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Contents
Formula Sheet 3 Reflection 47
Refraction 48
Physical Quantities, Units & Measurement
Techniques 7 Lenses 51
Accuracy and Precision 7 Thin Converging Lenses 53
International System of Units (SI) 8 Thin Diverging Lens 54
Measuring Instruments 9 Practical Application of Lenses 55
Pendulum 11
Pressure 55
Kinematics 12 Pressure in Fluids 56
Definitions & Graphical Representations Atmospheric pressure 57
12 Manometer 57
Equations of Motion 14 Hydraulic system 59
Appendix 15
Kinetic Model of Matter 60
Scalars and Vectors 17 Evidence 60
Definitions 17 States of Matter 62
Vector Diagrams 17 Effects of Motion of Molecules on
Forces in Equilibrium 20 Pressure 63
Vector Resolution (IP) 21
Temperature 64
Dynamics 22 Temperature and Heat 65
Types of Forces 22 Thermometers 65
Free Body Diagram 22 Temperature Scales 69
Balanced and Unbalanced Forces 23
Thermal Properties of Matter 72
Friction 24
Internal Energy 72
Air Resistance and Terminal Velocity 25
Definition 72
Mass and Weight 26
Heat Capacity 72
Turning Effect of Forces 29 Latent Heat 73
Moments 29 Boiling and Evaporation 73
Centre of Gravity 30
Static Electricity 75
Stability 31
Laws of Electrostatics 75
Work, Energy, and Power 33 Principles of Electrostatics 75
Energy Conversion and Conservation 33 Application of Electrostatics 77
Work 34 Electric Fields 78
Power 36 Definition 78
Waves 36 Electric field lines 78
Sound waves 41 Current Electricity 79
EM Spectrum 42 Electric Current 79
Properties of EM Waves 43 Electromotive Force and Potential
Difference 79
Effects of Absorbing EM Waves 46
Resistance 79
Light (Reflection and Refraction) 47
1
D.C. Circuits 81
Circuit Diagrams and Symbols 82
Thermistors and Light-Dependent
Resistors 85

Practical Electricity 86
Power and Energy 86
Electrical Wiring in Homes 87
Dangers of Electricity 89
Safety Wiring in Homes 90
Alternative Energy 90

Magnetism 91
Laws of Magnetism 92
Magnetic Properties of Matter 92
Methods of Magnetisation 93
Methods of Demagnetisation 94
Applications of Magnetic Effect 95
Magnetic Field 95

Electromagnetism 97
Applications of the Magnetic Effect of a
Current 100
Applications of the Motor Effect 100

Electromagnetic Induction 102

Principles of Electromagnetic Induction
102
The A.C. Generator 104
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 106
The Transformer 109

2
Formula Sheet
SI prefixes
Prefix Symbol Multiply by

Giga- G 1 × 109

Mega- M 1 × 106

Kilo- k 1 × 103

Deci- d 1 × 10-1

Centi- c 1 × 10-2

Milli- m 1 × 10-3

Micro- μ 1 × 10-6

Nano- n 1 × 10-9

Kinematic formulae

● (no v)
● (no t)
● (no s)

● (no a)

● (no u)

Vector resolution

Using trigonometry,
Newton’s second law of motion

Gravitational field strength & Acceleration of free fall

3
Density

Moment of a force

Principle of moments

Determine centre of gravity of two unknown objects

Clockwise moment about C due to M = anticlockwise moment about C due to m

Mgy = mgx
My = mx

Kinetic energy

S.I unit of Ek: Joule (J)

Gravitational potential energy

S.I unit of Ep: Joule (J)

Principle of conservation of energy

Efficiency

Note: The efficiency of a system is always less than 100%

4
Work

S.I. unit: Joule (J)

Work done by a constant force F is given by:

W = (F cos 𝛳) s

Power

S.I. unit for P: Watt (W)

Wave Speed

Speed of Sound
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Speed of Sound = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

Linear Magnification Factor (M)

Pressure

Pressure due to a liquid

Pliquid = h⍴g

Hydraulics
Piston movement by Principle of Conservation of Energy
WD by piston 1 = WD by piston 2
F1s1 = F2s2

5
Boyle’s Law
p1v1 = p2v2

Pressure Law
p1/T1 = p2/T2

Charles Law
V1/T1 = V2/T2

Determining Temperature

Kelvins to Celsius

6
Physical Quantities, Units & Measurement
Techniques
Accuracy and Precision
● Accuracy: How close it is to the true or accepted value
● Precision: The precision of a group of measurements refers to how close they are to each
other

Recording measurements to correct precision

● A reading from an instrument is recorded to half the smallest division
● When taking a measurement that involves an interval between two readings, we record to
the smallest division (e.g. measuring length using a metre rule, angle using a protractor)

Precision rules
General
● Do not use ratios, fractions or roots in final answers
○ e.g. 0.75 and 0.5 instead of 3:4 or ½
● Coordinates read from a graph must be to the precision of half the smallest square
● Use exact or 5 s.f. values from previous calculations for subsequent calculations

Addition and Subtraction

● Number of decimal places is the same as the least number of decimal places of
measured quantities
● e.g. 28.7 + 2.75 = 31.5
○ 1 d.p.; Calculated value is 31.45

Multiplication and Division

● Number of significant figures is the same as the least number of significant figures in
measured quantities
● e.g. 2.4 × 8.23 = 20
○ 2 s.f.; Calculated value is 19.752

7
International System of Units (SI)
All physical quantities consist of a numerical magnitude and a unit (e.g. 190 km)

Base units
Base quantity Base unit Symbol

Length Metre m

Mass Kilogram kg

Time Second s

Current Ampere A

Temperature Kelvin K

Amount of substance Mole mol

Derived units
Quantity SI base units Derived unit

Force kg m s-2 Newton (N)

Pressure kg m-1 s-2 Pascal (Pa)

Work done kg m2 s-2 Joule (J)

Power kg m2 s-3 Watt (W)

SI prefixes
Prefix Symbol Multiply by

Giga- G 1 × 109

Mega- M 1 × 106

Kilo- k 1 × 103

Deci- d 1 × 10-1

Centi- c 1 × 10-2

Milli- m 1 × 10-3

Micro- μ 1 × 10-6

Nano- n 1 × 10-9

8
Measuring Instruments
Vernier caliper

Description
● The internal and external diameters of tubes can be measured by using the jaws
● The depth of holes can be measured by using the stem

Example
The diameter of object = Corrected reading

Micrometre screw gauge

Description
● The ratchet is turned until clicks are heard
● This indicates that the hold is now of the correct pressure and any further movement will
compress the object
● The scale on the sleeve is graduated in 0.5 mm and there are 50 divisions on the scale on
the thimble
● When thimble completes 1 revolution, it moves 1 division on the sleeve

9
 ●

Example
Length of object = Corrected reading

Zero-Error Reading
Instrument Negative zero error No zero error Positive zero error

Vernier caliper

Zero error = -0.03 cm Zero error = 0.00 cm Zero error = +0.03 cm

Micrometer
screw gauge

Zero error = -0.03 mm Zero error = 0.00 mm Zero error = +0.03 mm

Errors in Measurement
Systematic errors
● Result in all readings/measurements being always above/below the true value by a fixed
amount
● Can be eliminated only if the source of error is known and accounted for
○ Cannot be eliminated by repeating measurements and averaging them
● e.g. Not accounting for zero error in a measurement
○ An instrument has zero error if scale reading is non-zero before a reading is taken
○ Instruments should be checked for zero error and the zero error must be accounted
for the measurement
● e.g. Not accounting for background radiation when measuring the activity of a radioactive
source

Random errors
● Result in readings or measurements being scattered about a mean value
● Have an equal chance in being positive/negative
● Can be reduced by:
○ Repeating a measurement and averaging
○ Plotting a graph and drawing a line of best fit for the plotted points
● e.g. Fluctuation in the count rate of a radioactive decay
● e.g. Variation in the diameter of a piece of wire

10
Pendulum

Pendulum diagram

● Oscillation: The movement from position A to B and back to A again

● Period: Time taken to make one complete oscillation
○ Dependent on the length of the pendulum

11
Kinematics
Definitions & Graphical Representations
Displacement (s)

Displacement-time graph

● The distance moved in a specified direction from a reference point

○ SI unit: metre (m)
○ Gradient = velocity
○ Straight-line → constant velocity

Speed

Speed-time graph

● The rate of change of distance travelled with respect to time

○ i.e. Distance travelled by an object per unit time
○ SI unit: metre per second (ms-1)

12
Velocity (v)

Velocity-time graph

● The rate of change of displacement with respect to time

○ SI unit: metre per second (ms-1)
○ Gradient = acceleration
○ Area = change in displacement
○ Straight-line → constant acceleration

Acceleration

Acceleration-time graph

● The rate of change of velocity with respect to time

○ SI unit: ms-2
○ Area = change in velocity
○ e.g. Free-fall towards the Earth under gravity: 9.81 ms-2

13
Equations of Motion
Conditions
1. Constant acceleration
2. Movement is in a straight line

Formulae (IP)
Formula Without Where

t
𝑠 is displacement
𝑢 is initial velocity
s
𝑣 is final velocity
a 𝑎 is acceleration
𝑡 is time taken

14
Appendix

15
16
Scalars and Vectors
Definitions
● Scalars: Quantities that are fully described by a magnitude alone
○ e.g. Distance, speed, time, mass, area, volume, energy, work done, and power
● Vectors: Quantities that are fully described by both a magnitude and a direction
○ e.g. Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, and momentum

Vector Diagrams
Vector triangle method

1. Choose an appropriate scale

○ Scale should be as large as possible to ensure greater accuracy
2. Draw in vector 1, to scale, and in the correct direction
3. Draw in vector 2, ensuring the tail of vector 2 is placed at the head of vector 1
4. Resultant vector joins tail of vector 1 to head of vector 2

