C2H5OH → C2H4 + H2O
○ Ethene is formed by heating ethanol with conc. sulfuric acid (dehydrating agent)

● Oxidation: C2H5OH + 2[O] → CH3COOH + H2O

○ A carboxylic acid is formed; above, ethanol is oxidised to ethanoic acid
○ [O] represents oxygen that comes from an oxidising agent
■ Acidified potassium manganate(VII) is a good oxidising agent
■ Oxygen from air can also oxidise alcohols ∴ beer/wine left exposed to air
becomes sour due to formation of ethanoic acid
● Esterification
○ Alcohols react with carboxylic acids to produce an ester & water
○ Alcohol + acid ⇌ ester + water

85
Carboxylic acids
● Contain the carboxylic acid functional group, COOH
● General formula: CnH2n+1COOH (n1=0)
● First 4: Methanoic acid (HCOOH / CH2O2), ethanoic acid (CH3COOH / C2H4O2), propanoic
acid (C2H5COOH / C3H6O2), butanoic acid (C3H7COOH / C4H8O2)
○ Ethanoic acid also called acetic acid; vinegar is a solution of ethanoic acid in water
● Above are liquid at room conditions
● Uses:
○ To manufacture esters, which are used as solvents
○ To manufacture insecticides
○ To manufacture drugs

Preparation of ethanoic acid

1. From ethanol: C2H5OH + 2[O] → CH3COOH + H2O
○ Ethanol is oxidised by air (oxygen) or acidified potassium manganate(VII) to form
ethanoic acid
○ diagram
2. From methane: Methane is used to manufacture methanol or carbon monoxide, and these
2 products are in turn reacted together in the presence of a catalyst to form ethanoic acid

Properties
● Acidic properties
○ Acids do not completely dissociate in aqueous solution ∴ weak acids
○ Reacts with a base to form salt & water
■ e.g. Ethanoic acid + sodium hydroxide → sodium ethanoate + water
■ CH3COOH + NaOH → CH3COONa + H2O
○ Reacts with some metals to liberate hydrogen gas
■ e.g. Ethanoic acid + magnesium → magnesium ethanoate + hydrogen
■ 2CH3COOH + Mg → (CH3COO)2Mg + H2
○ Reacts with carbonate to liberate carbon dioxide gas
■ e.g. Ethanoic acid + calcium carbonate → calcium ethanoate + water + carbon
dioxide
■ 2CH3COOH + CaCO3 → (CH3COO)2Ca + H2O + CO2
○ Above, corresponding salt of carboxylic acid is formed e.g. methanoic acid → salt
methanoate; ethanoic acid → ethanoate; propanoic acid → propanoate

Reaction
● Esterification
○ Alcohols react with carboxylic acids to produce an ester & water
○ Alcohol + acid ⇌ ester + water

Esters
● Colourless liquid with a sweet smell
● Uses: Flavouring, fragrances (essential oils, pheromones) etc.

86
Example
● Methanoic acid + ethanol ⇌ ethyl methanoate + water (conditions: acid, heat)

Oil Refinery
Fossil fuels: Petroleum (or crude oil), natural gas, and coal
● Petroleum and natural gas usually found together, made up of hydrocarbons
○ Natural gas mainly methane
○ Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons, must be refined to make useful fuels and
chemicals
● Hydrocarbons in petroleum / obtained from cracking are changed into other useful
chemicals e.g. alcohols, detergents, drugs, plastics

Fractional distillation
● Petroleum is heated in a furnace so that it vapourises
● The vapours are passed up the fractionating column
● The fractions come out of the column at different heights depending on their boiling points
○ Fractions with small molecules have lower boiling points and come out at the top of
the column
○ Fractions with large molecules have higher boiling points and come out at the
bottom of the column
○ Note: A fraction comprises a mixture of hydrocarbons → range of boiling points

Properties and uses of fractions

~ carbon atoms
Fraction ~ b.p ./ °C Uses
/ molecule

Petroleum gases 1–4 Below room temp. Bottled gas for gas cooker

Petrol/gasoline 5–10 35–75 Fuel for motor vehicles

Naphtha 8–12 70–170 Feedstock for petrochemicals

Kerosene/paraffin 10–14 170–250 Fuel for jet aircraft / oil stoves

Diesel oil 15–25 250–340 Fuel for diesel engines

Lubricant in engines; for making

Lubricating oil 19–35 340–500
waxes and polishes

Bitumen >70 >500 To surface roads

87
Cracking
The process of breaking larger hydrocarbon molecules into smaller molecules
● Products obtained depend on actual conditions used; no unique reaction but product is a
mixture of smaller molecules of alkanes, alkenes and hydrogen
● After cracking, mixture of products is separated by fractional distillation

Applications
● Convert heavy fractions in low demand (lubricating oil) into lighter fractions in high
demand (petrol)
● Changing naphtha into alkenes (especially ethene)
● To make hydrogen gas

Examples
● C10H22 → C7H16 + C3H6
heptane propene

● C10H22 → C10H20 + H2
decene hydrogen

● C15H → C6H16 + C3H6 + 2C2H4

octane propene ethene

Types
● Thermal cracking: Alkanes are heated to temperatures of about 800–850 °C under high
pressure
● Catalytic cracking: Alkane molecules are passed over a catalyst at about 300 °C; catalysts
are alumina (Al2O3) and silica (SiO2)

