CHAPTER ONE

JOINING PROCESSES

1.1 Introduction
Some products cannot be manufactured as a single piece. The desired shape and size of such products can
be obtained by joining two parts of same or different materials. These parts are manufactured individually
and are joined together to obtain the desired product. For example, aircraft and ship bodies, welded
machine frames, furniture, computers, bridges and the transmission or electric towers etc., are all fabricated
by joining several different parts.

Joining processes can be Temporary Joint and Permanent Joint. A temporary joint can easily
dismantled separating the original parts without any damage to them. These can be Mechanical Fasteners -
bolts, nuts, rivets, screws, etc. In permanent joint with an attempt to separate the parts already joined will
result in the damage of the parts. These can be Welding, Soldering and Brazing. The joint is made such
that it has properties similar to the base metal of the two parts. The two parts cannot be separated into
their original shape, size and surface finish.

1.2 Mechanical Joining

Mechanical Joining is use of various fastening methods to mechanically attach two or more parts
together. Mechanical fastening methods are gaining in popularity, both in the assembly as well as for
mass production, in fabricating processes where a "predictable" fastening technology is absolutely
essential. Typical for all mechanical fastening methods is that the joints can be made with none or
hardly any heating. Mechanical fasteners include;
 Integral fasteners
 Discrete fasteners
 Shrink and expansion fits
Integral fasteners
Integral fasteners function by interlocking or interfering one component with other components during
assembly. Components are deformed so they interlock as a mechanically fastened joint. Integral
fasteners are formed areas designed into sheet metal products. Examples; Seaming & Lanced tabs
 Seaming: edges of two separate sheet metal parts or the opposite edges of the same part are bent
over to form the fastening seam.
 Lanced tabs: lanced tabs: To attach wires or shafts to sheet metal parts
Discrete fasteners
In this type hardware components, called fasteners, are added to the parts to mechanically attach two
or more parts together. Examples of these types include;
 Threaded fasteners
 Non-threaded fasteners
Threaded fasteners
 Discrete hardware components that have external or internal threads for assembly of parts
 Most important category of mechanical assembly
 In nearly all cases, threaded fasteners permit disassembly
 Common threaded fastener types are screws, bolts, and nuts
 Screw - externally threaded fastener generally assembled into a blind threaded hole
 Bolt - externally threaded fastener inserted through holes and "screwed" into a nut on the
opposite side
 Nut - internally threaded fastener having standard threads that match those on bolts of the same
diameter, pitch, and thread form

 Screws and bolts come in a variety of sizes, threads, and shapes

 There is much standardization in threaded fasteners, which promotes interchangeability
 U.S. is converting to metric, further reducing variations
 Differences between threaded fasteners affect tooling
 Example: different screw head styles and sizes require different screwdriver designs

Various Head Styles on Bolts and Screws

Non-threaded fasteners include:
• Rivets
• Pins
• Washers
Rivets:
 Are one piece, permanent mechanical fasteners inserted through matching holes in component
parts. Various rivet setting devices and tools are then employed to form a head on the opposite
end of the rivet, clinching the parts together.
 Unthreaded, headed pin used to join two or more parts by passing pin through holes in parts and
forming a second head in the pin on the opposite side
 Widely used fasteners for achieving a permanent mechanically fastened joint
Tooling and Methods for Rivets
 Impact - pneumatic hammer delivers a succession of blows to upset the rivet
 Steady compression - riveting tool applies a continuous squeezing pressure to upset the rivet
 Combination of impact and compression

Rivets –Applications and Advantages

• Used primarily for lap joints
• Example: a primary fastening method in aircraft and aerospace industries
• Advantages:
 High production rates
 Simplicity
 Dependability
 Low cost
Pins:
 Are simple, low-cost mechanical fasteners. Once installed, they can function as locking devices,
locating elements, pivots, and bearing faces. Pins may be tapered or straight, with a head or
without.
Washers:
 Are primarily used as bolt and screw seats to help distribute loads and stresses.
 Hardware component often used with threaded fasteners to ensure tightness of the mechanical
joint
  Simplest form = flat thin ring of sheet metal
 Functions:
 Distribute stresses
 Provide support for large clearance
holes
 Protect part surfaces and seal the joint
 Increase spring tension
 Resist inadvertent unfastening

Interference Fits
Assembly methods based on mechanical interference between the two mating parts being joined
 The interference, either during assembly or after joining, holds the parts together
 Interference fit methods include:
 Press fitting
 Shrink and expansion fits
 Snap fits
 Retaining rings
Press Fitting
Typical case is where a pin (e.g., a straight cylindrical pin) of a certain diameter is pressed into a hole
of a slightly smaller diameter.
Shrink and Expansion Fits
Assembly of two parts (e.g., shaft in collar) that have an interference fit at room temperature
 Shrink fitting - external part is enlarged by heating, and internal part either stays at room
temperature or is contracted by cooling
 Expansion fitting - internal part is contracted by cooling and inserted into mating component –
when at room temperature, expansion creates interference
 Used to fit gears, pulleys, sleeves, and other components onto solid and hollow shafts
Snap Fits
Joining of two parts in which mating elements possess a temporary interference during assembly, but
once assembled they interlock
 During assembly, one or both parts elastically deform to accommodate temporary interference
 Usually designed for slight interference after assembly
 Originally conceived as a method ideally suited for industrial robots
 Eureka! –it’s easier for humans too