17
Parallelogram method

1. Choose an appropriate scale

○ Scale should be as large as possible to ensure greater accuracy
2. Draw in vector 1, to scale, and in the correct direction
3. Draw in vector 2, ensuring the tail of vector 2 is placed at the tail of vector 1
4. Write opposing parallel vectors for both vector 1 and vector 2
5. Resultant vector joins the tails of both vector 1 and vector 2 to the head of both opposing
parallel vectors

Vector polygon

● For addition of >2 vectors

*Sine rule method

● Uses the sine rule taught in mathematics

○ Used when the angle 𝛳 and the opposing vector is known

Subtraction of vectors
● Can be seen as adding a negative vector
18
 ● e.g. A - B → A + (-B)

Vector diagram checklist

1. Identify all vectors

Vector A Vector B Resultant Vector

Magnitude

Direction

2. Sketch the vector diagram

3. Scale
a. Write it down
b. Reader friendly scale (e.g. 1, 2, 5, 10) (occupy at least half the space)
4. Draw to scale
a. Draw all vectors with magnitude and direction
b. Construct vectors with only known direction, leaving a long dotted line as the
magnitude
c. For vectors with only known magnitude, use a compass to intersect with the dotted
line

19
Forces in Equilibrium
Triangle of forces

When 3 forces in the same plane acting at a point are in equilibrium, they form a closed triangle
when represented in a vector diagram, using the head-to-tail method

Polygon of forces

When more than 3 forces in the same plane acting at a point are in equilibrium, they form a
closed polygon when represented in a vector diagram, using the head-to-tail method

20
Vector Resolution (IP)

● Any vector can be resolved into any two perpendicular directions

○ These are called the perpendicular components of the vector

Using trigonometry,
cos 𝛳 = Fx / F sin 𝛳 = Fy / F
FX = F cos 𝛳 Fy = F sin 𝛳

For instance, to resolve a 40 N force making an angle of 30° to the horizontal into its horizontal
and vertical components,
sin 30° = Fy / 40 cos 30° = Fx / 40
Fy = 40 sin 30° Fx = 40 cos 30°
= 20.0 N (3s.f.) = 34.6 N

21
Dynamics
Types of Forces
Force Description

Weight, W ● Gravitational force exerted by the Earth on an object

Friction, f ● When two surfaces are in contact, they exert forces on each other.
The component parallel to the surfaces is the friction
● It acts in a direction so as to resist relative motion, or tendency of
motion between the surfaces

Normal contact ● Perpendicular component of the contact force

force, N ● It acts outward from the surfaces

Air resistance ● Resistive force exerted by air on an object moving through it

● Air resistance increases as speed increases, and is zero when the
object is at rest

Tension, T ● Pulling force acting along a string or a rod

Upthrust, U ● Upward force exerted by a fluid on an object immersed in it

● It is because of upthrust that one feels lighter inside a swimming
pool

Magnetics force, FB ● Force exerted by magnets on magnetic materials such as iron and
nickel
● The magnetic force originates from moving charges

Electric force, FE ● Force exerted by electric charges on each other

Free Body Diagram

● Position of arrows (Where it originates from)
● Direction of arrows
● Length of arrows

22
Balanced and Unbalanced Forces
Resultant force
● Is the vector sum of all the forces acting on the object
○ Force is a vector quantity

Newton’s first law of motion

● An object at rest will remain at rest and an object in motion will continue in motion at
constant velocity in absence of a resultant force acting on it

Newton’s second law of motion

● The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the resultant

force acting on it and the direction of the resultant force is in the direction of the change
in momentum

Key phrases Meaning

Momentum ● The momentum of an object is defined as the product of its mass

and its velocity (momentum = mv)
● Momentum tells us how much force is required to stop the object
● For example, a slow moving truck (large mass) or a fast moving
bullet (high velocity) both require a large force stop

Rate of change ● How fast a quantity (in this case, momentum) changes with time

Direction of change ● Since momentum is a vector quantity, the change in momentum is

also a vector and has a direction

Newton’s third law of motion

● If object A exerts a force on object B, then object B exerts an equal and opposite force on
object A
● Action reaction pair of forces must satisfy:
1. Same type
2. Equal in magnitude
3. Act in opposite directions
4. Act on different bodies

Example
The figure below shows two blocks of wood, P and Q, with masses 1.00 kg and 2.00 kg,
respectively. They are connected by a light inelastic and massless string and are pulled by a force
of 15.0 N to the right.

23
Step 1: Form an equation of Block P using F = ma

Step 2: Form an equation of Block Q using F = ma

Step 3: Solve simultaneous equation

15.0 N − T = 2a — ①

24
Friction
Molecules of two surfaces in contact will attract each other. The unevenness of the surfaces
causes resistive force between objects. This resistive force is friction causing the loss of energy in
moving objects. Frictional force always opposes relative motion.

Effects of friction
Useful Unnecessary

● Walking ● Loss in useful energy

● Moving a car forward (important) ● Generate heat (where heat is not desired)
● Holding an object ● Wear and tear
● Braking

Methods to reduce friction

● e.g. Ball bearings, lubricants, air layer

Air Resistance and Terminal Velocity

Air resistance
● An object moving through a fluid (i.e. gas or liquid) encounters a resistive force because it
collides with the fluid particles that get in its way
● This resistive force is known as the drag force
● If the fluid is air, this drag force is known as the air resistance

Factors affecting air resistance

● The faster the object moves, the harder it knocks against the air molecules and the larger
the air resistance it experiences
● The shape and size of the object also affects the amount of air resistance it experiences
○ e.g. A parachute increases the air resistance an object experiences due to the large
surface area

Terminal velocity
● The speed of a falling object will continue to increase due to a downward acceleration
● When air resistance is not negligible, the falling object also experiences an increasing
resistive force
● Eventually, the amount of air resistance becomes the same as the weight of the object,
and the velocity of the object ceases to increase
○ This final velocity attained is known as the terminal velocity

25
 Falling without vs. with air resistance

Mass and Weight

Mass (scalar)
● Mass is a measure of the inertia of an object
○ Inertia: The resistance of a body to change its state of rest or motion
● S.I. unit: Kilogram (kg)

Weight (vector)
● A gravitational field is a region in which a mass experiences a force due to gravitational
attraction
● The weight of an object on earth is the gravitational force exerted on an object by the
earth
● Since the Earth exerts a force of 9.81 N on each kilogram of mass on its surface, the
weight (W) of an object is given by

Gravitational Field Strength & Acceleration of Free Fall

● For a free-falling object, the only force acting on it is its weight

● Hence, the acceleration of free fall is equal to the gravitational field strength

Example
Calculate the tensional forces T1 and T2, given that the mass of the block is 29.0 kg and the angle
𝛳 is 31.0°

26
Density

● S.I. unit: kg m-3

27
Example
Brass is an alloy consisting of copper (density 8.94 g cm-3) and zinc (density 7.13 g cm-3)
A factory manufactures 2 types of brass:
a) A brass alloy, B90M, where the ratio of mass of copper to zinc used is 9 : 1
b) A brass alloy, B90V, where the ratio of volume of copper to zinc used is 9 : 1

a) Since the ratio of mass of copper to zinc is 9 : 1, for every 100 g of alloy, there is 90 g of
copper and 10 g of zinc
Using the formula, V = m / ⍴,

Copper Zinc

b) Since the ratio of vol. of copper to zinc is 9 : 1 for every 100 cm3 of alloy, there is 90 cm3 of
copper and 10 cm3 of zinc
Using density formula, m = V x ⍴,

Copper Zinc

28
Turning Effect of Forces
Moments
Moment of a force

● The moment of a force about a point is the product of the force and the perpendicular
distance from the point to the line of action of the force.
● S.I. unit: N m

Difference between moment and work

● Even though N m is the same as the joule when expressed into S.I. base units, moments is
a different physical quantity from work or energy
● Moment is a vector quantity while work and energy are scalars.

Principle of moments
● For a body in equilibrium, the algebraic sum of the moments of all the external forces
acting on the body about any axis is equal to zero

We usually divide moments into those that cause the object to turn clockwise and those that
cause the object to turn anticlockwise

Example

29
The diagram shows a uniform plank of mass 10.0kg and length 3.00m resting horizontally on
two trestles P and Q, which are a distance of 2.50 m apart and equally far from the ends of the
plank. A painter of mass 80.0kg walks along the plank from P to Q.

Calc. the upward force exerted by the trestle on the plank when the painter is a distance of 0.50
m from trestle P.

Method 1

Method 2
Total upward forces = Total downward force

Centre of Gravity
The point at which the whole weight of the object appears to act

Centre of gravity for regular objects

● In a uniform gravitational field (which is the case in our daily lives), the centre of gravity is
at the same position as the centre of mass
● For regular objects, the centre of gravity is at the midpoint or the centre of the objects
● Note: The centre of gravity of an object need not be located on the object

Determining centre of gravity of an irregularly shaped lamina

Steps
1. Suspend the lamina at one end using a pin on a retort stand and hang a plumbline from
the pin. Use a ruler and draw a vertical line as shown by the plumbline.
2. Hang the lamina from another end and place the plumbline in front of the lamina. Use a
ruler and draw a new vertical line as shown by the plumbline.
3. The intersection of the two lines will be the CG of the object. We can check by repeating
step 2 using a third point of suspension.

Precautions
● The holes must be small so that not too much of the lamina is removed
● The lamina should be free to swing about its point of suspension

30
Determine centre of gravity of two unknown objects

Consider two masses, m and M, placed in a uniform gravitational field g. The centre of gravity of
the system is at a point C such that:

Clockwise moment about C due to M = anticlockwise moment about C due to m

Mgy = mgx
My = mx

Stability
The stability of an object is a measure of its ability to return to its original position after it is
slightly displaced

Increasing stability
● Center of gravity should be kept as low as possible
○ i.e. More mass packed at its bottom
● Base area should be kept as wide as possible

31
Keeping an object’s balance

When the line of action through the centre of gravity of the object lies within its base, there is a
clockwise moment about point A due to its weight. The object will not topple.