Combustion, Carbon Cycle, CFCs

Combustion
● Complete combustion occurs when sufficient oxygen is present; produces carbon dioxide
and water

○
● Incomplete combustion occurs when insufficient oxygen is present; produces carbon
monoxide and/or carbon (soot)
○ Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas, causing death even at low conc. as it reduces
blood’s ability to carry oxygen; especially dangerous as colourless and odourless →
no warning of presence
○ Small particles of soot (diameter <2.5 microns / 0.0025 mm) constitute pollutants
called PM2.5 (particulate matter 2.5); easily penetrate the lungs, causing respiratory
distress & lung cancer on long-term exposure
● Note: Complete combustion is more efficient → hotter flame, however flame produced by
incomplete combustion is more visible and “brighter”, however actually less hot

88
Bunsen burner
● Complete combustion occurs when air-hole open, non-luminous flame observed
● Incomplete combustion occurs when air-hole closed, orange/yellow flames observed and
soot is produced
○ Orange/yellow flames due to presence of carbon particles in flame

Combustion of ethane vs. ethene

● Although both compounds have 2 carbon atoms per molecule, 1 g of ethane contains less
carbon than 1 g of ethene → ethene burns with a sootier and more yellow flame than
ethane

Greenhouse gases
A gas in the atmosphere that traps heat energy in the atmosphere
● Primary ones: Water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane
● Important; without, avg. temp. of Earth’s surface would be about -18 °C (current: 15 °C)

Global warming
However, many of man’s activities → ↑ carbon dioxide & methane conc. in atmosphere → ↑ avg.
temp. of the Earth
● Consequences:
○ Melting of Antarctic ice caps → sea levels ↑
○ More extreme weather conditions e.g. typhoons & droughts
● Preventing/slowing down:
○ Reduce burning of fossil fuels e.g. use electric vehicles, public transport
○ Generate more electricity using wind, tidal, solar power

Carbon cycle

89
Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is continuously being removed from & returned to the
atmosphere by a variety of processes
● CO2 in atmosphere has been maintained at about 0.03% by volume for thousands of years
but has risen to about 0.04% in recent times
● Key processes of carbon cycle: Photosynthesis, respiration, combustion

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
An organic compound that contains only carbon, fluorine and chlorine
● Has 1, 2, or 3 carbon atoms and any number of chlorine and fluorine atoms that can fit into
the molecule, as long as each carbon atom forms only 4 bonds ∴ CFCs are derived from
alkanes (where the H of alkane are replaced with Cl or F)
● e.g. First CFC synthesised in 1890 when 2 chlorine atoms of a molecule of
tetrachloromethane were replaced with 2 fluorine atoms

● CFCs have low reactivity, flammability and boiling points, and are non-toxic to humans →
suitable to be used as refrigerants and propellants, and in fire-fighting
● However, low reactivity allows most CFC molecules to travel intact for many kilometers to
reach the Earth’s stratosphere where they cause the most problems
○ Here, each CFC molecule is decomposed by the sun’s ultraviolet radiation to form
chlorine atoms / radicals which is the key destroyer of ozone (O3) molecules
○ Ozone gas is responsible for absorbing the sun’s UV radiation, so that a minimum
reaches the ground; UV radiation is dangerous, causes skin cancer

90
Isomerism
Isomers are molecules that have the same molecular formula, but have a different arrangement
of the atoms in space

Chain isomerism
Some isomers arise because of the possibility of branching in carbon chains
● e.g. 3 isomers of pentane, C5H12:

Position isomerism
Basic carbon skeletons remain unchanged, but the important groups are moved around on that
skeleton
● e.g. 2 structural isomers of C3H7Br
○ In one of them the Br atom is at the end of the chain; in the other its in the middle

Functional group isomerism

The molecules belong to 2 different homologous series
● e.g. Isomers of C3H6O2, e.g. propanoic acid (carboxylic acid) and methyl ethanoate (ester)

91
Macromolecules
Refers to large molecules made by joining small molecules together
● Polymer: Long-chain macromolecule made by joining many monomers together
● Polymerisation: Process in which large numbers of monomers covalently bonded to form
a large molecule
○ Addition polymerisation (covered in alkenes)
○ Condensation polymerisation: Monomers join together to form large molecule with
elimination of small molecules
■ E.g. Nylon, Terylene

Nylon
● Another name for Nylon is polyamide
○ Linkages found between monomers are called amide linkage

Amide Linkage

● 2 groups monomers used to form nylon are

○ Dicarboxylic acid: A carboxylic acid with 2 carboxyl (-COOH) group
○ Diamine: Molecule with 2 amine (-NH2) group
● This condensation polymerisation reaction removes 1 H2O molecule

Condensation Polymerisation of Nylon

● Application of nylon
○ Fishing lines
○ Rugs and carpets
○ Making sleeping bags
○ Making parachutes
○ Manufacturing clothes

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Terylene
● Another name for terylene is polyester
○ Linkage is known as ester linkage

Ester Linkage

● Terylene also undergoes condensation polymerisation, which removes 1 water molecule

○ Made up of
■ Dicarboxylic acid
■ Diol: A monomer with 2 hydroxyl (-OH) groups

Condensation Reaction of Terylene

● Application of terylene is usually in man-made fibre for making clothes

Problems with plastics

Plastics are non-biodegradable: Substance cannot be decomposed by bacteria
● Results in land pollution when landfill sites have been filled up
● Burning of plastics produces toxic fumes e.g. HCl (g) and CO (g)

93