Snap fit assembly, showing cross-sections of two mating parts: Mating parts: (1) before
assembly, and (2) parts snapped together
Retaining Ring
Fastener that snaps into a circumferential groove on a shaft or tube to form a shoulder
 Used to locate or restrict movement of parts on a shaft

Retaining ring assembled into a groove on a shaft

1.3 Adhesive bonding
Bonding is the surface-to-surface joining of similar or dissimilar materials using a substance which
usually is of a different type, and which adheres to the surfaces of the two adherents to be joined,
transferring the forces from one adherent to the other. An adhesive is a nonmetallic substance capable
of joining materials by surface bonding (adhesion), and the bond possessing adequate internal strength
(cohesion). Bonding is a material joining technique that, in the traditional sense, cannot be broken
without destruction of the bond.
Bonding is by far the most universal joining technique. Virtually all technically useful materials can be
joined with each other, and one with another, by means of this surface-to-surface and material-joining
technique. Adhesive bonding technology offers great design flexibility as it can be easily integrated
into almost all available industrial sequences of single-piece work or mass production. Historically,
bonding has long been recognized as a high-performance joining technique. The large majority of
original natural binding materials have now been replaced by synthetically prepared adhesives. For
example, phenolic resins were first introduced in the late 1920s, while during the 1940s epoxide resins
and polyurethane were developed which have since made possible the production of synthetic
adhesives. Fig. below shows types of adhesively bonded joints.
Advantages of Adhesive Bonding over Mechanical Joints
Joining of materials using an adhesive offers several benefits over mechanical joints. Especially in the
composites industry, adhesive bonding is much more widely used compared to the metals industry.
1. In adhesively bonded joints, the load at the joint interface is distributed over an area rather than
concentrated at a point. This results in a more uniform distribution of stresses.
2. Adhesively bonded joints are more resistant to flexural, fatigue, and vibrational stresses than
mechanical joints because of the uniform stress distribution.
3. The weight penalty is negligible with adhesive bonding compared to mechanical joints.
4. Adhesive not only bonds the two surfaces but also seals the joint. The seal prevents galvanic
corrosion between dissimilar adherent materials.
5. Adhesive bonding can be more easily adapted to join irregular surfaces than mechanical joints.
6. Adhesive bonding provides smooth contours and creates virtually no change in part
dimensions. This is very important in designing aerodynamic shapes and in creating good part
aesthetics.
7. Adhesive bonding is often less expensive and faster than mechanical joining.
Disadvantages of Adhesive Bonding
Adhesive bonding suffers from the following disadvantages:
1. Adhesive bonding usually requires surface preparation before bonding.
2. Heat and pressure may be required during the bonding operation. This may limit the part size if
curing needs to be performed in an oven or autoclave.
3. With some adhesives, a long cure time may be needed.
4. Health and safety could be an issue.
5. Inspection of a bonded joint is difficult.
6. Adhesive bonding requires more training and rigid process control than mechanical joints.
7. Adhesive bonding creates a permanent bond and does not allow repeated assembly and dis-
assembly.
Adhesive Selection Guidelines
The selection of an adhesive depends on the type of substrate material, application need, performance
requirements, temperature resistance, chemical resistance, etc. A successful application requires a good
joint design, good surface preparation, proper adhesive selection, and proper adhesive curing. The first
step in selecting an adhesive is to define the substrate materials and set up durability and other
requirements. The following is a checklist for setting up some requirements:
 Strength requirement
 Cost requirement
 Loading type
 Impact resistance
 Temperature resistance
 Humidity, chemical, and electrical resistances
 Process requirements
 Production rate requirements
Once the above requirements are met, then the processing parameters for the adhesive bonding can be
defined. These include the production rate, adhesive position, clamp time and position, surface
preparation, fixture time, open time, cure parameters such as time, temperature, and pressure,
dispensing method, manual or automated assembly, and inspection method.