However, when the line of action through the centre of gravity of the object lies outside the base,
there is an anticlockwise moment about point A due to its weight. The object will topple.

Equilibrium
● The equilibrium of an object can be described as stable, neutral, or unstable
● An object is in equilibrium if it is in
1. Translational equilibrium, i.e. the resultant force acting on it is zero
2. Rotational equilibrium, i.e. the resultant moment acting on it is zero

Type Description Example

Stable ● When tilted by a very small angle from its

Equilibrium original position and released, it returns to its
original position
● Height of centre of gravity rises before
returning to its original height

Neutral ● When tilted by any angle from its original

Equilibrium position and released, it stays at its new
position
● Only exhibited by round objects such as
spheres and cylinders
● Centre of gravity remains at the same height

Unstable ● When tilted by a very small angle from its

Equilibrium original position and released, it topples to a
new position
● Height of centre of gravity drops

32
Work, Energy, and Power
Energy Conversion and Conservation
Forms of energy
Form of Energy Examples

Internal energy ● Energy of a gas or liquid in a

● Random kinetic and potential energies of container
molecules

Nuclear energy ● Radioactive decay

● Energy released from a nuclei of atoms ● Nuclear reactions (fusion, fission)

Kinetic energy ● Objects in motion (e.g. running,

● Energy a body has due to its motion pushing, skating)

Potential energy
● Energy due to the position of a body or its
condition

Chemical potential energy ● Fuels such as oil, wood, coal

● Related to the structural ● Electric cells, food and explosives
arrangement of atoms or
molecules

Gravitational potential energy ● Waterfalls

● Potential energy an object has ● Raised objects
because of its position in a
Potential gravitational field
energy
Elastic potential energy ● Compressed or stretched springs
● Potential energy an object has ● Bent spring boards
when stretched or compressed

Electrical potential energy ● Energy associated with current in

● Potential energy that a charged circuits and electrical appliances
particle has because of its ● Power stations
position in an electric field.

Kinetic Energy

S.I unit of Ek: Joule (J)

Gravitational Potential Energy

33
S.I unit of Ep: Joule (J)

● Only changes in gravitational potential energy matter

● The level of zero gravitational potential energy can be assigned to any point that is
convenient

Principle of conservation of energy

● Energy can neither be created nor destroyed

● It can be transformed or transferred but the total amount in any isolated system must
remain constant

Efficiency

● Note: The efficiency of a system is always less than 100%

Work

● Work done by force is the product of the force and the displacement in the direction of the
force
● Work is a scalar quantity
● S.I. unit: Joule (J)

34
Case Work done

Work done by constant force W = Fs

Work done against friction = Fs

Work is not done as the displacement is

not in the direction of the force, hence
work = 0J

Work done by a constant force F is given

by W = (F cos 𝛳) s (IP)

35
Example (IP)

A boy, with a mass of 48.0 kg, rides a skateboard with a mass of 3.00 kg on a horizontal road. At
the top of an incline, his velocity is 1.30 m s-1. He rides down the incline and reaches the bottom
with a velocity of 3.40m s-1. The difference in height between the top and the bottom of the
incline is 0.540 m.
Calculate the average resistive force while the boy rode down the incline.

Power

● Power is the rate of work done or the rate of energy conversion

● S.I. unit for P: Watt (W)

36
Waves
Progressive waves
Waves can be described
● As a disturbance that travels through a medium from one location to another
● As an energy transport phenomenon, because energy is transferred from one point to
another some distance away
● As a way to transport energy without transporting matter. The particles of the medium do
not travel between two points
○ While the wave is travelling, particles are just moving up and down, oscillating
about an equilibrium position

Mechanical waves: Require a medium through which they propagate

Electromagnetic waves: Do not require mediums, thus they can propagate through vacuums

Note: Waves follow the laws of reflection and refractions

Definitions of terms
Term Definition

Displacement Distance of an oscillating particle in a wave in a specific direction from its

equilibrium position

Amplitude Max. displacement of the oscillating particle in a wave from its

equilibrium position

Period, T Time taken to complete one oscillation of the wave

Frequency, f No. of oscillations made by the wave/unit time

f = 1/T (Hz)

Wavelength, λ Distance between corresponding points in successive waveforms (e.g.

two successive crests/troughs)

Phase difference Difference in stages of oscillation cycles between two waves at a point or
two points on a wave

Speed Of a wave propagation, is the distance travelled by a wave/unit time

37
Wavefronts

Lines that joins all peaks/troughs of a water wave or all identical points
of a water wave
● Perpendicular in the direction of travel

Graphical representation

● Can be represented on a
○ Vertical displacement against time graph
■ Shows the variation of the vertical displacement of ONE particle over time
■ Amplitude, period and frequency can be known
○ Vertical displacement against horizontal displacement graph
■ Shows the position of all the particles in a wave at a particular instant of
time
■ Amplitude and wavelength can be known

38
Determining new displacement of oscillating particles

Wave speed

● Particles of a wave do not move with the propagation of the wave

● Only vibrates about their equilibrium positions with different phases within one
wavelength
● Result: Waveforms observed to be moving in the direction of energy transport
● In a time of one period, the waveform moves a distance of one wavelength

39
Transverse and longitudinal waves
Details Transverse Longitudinal

Description Particles of the medium move in a Particles of the medium move in a

direction perpendicular to the direction direction parallel to the direction of
of travel of the wave travel of the wave

Examples EM waves and pulses in ropes and Sound, longitudinal pulses in springs
springs

Graph

Sound waves — Longitudinal waves

● Vibrations produce a series of high
and low pressure regions
○ High - Compressions
○ Low - Rarefactions

40
Refractions of Plane Water Waves

● When waves travel from deep to shallow waters, the

Frequency Wavespeed Wavelength

Unchanged (depends on source) ↓ ↓

Reflection of Plane Water Waves

● Frequency, wavespeed and wavelength are all kept constant

41
Sound waves
● Longitudinal waves; propagate energy from one point to another without transporting
matter
● Produced by vibration of objects → a series of compressions and rarefactions results and
travels outwards

Relationship between speed of sound and type of medium

● Wave speed depends only on the medium
● Sound speed decreases from solids → liquids → gases (slowest)

Example question: Describe how sound travels through a medium

1. Vibrating source disturbs a layer of particles around it
2. Layer of disturbed particles start to vibrate and disturb the next layer of particles (in gases,
distance between particles highest → more time needed to disturb the next layer →
slowest speed)
3. Regions of compressions and rarefactions are formed transferring sound

Pitch and Loudness

● Loudness of sound depends on amplitude of the sound wave
○ Larger amplitude → more energy → louder in volume (and vice versa)
● Pitch depends on frequency of the sound wave
○ Shorter wavelength → higher frequency → higher pitch (and vice versa)

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Speed of sound = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

Echo
● Reflection of sound
● Surface rigid and smooth → fraction of sound energy reflected is larger (vs soft and
irregular surfaces)
● Sound reflects from a smooth surface the same way light does (Law of Reflection)

Ultrasound
● Range of audible frequencies for an average human being is between 20Hz and 20kHz
○ Decreases as we get older, losing sensitivity to extreme ends of the range
● Ultrasound: >20kHz
○ Applied in cleaning, quality control and pre-natal scanning
● Infrasound: <20Hz

42
EM Spectrum
Properties of EM Waves
● An electromagnetic wave is produced by the simultaneous vibration of electric and
magnetic fields
● All electromagnetic waves are transverse waves and travel through a vacuum with the
same high speed of 3 × 108 m s-1 (the speed of light)

43
44
45
Effects of Absorbing EM Waves
● All EM waves carry energy
● An object that absorbs EM waves will increase in energy
○ By becoming hotter (microwave)
○ By getting ionised (produce free electrons)
● If a body absorbs high-energy EM waves (eg. UV, X-Rays or Gamma Rays), the electrons
may damage living cells and tissues
○ Effect is used in cancer treatment

46
Light (Reflection and Refraction)
Reflection
Rectilinear Propagation of Light
● Light travels in a straight line

Laws of reflection
1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie on
the same plane.
2. The angle of incidence, i, is equal to the angle of reflection, r.

Incident and reflected ray

● Rotation of reflected ray = 2 × rotation of mirror

Diffuse reflection

Regular and diffuse reflection

● Does not reflect an image

● More prominent as incident light is reflected in all directions
○ Hence can see from a wider range of angles/positions

47
Mirrors

Convex and concave shapes

Concave Convex

Curves inwards Curved outwards

Mirror Properties of image

Plane mirror ● Upright, virtual, laterally inverted, same size/shape/colour as

object
● Distance from object to mirror is equal to distance from mirror
to image

Concave mirror ● Virtual, magnified

Convex mirror ● Upright, distorted

Colour
● Depends on:
○ Colour of light that is shined on the object
○ Colour of light that is reflected by the object
● e.g. If an object reflects red wavelengths and absorbs all others, the object will
appear red in colour

48
Refraction
Refraction is the bending of light as it passes from one transparent medium into the other.
The light ray can bend towards or away from the normal, depending on the optical
densities of the mediums involved.

Refraction from air to glass and back

Principles
Least time principle Light always takes the path that requires the least amount of time
(from one point to another)

Reversibility of The path of light is reversible, so if light is able to travel from

light principle medium A to B along a certain path, it will return by the same
path when reversed.

Refractive index
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 (𝑐)
𝑛= 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 (𝑣)

● How much light slows down relative to its speed in a vacuum when propagating in
that medium
○ e.g. Diamond has a RI of 2.42 → Light travels faster in vacuum than in
diamond by 2.42 times

49
Snell’s Law
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 (where n is the refractive index)

● Gives the relationship between the angles of incidence and refraction

Snell’s law

Total internal reflection

Conditions for total internal reflection:
1. Angle of incidence is greater than critical angle
2. Light is travelling from optically denser medium to less dense

Total internal reflection

● Critical angle is the angle of incidence in the optically denser medium where the
angle of refraction in the optically less dense medium is 90°
𝑛
○ Critical angle = sin θc = 𝑛
2
(smaller value on top)
1

50
Drawing ray diagrams
● If the path of light is normal to a surface, direction which it travels remains the
same even if the speed of light is changed → no refraction
● For a circular surface, a line that passes through the centre of the circle will be
perpendicular to the normal → no refraction

51
Lenses
Real vs. virtual images

● Real: Rays originating from an object point actually converge on an image point (thus can
be received on a screen)
● Virtual: Rays do not actually converge but appear to come from the image point (thus
cannot be seen on a screen)

52
Thin Converging Lenses
● Thicker in the middle than outer edges → causes light passing through to converge (bends
towards optical axis)

Term Definition

Principal Axis (PA) Line passing through the centres of curvature of the lens

Focal point (F) Point on PA where rays of light // to PA converge

● Lens could be flipped and results would be the same for ideal thin
lens
● Exists another F on other side of the lens through which light rays
pass and emerge from the lens // to the principal axis

Focal length Horizontal distance between principal focus and optical centre

Optical centre (OC) Imaginary point inside lens where light ray can travel without refraction
occurring

Ray diagrams — Converging lenses

3 distinct rays that are easy to track in order to figure out position and size of image
A. Centre ray: Ray passing through OC of the lens without refracting
B. Parallel ray: Ray // to PA on incident side pass through focal point on the other side
C. Focal ray: Ray through the focus point on incident side, emerging // to PA

53
Linear Magnification Factor (M)

The ratio of image size (hi) to object size (ho) OR image distance from OC of lens to object
distance from OC of lens
● Can also be obtained from the ratio of the image distance from optical centre (v) of the
lens to the object distance from the optical centre of the lens (u)
● If image > object, M > 1
● If image < object, then M < 1

Thin Diverging Lens

● Thinner in the middle than on outer edges → cause light passing through to diverge (bend
away from optical axis)

Ray diagram — Diverging lenses

1. A ray passing through OC of lens emerges undeflected
2. A ray // to PA on incident side refracts through the lens and appears to have come from the
principal focus
3. A ray heading towards F (on the other side of the lens) emerges // to PA

54
Practical Application of Lenses
Object Real or Upright or
Usage Image location Image size
distance virtual inverted

Telescope Obj at ∞ F
Diminished
Camera Obj > 2F F < Image< 2F

Same size
Obj at 2F Image at 2F Same size Real Inverted
photocopier

Projector 2F > Obj > F 2F < Image

Spotlight Obj at F Image at ∞

Magnified
Magnifying Image behind
F > Obj Virtual Upright
glass object

Description Far-sightedness Near-sightedness

What can you Far away objects, but not close up Close up objects, but not far away
see?

Why? Image is formed behind the retina Image is formed in front of the retina
→ resulting image is perceived to → resulting image perceived to be
be out of focus out of focus

Correcting vision Use a convex lens, which pulls Use a diverging lens, which pushes
to make image in image back from behind eyeball image back towards surface of the
focus towards surface of retina retina

55
Pressure
Definition

●
● SI unit: Newton per square metre (N m-2), aka Pascal (Pa)

Pressure in Fluids
Pressure increases with depth
● Liquids have weight. The deeper you go, the greater the weight of the water column above
you, acting on you and exerting pressure on you
● Pressure due to a liquid: p = h⍴g
○ with height h, density ⍴ and gravitational field strength g

Pressure at one depth in liquid acts equally in all directions

Note: Force exerted by a static fluid on an object is always perpendicular to the surface of the
object

Liquids finds their own level

● When the liquid is filled to different levels, pressure at p2 > p1

○ Taller water-column → heavier weight

56
Atmospheric pressure
Definition
● The atmosphere is a thick layer of air that surrounds the Earth
● At sea level, Patm = 1.01 x 105 Pa
● Pbody ≈ Patm → don’t feel the large Patm
● Atm. doesn’t have uniform p→ use barometer to measure Patm

Total pressure below the surface of liquid at depth h = Patm + h⍴g

Mercury Barometer

● A barometer uses the height of the liquid column to measure atmospheric pressure
● The space above the mercury column is a vacuum (0 pressure in the mercury column)
● Atmospheric pressure is measured in millimeters of mercury(mm Hg)
● Atmospheric pressure at sea level is 760mm Hg (100 kPa)
● Diameter or angle of glass tube does not affect height of mercury column
● Water Barometer: Works on the same principle but needs a much longer tube (⍴water <
⍴mercury)

57
Manometer
● A U-tube filled with liquid (mercury, water or oil).
● Used to measure pressure of a gas by comparing it to atmospheric pressure.
● Choices of liquid:
○ Water has disadvantage of evaporating
○ Mercury is poisonous.
○ Oil being less dense makes manometer more sensitive but requires a longer glass
tube
● Pgas < Patm:

● At level X-X’,

● Pgas > Patm:

● At level X-X’,

58
Hydraulic system

Definition
Hydraulic systems work by using liquids under pressure
● It uses the following properties of liquids
○ Liquids are incompressible
○ When pressure is applied to an enclosed liquid, pressure is transmitted uniformly.
● A small force applied at piston A results in a large force at Piston B.

Therefore, FB > FA
● When FA is applied, piston A needs to be pushed down a larger distance in order for piston
B to move up a small distance.
○ Reason, vol of liquid A is equal to vol of liquid B
● Hydraulic system must not contain any air bubbles
○ Presence of air bubbles will reduce the efficiency of the system as part of the
applied force will be used to compress the air bubbles.

59
Kinetic Model of Matter
● States that
○ All matter is made up of a large number of particles (atoms, molecules or ions)
○ These particles are always in continuous random motion
○ Explains the difference in physical properties of three states of matter, and how
pressure, volume and temperature of a fixed mass of gas are related

Evidence
Diffusion
● Movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration

60
Brownian Motion
● The haphazard movement of particles suspended in a fluid (liquid or gas) due to uneven
bombardment of the suspended particles by the fluid’s molecules

● Procedure:
○ The smoke cell is a transparent container in which some smoke from a smouldering
paper is enclosed
○ The smoke cell is brightly illuminated from the sides
○ A microscope is used to magnify and focus on the smoke particles
● Observations:
○ Smoke particles are barely visible and appear as bright specks of light moving
around in random motion
○ Smoke particles rarely collide with one another and appear to be knocked about by
other invisible particles
○ Smaller the smoke particles, the more rapidly they move
■ Converse is true
● Explanation:
○ Air molecules are moving randomly with different speeds and directions, colliding
into one another
○ The random motion of smoke particles is due to air molecules bombarding them
randomly
■ Not due to smoke particles colliding

61
States of Matter
● Explains the properties of the states of matter in relation to
○ Arrangement of the particles
○ Intermolecular distance between particles
○ Intermolecular forces between particles
○ Motions of particles

Property Solid Liquid Gas

Arrangement of Regular Less regular No fixed position

particles

Distance Very small Slightly larger than Very large

between solid
particles

Intermolecular Very strong Slightly weaker than Negligible

forces solid

Motions of Vibrate about fixed Vibrate and move On top of vibrational

particles positions randomly throughout motion, particles can
the liquid, particles move about freely
cling along together

Shape Fixed shape No fixed shape (takes No fixed shape (takes

shape of container) shape of container)

Volume Fixed volume Fixed volume No fixed volume,

compressible

62
Effects of Motion of Molecules on Pressure
● Moving air molecules collide with the wall of the container exerting a force on it
● Pressure is the normal force exerted per unit area
○ Air molecules exert pressure on the wall of the container
○ Pressure depends on force of each collision and frequency of collision with the wall

*Ideal Gas Law

● where p is the pressure, V is the volume of gas, n is the number of moles of gas, R is the
molar gas constant, and T is the temperature

Pressure-Volume (P-V) Relationship of a Gas at Constant Temperature T

● Pushing piston inwards to compress gas ↑ pressure

● Shows that pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to volume at constant
temperature (Boyle’s Law)
○ p1v1 = p2v2 (IP)
■ When volume is halved, number of molecules per unit volume doubles
■ Frequency of collisions between molecules and walls doubles
■ Pressure doubles

63
Pressure-Temperature (P-T) Relationship of a Gas at Constant Volume V
● ↑ temperature, gas molecules have ↑ average speeds
○ Make more frequent and forceful collisions with wall of container
○ ↑ pressure
● Shows that pressure of gas is proportional to its thermodynamic temperature at constant
volume (pressure law)
○ p1/T1 = p2/T2 (IP)

Volume-Temperature (V-T) Relationship of a Gas at Constant Pressure P

● ↑ temperature, ↑ volume of gas
● When gas is heated, gas molecules move at ↑ average speeds
○ More frequent and forceful collisions between gas molecules and wall of container
○ ↑ pressure
○ To keep pressure constant, the gas expands to ↓ frequency of collision
● Shows that volume of a fixed mass of gas is proportional to its thermodynamic
temperature at constant pressure (Charles’ Law)
○ V1/T1 = V2/T2 (IP)

64
Temperature
Temperature and Heat
Definitions
● Temperature: Measure of how hot/cold a body is
○ SI unit: Kelvin (K)
● Heat: Amount of thermal energy that is being transferred from a hotter to colder region
○ SI unit: Joule (J)
● Thermal equilibrium: Temperature of two bodies are the same & net heat flow between
them is zero

Important ideas
● A body does not contain heat
○ Contains internal energy, the sum of kinetic energies and potential energies
● Once heat is transferred, the energy becomes part of internal energy of colder body

Internal energy
● The total kinetic energy and potential energy of the molecules in the body
● Includes:
○ Translational kinetic energy of the molecules
○ Rotational and vibrational kinetic energy of molecules
○ Potential energy due to forces between molecules
● Change in temperature corresponds to change in average kinetic energy of the molecules
in a body
● Change in state corresponds to change in average potential energy of the molecules in a
body

65
Thermometers
● Instruments for measuring temperature
● Makes use of a property of a substance that varies with temperature
○ Such thermometric substances have thermometric properties that vary continuously
in one direction with temperature

Thermometric properties
Thermometric property Examples

Volume of a fixed mass of liquid Mercury-in-glass thermometer

Alcohol-in-glass thermometer

Resistance of a piece of metal wire Resistance thermometer

Electromotive force (e.m.f.) produced by two Thermocouple thermometer

junctions made by joining wires of different
metals

Properties of a good thermometer

● Easy to read scale
● Safe to use
● Responsive to rapid temperature changes
● Sensitive to small temperature changes
● Able to measure a wide range of temperatures

Types
Liquid-in-glass thermometer

● Has a thin glass bulb filled with a liquid at the bottom of the thermometer
● Bulb is joined to a narrow capillary tube that is sealed at the other end
● As temp. ↑, liquid expands & the thread of liquid in the capillary tube ↑ in length
○ Commonly used liquids: Mercury, coloured alcohol

66
Resistance thermometer

● Usually made of platinum

○ ∵ Platinum’s linear resistance-temperature relationship & chemical inertness
● Resistance of platinum wire ↑ proportionally as temp. ↑

Thermocouple thermometer

● Consists of 3 wires (at least 2 different metals) joined together at the ends to form 2
junctions — the cold & hot junctions
● If the two junctions are at different temp., a small e.m.f. is produced
● The greater the temp. difference, the larger the e.m.f. produced

67
Advantages
Types Advantages

Liquid-in-glass ● Cheap
thermometer ● Portable
● Easily available
● Independent of other equipment

Resistance ● High accuracy

thermometer ● High sensitivity: detects small changes in temperatures
● Operates over a wide range of temperatures (-200 °C to 1000 °C)

Thermocouple ● Can be used in tight spaces / precise locations

thermometer ● High responsivity: detects rapidly changing temperatures
● Operates over a wide range of temperatures (-200 °C to 1700 °C)

68
Temperature Scales
The Celsius temperature scale
● An empirical temperature scale based on experimental procedures depending on two fixed
points

Constructing a thermometer and temperature scale

1. Choose an appropriate substance
○ Can be a solid, liquid or gas
○ Choose a suitable thermometric substance with a suitable thermometric property
2. Choose two fixed points
○ Two standard degrees of hotness or coldness which are easily obtainable and
reproducible (fixed points)
■ Ice point (lower fixed point)
● Temperature of pure melting ice at atm, 0°C
■ Steam point (upper fixed point)
● Temperature of steam from pure boiling at atm, 100°C
○ Record values of the physical property of substance at fixed points

3. Select appropriate divisions

○ Divide the interval between two fixed points into 100 equal parts to obtain scale
■ Assumption that thermometric property varies linearly with temperature

Determining temperature
● For a thermometric substance with a thermometric property X that changes linearly with
temp. (assumption), the following can be used to determine the unknown temperature:

69
 ● Where:
○ XL is the physical property at lower fixed point 𝛳L (usually 0 °C)
○ XH is the physical property at upper fixed point 𝛳H (usually 100 °C)
○ X𝛳 is the physical property at unknown temperature 𝛳 °C

Example
● For a mercury column of uniform cross-sectional area, the change in volume can be
measured by measuring the change in length of mercury column

● Where:
○ l0 is the length of mercury column at 0 °C
○ l100 is the length of mercury column at 100 °C
○ l𝛳 is the length of mercury column at 𝛳 °C
● Assuming that mercury expands linearly with temp. rise:

The Kelvin (absolute) temperature scale

● Theoretical temperature based on absolute zero
○ Absolute zero: Lowest temperature theoretically possible, where thermal energy of
a body is at lowest
● SI unit: Kelvin (K)
● 1 Kelvin = 1 degree Celsius
●

70
71
Thermal Properties of Matter
Internal Energy
Definition
The internal energy of a system is determined by the state of the system, and it is the sum of a
random distribution of kinetic and potential energies associated with the molecules of the system

Internal energy is the sum of:

● Potential energy (due to its position)
○ Δ PE → Δ state
● Average kinetic energy (due to its motion)
○ Δ average KE → Δ temperature

Heating curve

Observe that boiling occurs at a fixed temperature → Δ PE, without Δ temperature

Heat Capacity
Property Heat Capacity Specific Heat Capacity

Definition The amount of thermal energy required The amount of thermal energy required
to ↑ the temperature of a substance by 1 to ↑ the temperature of a unit mass of a
K/1 °C substance by 1 K/1 °C

Formula

Where:
● Q = Amount of energy transferred (SI: J, Joules)
● C = Heat capacity (SI: J K-1)
● c = Specific heat capacity (SI: J kg-1 K-1)
● m = Mass (SI: kg)
● Δ𝛳 = Change in temperature (SI: K, but can use oC)
72
Principle of conservation of energy
When 2 bodies of different temperature are placed in thermal contact, heat flows from hotter
body → colder body until thermal equilibrium is achieved (same temperature). Hence, assuming
no heat is lost to the surroundings,

Heat lost by hotter body = heat gained by colder body

Formula 3: Q = Pt (Energy = Power x Time)

Formula 4: P = IV (Power = Current x Voltage)

Latent Heat
Definition
The amount of thermal energy absorbed/released by a substance during a change of state
without change in temperature

Latent heat of fusion and vaporisation

Property Latent heat of fusion Latent heat of vaporisation

States Melting, solidification Boiling, condensation

Definition The amount of thermal energy required The amount of thermal energy required
to change a unit mass of the substance to change a unit mass of the substance
from solid → liquid without Δ in from liquid → gas without Δ in
temperature temperature

Formula Q = mlf Q = mlv

(lf: specific latent heat of fusion, J kg-1) (lv: specific latent heat of vaporisation, J
kg-1)

What ● Thermal energy is used to weaken ● Thermal energy used to overcome

happens? the strong IMF between solid IMF between liquid particles
particles → particles move out of ● Allow the particles to do work
their fixed positions and are further against the atmosphere
apart

Boiling and Evaporation

Cooling a liquid through evaporation
● Molecules in liquid are in constant random motion at different speeds
● At the surface, energetic molecules with sufficient energy to overcome atmospheric
pressure + attractive forces of neighbouring molecules escape into the atmosphere
● Less energetic molecules left behind in liquid → avg. KE of molecules in liquid ↓ →
temperature ↓

73
Factors affecting rate of evaporation
● Temperature of liquid ● Humidity of surrounding air
● Surface area ● Pressure of surrounding air
● Presence of wind ● Boiling point of a liquid

Boiling vs. evaporation

Boiling Evaporation

Occurs at a particular temperature (known as Occurs at all temperature in liquid state

boiling point)

Occurs throughout the liquid (bubbles formed Occurs at surface of liquid (no bubbling)
within)

Temperature of liquid remains constant Temperature of liquid ↓

Energy source required Energy source not required (comes from

surrounding)

Quick process Slow process

74
Static Electricity
Laws of Electrostatics
● Electric charges:
○ Can be positive/negative
○ Are typically represented as Q
■ SI unit: Coulomb (C)
■ 1 Q = the charge on 6.25 x 1018 electrons
● Forces between electrical charges
○ Like charges repel; unlike charges attract
○ To explain any questions involving attraction, must write:
■ Attractive forces between unlike charges are stronger than repulsive force
between like charges due to shorter distances apart

Principles of Electrostatics
Electrical conductors vs. insulators
● Conductors: Materials with free charge carriers
● Insulators: Materials with no free charge carriers

Ways of charging an object

Friction / electrostatic attraction
When 2 different insulators rubbed together, e- transfers from 1 insulator to other
● e- do not move about within the insulator after the transfer, but are confined at the region
of rubbing
● These two bodies would then have equal amount of opposite net charge

Induction
Refers to the process of charging a conductor without any contact with the charging body

Charging 2 spheres by induction

Charging 1 sphere by induction

75
 ● Creating a +ve charge conductor:
1. Bring -ve charged rod near conductor, repelling free e- in the conductor to move to
the end of the conductor further away from the rod
2. Earthing: Touch the conductor with a wire to allow e- to flow out of the conductor
to the ground
■ Provides a path for e- to flow from/into the conductor
■ Position of wire is not important as e- will still flow to the ground
3. Remove the wire → conductor becomes +ve charged
4. Remove the rod → e- redistribution allowing +ve charged regions to distribute
evenly on surface
● Creating 2 insulated conductors with equal and opposite net charge:
1. Bring 2 uncharged conductors into contact
2. Bring -ve charged rod near 1 conductor, where some free e- in this conductor are
repelled by -ve charged rod, moving to the far end of the other conductor
3. Separate the conductors; the conductors will carry equal and opposite net charge
4. Remove the rod, where e- in each conductor will redistribute such that charged
regions on each conductor distribute themselves evenly on the surface

Contact

● When charged conductor is in contact with another uncharged conductor, excess charges
will be shared between both conductors, though not necessarily equally
● State the direction of electron flow

Methods for discharging

To discharge a charged body is to remove excess charges from it (through movement of e-) such
that it becomes neutral (i.e. equal amount of +ve charges and -ve charges)
● For insulators:
○ Excess charges leak away in highly ionised surroundings
■ Due to moisture/intense heat → heat a charged insulator over flame to
discharge
○ +ve/-ve ions in surrounding air get transferred to insulators and discharge them
easily
● For conductors:
○ Through earthing: e- flow from conductor to earth / earth to conductor

76
Application of Electrostatics
Electrostatic hazards
Lightning
● Thunderclouds are charged by friction between H2O molecules in them and surrounding
air molecules
● When excess charges on thunderclouds are sufficiently large, surrounding air is ionised,
providing a conducting path for huge quantity of charge to be discharged to
nearest/sharpest object on ground
● How do lightning conductors work?
○ When -ve charge thundercloud passes over, +ve charges are induced on the spikes
→ attract and remove e- from the air, producing +ve ions in the air → attracted to
-ve charged clouds, neutralising it → ↓ chance of lightning bolt
○ Even if lightning does strike, charges from cloud flow to earth through the copper
strip without damaging the building

Fires
● Friction between a moving lorry and surrounding air charges the lorry
○ Sparks produced by the discharge of these excess charges may cause explosion due
to combustion
○ To prevent this from happening, metal chains provide earthing to prevent spark
formation
● Friction between aeroplanes and surrounding air
○ Tires made from conducting rubber are used to earth the plane during touchdown

Useful applications
Photocopier
● Whole surface of drum is charged by rotating it near a highly charged metal rod
● When printed page is photocopied, light is reflected off the page onto the drum
○ White parts reflect a lot of light to some parts of the drum → make these areas
conducting and lose their charge
○ Other parts of the drum correspond to black parts of the page, receive no light at
all → remain insulating and hold on to their charge
● Drum ends up with pattern of charge, which is an exact copy of pattern on original page
● Fine carbon powder (toner) are attracted to the charged area of the drum, which is then
printed onto photocopied paper
● Heat is supplied to melt the toner powder and fix it onto the paper surface

Spray painting
● Dry plastic powder are charged as they emerge from a spray gun, where the nozzle is
positively charged → paint becomes +ve charged
● The charged particles are then attracted to the grounded, slightly electrically conductive
object
○ +ve particles repel from each other, thus spreading out evenly
● Heated to obtain a smooth, homogenous layer → good adhesion of paint to every corner of
the object to give a uniform layer of paint
77
Precipitator (to remove dust from gas)
● Wires are -ve charged to charge the dust and smoke particles negatively when passing
through
● Collector plates are +ve charged to attract and collect the particles, which is then
mechanically shaken to remove dust and smoke

Electric Fields
Definition
● An electrically charged body sets up an electric field in the surrounding space
● Direction of field at a given point is defined as the direction of the force that acts on a +ve
charge at that point

Electric field lines

● Imaginary lines drawn through a region of empty space so that its tangent at any point is
in the direction of the electric field vector at that point.
○ Ie. Tangent of field line = direction of force acting on a +ve test charge at that point
● Electric field lines cannot cross or touch each other
● Lines which are closer together (e.g. nearer to the charges) indicate a stronger electric field

Electric field patterns

Isolated +ve Isolated -ve Between 2 Between two Between parallel

point charge point charges isolated opp. point isolated +ve point uniformly charged
charges charges plates

78
Current Electricity
Electric Current
The rate of flow of charge with respect to time
● Formula: Q = It (SI Unit: A)

Conventional current flow vs. electron flow

Measuring electric current

Using an ammeter
● Registers the current that passes through it ∴ must be connected in series
● Should have 0 resistance such that presence of ammeter does not affect quantity it
measures

Electromotive Force and Potential Difference

Movement of charges
● Charges move from higher to lower electric potential region
○ ∴ Potential difference drives the movement of charges

Property Electromotive force (e.m.f.) Potential difference (p.d.)

Definition Work done by the source in driving a Work done to drive a unit charge through
unit charge around a complete circuit a component in a circuit

Formula W = εQ (ε: EMF) W = VQ (V: p.d.)

SI unit V or J C-1

Measuring Use a voltmeter to measure p.d. Must be connected in parallel and have ∞
resistance → no current can pass through it

Differences EMF refers to the work done to drive PD refers to the work done to drive a unit
unit charge around complete circuit charge through a specific component in
the circuit

EMF of electric source refers to PD refers to conversion of electrical

conversion of other types of energy energy → other types of energy
→ electrical energy

79
Resistance
Can be understood as hindrance to the flow of charge
● Defined as: Ratio of PD (V) across the conductor to the current (I) flowing through it

Factors affecting resistance

● R = resistance of a conductor
● ⍴ = resistivity of material used
○ Dependent on the ability of object to conduct electricity (essentially, what type of
material is used)
● l = length of the conductor
○ ↑ length → ↑ resistance
○ Since resistance occurs as a result of collisions between charge carriers and atoms
of the conductor, ↑ likelihood of collision in a longer conductor
● A = cross-sectional area
○ ↑ A → ↓ resistance
○ At any instant, charges are able to flow through conductor with larger A more
easily → ↓ resistance

Ohm’s Law
Potential difference across an ideal conductor is directly proportional to the current through it,
provided temperature and other physical conditions remain constant

Effect of temperature on resistance of metallic conductor

● When temperature ↑ in metallic conductor, atomic vibrations within the conductor ↑
● Since resistance occurs due to charge carriers colliding with atoms, ↑ hindrance to e- flow
→ ↑ resistance
● Note: At extremely low temperatures, some materials have no measurable resistance (i.e.
superconductivity)

80
Ohmic vs non-ohmic conductor
● Ohmic conductor are conductors which obey Ohm’s law → constant resistance

Metallic conductor (ohmic) Semiconductor diode Filament lamp

Constant resistance ● In forward-biased ↑ current → ↑ heat → ↑

mode: Current flows resistance
easily, low resistance
● In reverse-biased
mode: Negligible
current flow, high
resistance

81
D.C. Circuits
Circuit Diagrams and Symbols

Series circuits

●
○ Current at every point in the circuit is the same
●
○ P.d. across the entire circuit (e.m.f. of cells) is equal to the sum of p.d. across each
component
○ When more devices are added, p.d. across each device decreases as e.m.f is ‘shared’
among more devices
●
○ Effective resistance, R, for n resistors placed in series

82
Parallel circuits

●
○ Total current from source, I, is the sum of currents in each of the n branches
●
○ p.d. across each separate parallel branch is the same

●
○ Effective resistance for n resistors in parallel
○ Adding more resistors in parallel results in decreasing overall resistance of circuit
● As more devices are added in parallel, current drawn from the source increases which
could become hazardous. Similarly, if the source cannot supply the current demanded, the
device may not function properly

Dry cells in series and in parallel

Dry cells in series Dry cells in parallel

● Combined e.m.f. of cells depends on how they are connected

○ In series: Connective gives increased e.m.f. because charges gain energy from each
cell
○ In parallel: Charges flowing around circuit will be split into equal portions when
entering the cells and each charge passes through one cell only, and hence the gain
in energy for any charge in each branch is only from one of the three cells
■ Advantage is that cells will last longer before going ‘flat’ as each charge has
more ‘branches’ to enter to ‘recharge’
83
Potential divider circuit
Consists of a number of resistors (usually arranged in series) with the purpose of achieving an
output p.d. that is a fraction of the e.m.f. of the battery
● Widely used in electronic applications, where p.d. required is a small value

Example 1: A simple case of 2 resistors

● Vin = IR1 + IR2

● Vout = IR2

● Hence,
○ Since current is the same at every point in series circuit
● When R1 and R2 are varied, Vout can be varied
○ Allows us to ‘divide’ main e.m.f. Vin with ratio above

Example 2

● Where contact C can be made to slide anywhere along resistor AB, such that resistances
can be split into RAC and RCB

○ Hence,

84
Thermistors and Light-Dependent Resistors
Input transducers
A group of devices which convert different forms of energy into a signal can be read
● e.g. Pressure sensor turns the force exerted on it into a number that can be easily
understood

Thermistor in a potential divider

Example of thermistors in a potential divider circuit

● Resistance of thermistor varies according to temperature of environment

○ For negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor, resistance ↓ as temperature ↑
○ For positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor, resistance ↑ as temperature ↑
● In this circuit, heating causes resistance of NTC thermistor to decrease, hence Vout
increases as Vin remains unchanged
● Common application of thermistor is in a thermostat, to allow for temperature control
using the circuit above to switch on or off heating or cooling appliances, or to be used in
fire alarms

Light-dependent resistor in a potential divider

Example of LDR in a potential divider circuit

● Resistance of LDR is normally very high, but when illuminated with light, resistance drops
dramatically
● In this circuit, illumination causes resistance of LDR to decrease, hence Vout decreases
● LDR is frequently used in circuits where it is essential to detect the presence or level of
light, e.g. street lights

85
Practical Electricity
Power and Energy
Power

●
○ P.d. between two points is defined as one volt, if one joule of energy is converted
from electrical energy to other forms of energy when one coulomb of electric charge
flows through it
● ∴ one joule of energy is released if one coulomb of electric charge flows through a p.d. of
1V,
● Thus when Q coulombs of electric charge flow through a p.d. of V volts, energy released E,
is given by
● Power is the rate of converting energy or the rate of doing work w.r.t. time

○ Power dissipated in a resistor R can be calculated using

○ S.I. unit is the watt (W)
■ Other convenient units of power are kilowatts (kW) and megawatts (MW)

Energy
Amount of electrical energy can be found by multiplying the quantities of power and time
● For resistance R, electrical energy converted to heat can be found using

● S.I. unit is the joule (J)

○ Other convenient units of energy include kilojoules (kJ) and megajoules (MJ)

Kilowatt-hour and the cost of electricity

● kWh is a common unit used to measure domestic and commercial use of electrical energy
● kWh is the amount of energy used by 1 kilowatt of power in one hour
○ Usually used to calculate cost of electrical energy usage
○ e.g. cost of electrical energy usage is $0.20 per unit, hence for every 1 kWh used,
cost of electrical energy usage is $0.20
● To change 1 kWh to Joules
○ 1 kWh = 1000W x 1h = 1000W x 60 x 60s = 3.60 x 106 J

86
Electrical Wiring in Homes
Three-Pin Plug

A three pin plug and a three pin socket

● Electricity supply to a typical home is in the form of AC with a p.d. of 240V

● Live wire (brown) is usually at 240V and carries current between the mains supply and
electrical appliance during normal operation
● Neutral wire (blue) is usually at 0V and carries current between the mains supply and
electrical appliance during normal operation
● Earth wire (yellow with green stripes) is a low resistance wire, usually at 0V and normally
has no current flowing through it. Protects any user of appliance from electric shock, by
carrying leakage current from the metal casing of any faulty appliance away to earth

Fuse
● A safety device inserted into an electrical circuit to protect the appliance and wiring
against excessive current
○ Is a short thin piece of wire which becomes hot and melts when the current through
it is greater than its rated value
○ Always connected to live wire with a rating slightly higher than current flowing into
appliance
○ Fuse rating determine the maximum current that can flow through fuse
■ Common fuse ratings include 1A, 3A, 5A, 10A and 13A
● To compute a suitable fuse rating for an electrical circuit
1. Compute the required current value of electrical circuit
2. Round off the current value to nearest integer
3. Add 1A to estimated value in Step 2
● Function of a plug with a fuse (fused plug) is to connect an electrical appliance to the
power circuits via a power socket
● To wire a fused plug,
1. Remove a sufficient amount of the insulating plastic from the three wires
2. Twist the wire strands together gently
3. Wrap the wires clockwise around the screws of each pin
4. Tighten the screws and check that the insulations on the wires extend right up to
the pins
5. Tighten cord grip and check that there are no loose strands in the plug before
replacing the cover

87
Switches

Switches in a circuit

● Break or complete an electrical circuit

● Must be fitted onto the live wire, so that the action of ‘switching off’ will disconnect the
high voltage from the appliance

Consumer unit

Overview of a typical household’s electrical wiring

● Distribution point for a household’s electricity supply

○ Lighting circuit
■ Lamps always connected in parallel so each lamp receives main voltage
(usually 240V) and so that if any lamp fails, other lamps will not be affected
○ Ring main circuit
■ Supplies electricity to all wall sockets in the house. Beside both live and
neutral wires running a complete ring, an earth wire is also added for safety
reasons

88
Dangers of Electricity
● Electric current is potentially dangerous and can result in electric shocks and fires
● Dangers can be traced to four possible causes:
○ Damp conditions
○ Damaged insulation
○ Overheating of cables
○ Poor and loose connections

Electric shocks
● Severity of electric shock depends on size of current
● Human body can only withstand up to about 50mA
○ Resistance of human body comprises of two parts: contact resistance of dry skin
and resistance of body itself
■ Former is the order of 100 kΩ or more while latter is much lower, of the order
of a few hundred ohms, which explains why damp conditions will result in
electric shocks
● Insulating material deteriorates with time and use. If the insulation covering live wire is
damaged, exposed live wire can cause a severe electric shock and even death to the user
in contact with it

Current in mA Effect

1 Threshold - no pain below this point

5 Frightening but harmless shock

10-20 Uncontrolled muscular contractions eg. you cannot let go

50 Pain and exhaustion, breathing affected

100-300 Uncoordinated contraction of the heart leading to death

Fires
● When cables are overheated due to an unusually large current flowing in it, fires may
result
○ Can happen when too many appliances are plugged into the same outlet (through
the use of multi-way adapters) and switched on at the same time, hence the total
current drawn may be so large that the adapter becomes overloaded and overheats
● Live and neutral wires touch causing a short circuit as a result of poor and loose
connections
○ Poor contacts may also increase the resistance of circuits, leading to overheating.
■ Can also create high p.d. between contacts, causing electrical charges to
jump across the contacts and produce sparks

89
Safety Wiring in Homes
Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker
● ELCB also known as a residual current device (RCD)
○ Compares the amount of current flowing through the live and neutral wires, which
should be the same
○ When a current leakage of 30 mA is detected in the circuit, the ELCB cuts of
electrical supply

Miniature Circuit Breaker

● MCB is a switch which will ‘trip’ when the electric current exceeds a certain value due to
short circuit or overloading
● Power supply is cut off when MCB trips

Action of the earth wire

Earth wire protecting the user

● If the metal of an appliance accidentally becomes live, current will flow through the earth
wire instead of the person who touches the metal casing due to the earth wire’s low
resistance

Double insulation
● Some appliances only have live and neutral wires and no earth wire, but instead have
double insulation
● Provides two levels of insulation
○ Insulation covering wires and internal components of the appliance
○ If there is a fault inside the appliance, a non-conducting casing will prevent the user
from getting an electric shock
90
Alternative Energy
Clean and renewable energy
● Clean energy causes little or no harm to the environment, e.g. hydrogen fuel cell
● Generated by natural resources
○ Solar, biofuels, wind, tidal, hydro and geothermal energies
● At present, solar energy and biofuels present the best opportunities for Singapore
○ Average wind speeds are too low for economical use of large wind turbines.
Though technology for micro-wind turbines is improving quickly to harness lower
wind speeds, wind energy options remain weak
○ Wave and tidal energies have limited applications as much of our sea space is used
for ports, anchorage and shipping lanes
○ Singapore’s geography also does not present opportunities to harness hydro or
geothermal energies

91
Magnetism
Laws of Magnetism
Properties of magnets
● When no other magnet is near, a freely suspended magnet always settles with its poles
pointing approximately in the North-South direction. The pole that points towards the
geographical North pole is called the north pole and likewise for the South pole
● Like poles repel; unlike poles attract

Magnetic Properties of Matter

Induced magnetism

Induced magnetism

● Any magnetic material placed near to a magnet will become an induced magnet. The
induced pole nearest to the magnet is opposite to that end of the magnet
● Magnetic induction is the process whereby an object made of a magnetic material
becomes a magnet when it is near or in contact with a magnet

Theory of Magnetism

Magnetic domains

● Magnetic materials include iron, cobalt, nickel, steel and Alnico. Composed of many ‘tiny
magnets’ called magnetic domains. When the magnetic domains are randomly arranged,
the material does not act as a magnet. When most of the magnetic domains in the
material are lined up with their north and south poles pointing in the same direction, the
material as a whole acts like a magnet
● Non-magnetic materials include wood, glass, copper, brass and plastic; they are not made
of magnetic domains
92
Storage of bar magnets

Free poles Storage of bar magnets

● Magnets becomes weaker after some time if they are not stored properly
○ ‘Free’ poles at the ends of the magnet tends to fan out due to repulsion between
the like poles, altering the magnetic domains
● To prevent this, bar magnets are stored in pairs with soft iron keepers across the ends of
the bar magnets, hence the poles of the atomic magnets are in closed loops with no ‘free’
poles

Properties and uses of iron and steel

● Iron is easier to magnetise, but loses its magnetism easily; said to be a soft magnetic
material usually used in electromagnets
● Steel is harder to magnetise, but retains its magnetism; said to be a hard magnetic
material usually used to make permanent magnets

Methods of Magnetisation
Stroking

● An unmagnetised steel bar is storked several times form one end to the other, in one
direction, with one of the poles of a permanent magnet
● Pole produced at end of the iron bar where strokes finish is opposite to the stroking pole
used

93
Electromagnetisation

● Iron bar to be magnetised is placed inside a solenoid and a direct current is passed into the
solenoid to align the magnetic domains in a uniform direction

Methods of Demagnetisation
Heating/hammering
● Strongly heating a magnet and letting it cool in an east-west orientation will cause a
magnet to lose its magnetism
○ Atoms of the magnet vibrate vigorously when heated, causing the magnetic
domains to lose their alignment
● Hammering a magnet placed in the east-west direction alters the alignment of the
magnetic domains, causing it to lose its magnetism

De-electromagnetisation

● Magnet is placed inside a solenoid carrying an alternating current, then slowly removed
from the solenoid in a east-west direction until it is far away, to randomize the
arrangement of the magnetic domains

94
Applications of Magnetic Effect
Electric bell

● When the bell is pressed, the switch is closed and the electromagnet attracts the soft iron
armature, causing the hammer to strike the bell, which then breaks the contact,
interrupting the current, demagnetising the electromagnet. The armature is no longer
attracted, remaking the contact and completing the circuit again

Circuit Breaker

Internal view of circuit breaker

● Usually, a current in the circuit is flowing through terminals 1 and 2

● When current gets too high → electromagnet (iron core in solenoid) become strong
enough to attract iron armature (held intact with contact by spring in Fig 1)
● Contact separates due to pull of spring and springy metal → springs upwards → circuit
broken → stop current in Fig 2
● Reset button pushed down to connect contacts and complete circuit again

Magnetic Field
● A current-carrying conductor or a permanent magnet sets up a magnetic field in its vicinity.
The direction of the field at a given point is defined as the direction of the force that acts
on a north magnetic pole placed at that point

95
Plotting of magnetic field lines

Plotting magnetic field lines

● A bar magnet is placed on top of a sheet of paper and a plotting compass is placed near
the magnet. A dot is brawn at both ends of the compass and then move the compass to a
new position, where its new tail end is at the previously drawn dot of the head end.
Another dot is not drawn at the head end of the compass in its new position. A magnetic
field line joins up the plotted dots

Magnetic field patterns

Around a bar magnet Between the poles of 2 magnets

Current in a long straight wire (using right hand grip rule)

Current in a flat circular coil (using right hand grip rule)

96
 Current in a long solenoid

● Magnetic field lines which are closer together indicate a stronger magnetic field
● For current-carrying conductors, when the magnitude of the current is increased, the
strength of the magnetic field is increased. When the direction of the current is reversed,
the direction of the magnetic field is also reversed

97
Electromagnetism
Force on a current-carrying conductor and moving charge

Fleming’s left hand rule

● Current-carrying wire has a magnetic field around it

○ If we place this wire in another magnetic field, the two magnetic fields may interact
to produce a force on the wire, sometimes called the motor effect
● When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force that
is always perpendicular to the plane containing the conductor and the direction of the field
in which it is placed
● Magnitude of the force is a maximum when the current is perpendicular to magnetic field
and zero when current is placed parallel to the field

Experiment to show the force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field

Example
● Copper wire is taped to two wooden blocks which stand on a balance. A magnet is held in
the position shown having no contact with the balance
● When there is no current in the wire, reading is 356.0g
● When there is a current in the direction indicated, the balance reading is >356.0g; magnet
has exerted downward force on the wire
● When the direction of the current is reversed, the balance reading is <356.0g; magnet has
exerted upward force on the wire

98
Force on a moving charge in a magnetic field

Forces of moving charges in a magnetic field

● Moving charge particles also constitute a current (note: direction of +ve charged particle =
direction of current; -ve charged particle is opposite direction of current)
● A beam of negative electrons moves at right angles across a magnetic field. When the
electron beam first enters the field, it will be deflected downwards. As it continues to
move in the magnetic field, it goes in a circular path upwards as there is always a force
perpendicular to its direction of motion

Forces between infinitely long parallel current-carrying conductors

● Consider two infinitely long parallel current-carrying wires X and Y producing a resultant
magnetic field due to the interaction of their individual fields as shown:

● According to Fleming’s left hand rule, wire Y would exert a force on X to the right and by
Newton’s Third Law, wire X will exert a force on Y towards the left; wires attract each
other when they carry currents in the same direction, and likewise two wires would repel
each other when they carry currents in the opposite direction

99
Applications of the Magnetic Effect of a Current
Motor effect and a simple D.C. motor

● A current carrying coil is placed in a magnetic field, as predicted by Fleming’s left-hand

rule, the magnets exert an upward force on side WX of the coil and a downward one on
side ZY, hence the coil experiences a turning effect
● Turning effect is increased by either
○ Increasing the number of turns on the coil
○ Increasing magnitude of the current
○ Using a stronger magnet
○ Winding the coil onto a soft-iron cylinder
● Note: ‘increase number of turns’ applies to a coil; use ‘increase number of turns per unit
length’ for solenoids
● In a two-pole, single-coil motor, a split-ring commutator reverses the current in the coil
every half rotation when the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field, which allows the
coil to continue to rotate in the same direction

Applications of the Motor Effect

Galvanometer

● Name given to a moving coil electric current detector

● When a current is passed through a coil in a magnetic field, the coil experiences a torque
proportional to the current. If the coil's movement is opposed by a coil spring, then the
amount of deflection of a needle attached to the coil may be proportional to the current
passing through the coil

100
Loudspeaker

Cross section of loudspeaker

● A device that converts electrical signals into sound

● A movable coil, called the voice coil, wrapped around central magnet has an electrical
signal sent through it (eg. mp3 files). Due to external magnetic fields, the coil moves in and
out of the central magnet (motor effect). Motion of coil results in vibration of the paper
cone, producing a sound

Practical motors

Cross section of improved motor

● An increased and constant turned effect is enabled:

○ Curved pole pieces produce a radial magnetic field
○ Iron armature concentrates and intensifies the magnetic field
○ There are several coils at different orientations
○ Many turns per coil

101
Electromagnetic Induction
Principles of Electromagnetic Induction
Faraday’s Law

Faraday’s experiments

● From Faraday’s experiments, an e.m.f. is induced whenever there is change in the magnetic
flux linkage in a circuit, and the induced e.m.f. results in an induced current if the circuit is
closed
● Magnitude of induced current increases when
○ Magnet is moved at faster speed relative to the coil
○ Stronger magnet used
○ Number of turns per unit length in solenoid is increased
● Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction states that the magnitude of the induced e.m.f.
is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux linkage or the rate at which the
magnetic field lines are cut

102
 ● When the sliding wire moves to the right, magnetic field lines are cut
● An e.m.f. is induced across the sliding wire, and the induced e.m.f. results in an induced
current in the closed circuit

Lenz’s Law

● Lenz’s Law states that the direction of the induced e.m.f., and hence the induced current in
a closed circuit, is always such that its magnetic effect opposes the motion or change
producing it.
● Direction of induced current in a solenoid opposes the motion of the magnet. When we
insert a magnet into a solenoid, we must do work to overcome the repulsion between
magnet and solenoid and push the magnet into the solenoid. This work done is converted
into electrical energy in the induced current.
● Same effect occurs when we try to pull the magnet out of the solenoid. We must do work
to overcome attraction between magnet and solenoid.

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule

103
The A.C. Generator
One of the important applications of electromagnetic induction is the generation of electricity.
The A.C. generator is one such application. A generator is an electromagnetic device which
transforms mechanical energy into electrical energy

Simple A.C. generator

● Generator consists of a rectangular coil and a permanent magnet

● When the coil rotates, it cuts the magnetic field lines
● An e.m.f. is induced in the coil, and thus current flow sin coil
● The current flows through two slip-rings to electrical load
● Slip-rings make sliding contact with the fixed carbon brushes
● When the coil rotates 180°, sides AB and CD change places
● Induced e.m.f. reverses, and hence current also reverses
● As current changes direction, it is called an alternating current

Voltage output of an A.C. generator

● Rate at which coil cuts magnetic field lines is greatest when coil is horizontal
○ Induces maximum e.m.f.
● When coil is vertical, rate at which coil cuts magnetic field lines is least
○ Induces minimum e.m.f.

104
Factors affecting output voltage

Induced e.m.f. of an a.c. generator when speed of rotation of coil is doubled

● Induced e.m.f. of a generator is increased by:

○ Increasing speed of rotation of coil
○ Increasing number of turns of coil
○ Winding coil on soft iron core
○ Using stronger magnets

Examples of practical applications

A.C. generator

● Practical design of an A.C. generator

○ A fixed coil generator is made by fixing the coil and rotating the magnet around it
○ The rotating magnetic field cuts the coil to produce an induced e.m.f.
○ Slip rings and carbon brushes are not used as the output terminals of the coil are
fixed
● This is preferred because:
○ Carbon brushes wear and tear easily and need to be replaced frequently, increasing
cost
○ Connection with slip ring becomes loose when carbon brush is eroded, which
increases resistance at the connection point causing unnecessary heating. Thermal
energy can be so large that is causes the generator to break down
○ The fixed coil design is more compact and space-saving
105
 Everyday example (bicycle dynamo)

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

An instrument used in the laboratory to display, measure and analyse waveforms of various
electrical circuits. It can display an input signal versus time. It uses a luminous spot which is
produced by a beam of electrons striking a fluorescent screen. This luminous spot moves in
response to the variation in input signal

Uses
Displaying waveforms
By selecting a suitable time base, we can display the waveform of the p.d. connected across the
Y-input terminals

106
Y-gain or voltage gain

● Amplifies the deflection of electron beam

● Amount of deflection depends on input voltage at Y-plates
● Determines sensitivity of oscilloscope
● Unit: Volts per division, V/div

Time base

● When time base is on, a voltage is applied to the X-plate

● Controls the speed at which the electron beam sweeps across the screen from left to right
horizontally, then jumps back to the left plate and the sweeping repeats
○ Done by altering frequency of the time base
● Unit: milliseconds per division, ms/div
● Note that Y-gain and time base are similar to the scale of a graph; Y-gain is for y-axis
while time base is for x-axis

X-shift
● Moves the waveform across the screen

Y-shift
● Moves the waveform up and down the screen
107
Measuring voltages
● As the deflection of the spot depends on the p.d. applied to the input terminals, C.R.O. can
be used to measure A.C. or D.C. voltages

Measuring short intervals of time and frequency

● Frequency or period of an a.c. voltage can be found by making horizontal measurements

on the waveform displayed
● In this diagram, time base control is set at ‘10ms/cm’. This means that the spot takes 10ms
to move 1cm horizontally across the screen
● Distance occupied by one complete wave on the screen is 2cm
● Hence time taken for one complete wave to trace out = 20 ms
● Frequency of wave = 50 Hz

108
Measuring speed of sound
● This set-up can be used to determine the speed of sound accurately:

● The microphone is placed facing a hard, smooth wall a few metres away and connected to
a C.R.O. A sharp sound (e.g. a whistle or a clap) is made near the microphone and this
appears as a pulse on the oscilloscope. The sound is reflected and appears as a second
pulse
● The distance x between the two pulses on the screen gives the time taken for the sound to
travel to the wall and back. Hence the speed of sound can be calculated if the distance to
the wall and back is known

The Transformer
Structure of a simple iron-cored transformer

● One coil is wound on each side of an iron core

● Primary coil is connected to an A.C. power source while secondary coil is connected to a
load

Principle of operation of a simple iron-cored transformer

● If a battery and a switch are used in the primary coil,
○ Closed switch → current in the primary coil increases from zero to a maximum
■ Producing an increasing magnetic field in the core
■ Increasing magnetic flux linkage in secondary coil → EMF induced → Current
in secondary coil → Lights up the lamp momentarily

109
 ○ However, once the current in the primary coil is steady, no change in magnetic flux
linkage → no longer induced EMF in secondary coil → lamp no longer lights up
○ Open switch → current in primary coil decreases to 0
■ Decreasing magnetic field in the core
■ Decreasing magnetic flux linkage in secondary coil → EMF induced →
Current in secondary coil → Lights up the lamp momentarily
○ Once there is no current in the primary coil → no change in magnetic flux linkage
→ no more induced e.m.f. in secondary coil → lamp no longer lights up
● When AC supply is used in primary coil, a continuously changing magnetic field in the core
is created → constantly induced EMF in secondary coil → Lamp lights up all the time

Efficiency of a transformer

● Efficiency of a transformer is improved by

○ A special core design to ensure magnetic field produced by primary coil is
completely linked to secondary coil
○ A core made of soft magnetic material so it is easier to magnetise and demagnetise
○ A laminated core to reduce eddy currents
○ Use of thick copper wires to reduce resistance

Important equations

○ Turns ratio is
● In an ideal transformer, e.g. 100% efficient:
○ Output power = Input power
○ Since P = VI, VsIs = VpIp
● A step-up transformer has a higher output voltage than input voltage by having more
turns in secondary coil than in primary coil
● A step-down transformer has a lower output voltage than input voltage by having fewer
turns in secondary coil than in primary coil

110
Transmission of electrical energy

● A.C. is used in transmission of electricity as voltage can be stepped up or down using

transformers
○ Electricity generated in power stations is stepped up to very high voltage by
transformers and fed into the grid
■ Reduces power loss in transmission cables as current is lower
○ Voltage of electricity from grid is then stepped down at substations and distributed
to consumers

111