1.4 Welding
1.4.1 Introduction
Welding is a process of permanent joining two materials (usually metals) through localized
coalescence; resulting from a suitable combination of temperature, pressure and metallurgical
conditions. Depending up on the combination of temperature and pressure from a high temperature
with no pressure to a high pressure with low temperatures, a wide range of welding processes has been
developed. So, welding is a critical technique for the joining of materials in a nation’s major
manufacturing industries.
It is the fusing of the surfaces of two work pieces to form one, is a precise, reliable, cost-effective, and
“high-tech” method for joining materials. No other technique is as widely used by manufacturers to
join metals and alloys efficiently and to add value to their products. Most of the familiar objects in
modern society, from buildings and bridges, to vehicles, computers, and medical devices, could not be
produced without the use of welding.
Welding is a very old art and this started with the joining of metals by heating them to very high
temperature (which is sufficient to cause cohesion) and then hammering.
 – The various ways of applying pressure in order to effect welding are hammering and rolling.
– In welding without the application of pressure, the metals are brought to fluid state and
joined by smooth filler material.
Welding goes well beyond the bounds of its simple description. Welding today is applied to a wide
variety of materials and products, using such advanced technologies as lasers and plasma arcs. The
future of welding holds even greater promise as methods are devised for joining dissimilar and non-
metallic materials, and for creating products of innovative shapes and designs. The welding industry
oversees one of the most widely used technologies in materials processing.
Coming to the profile and structure of today’s welding industry; the welding industry incorporates the
workforce that uses welding technologies to perform welding operations; the welding supply industry
that provides the equipment, products, consumables, and services needed by the workforce, companies,
universities; and the end-users in the larger national and international industrial sector who rely on
welding and joining processes to manufacture their products. Now-a-days many process of welding
have been developed and probably there is no industry which is not using welding process in the
fabrication of its products in some form or the other.
Virtually every manufacturing industry uses a welding process at some stage of manufacturing or in
the repair and maintenance of process equipment. From the soldering of PC boards to the heavy-duty
welding of steel plates for shipbuilding to the repair of industrial boilers, industry relies on welding for
reliable joining of materials.
1.4.2 Classification of welding process
• Broadly based on state of two base metals joint during welding, welding process can
be classified as
– Fusion welding and
– Solid-phase welding
1) Fusion welding is the process of joining two pieces of metal by application of heat. The two
parts to be joined are placed together, heated, often with the addition of filler metal, until they melt,
and solidify on cooling. The heat can be produced in several ways viz. combustion of fuel gas with
oxygen (oxygen-acetylene gas welding), electric arc, electric resistance heating, plasma arc, electron
beams, laser beams. Along with the application of heat, pressure can also be used by some welding
processes so as to have better action of joining.

For additional strength sometimes filler material can also be used.

 2) Solid-phase welding is produced by bringing the clean face of components into intimate contact
to produce a metallic bond with or without the application of heat.
– But in this process application of pressure is essential to induce plastic flow.
Based on the source of energy Welding processes can be classified in to the following groups
1. Gas welding: In gas welding, the heat energy and high temperature needed to melt the metal is
obtained by the combustion of a fuel gas with oxygen. The most commonly used fuel gas is
acetylene. Gas welding includes;
 Oxy acetylene  Oxy hydrogen
 Air acetylene
 Pressure gas
2. Arc welding: An electric current (either alternating current or direct current) is used to form an
arc between an electrode coated in flux and the metals to be joined. The types of arc welding are
given below.
 Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)  Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW)
 Gas–tungsten arc welding (GTAW)  Submerged arc welding (SAW)
 Plasma arc welding (PAW)  Electro slag welding (ESW)
 Gas–metal arc welding (GMAW)
3. Resistance welding: this process employs a combination of force and heat to produce a weld
between the work pieces. It uses two large electrodes which are placed on either side of the surface
to be welded, and passes a large electrical current through them that heats up the metal in-between.
The result is a small "spot" that is quickly heated to the melting point, forming a small dot of
welded metal. The types of resistance welding are listed below.
 Spot  Butt welding
 Seam  Induction welding
 Projection
4. Solid state welding: this group of welding processes use pressure and heat (below the melting
temperature of base metal) to produce coalescence between the pieces to be joined without the use
of filler material.
 Friction welding  Explosive welding
 Ultrasonic welding  Forge and diffusion welding
5. Thermo-chemical welding:
 Thermit welding  Atomic H2 welding
6. Radiant energy welding: uses sources that have very high energy
 Electron beam welding: Uses kinetic energy of a dense focused beam of high velocity
electrons as a heat source for fusion.
 Laser beam welding: uses very strong coherent monochromatic beam of light as source of
energy.
1.4.3 Types of weld joints
• 5 basic types of weld joints are the butt, corner, tee, lap, and edge.
1. Butt joint: aligned approximately in the same plane. A joint of this type may be either square or
grooved.
2. Corner Joint: Members located approximately at right angles to each other in the form of an L.
3. T-joint: a joint between two members located approximately at right angles to each other in the
form of a T.
4. Lap joint: a joint between two overlapping members located in parallel.
 This is one of the strongest types of joints available;
5. Edge joint: a joint between the edges of two or more parallel or nearly parallel members.

1.4.4 Welding position

1.5 Brazing and Soldering

Soldering and brazing provide permanent joint to bond metal pieces. Soldering and brazing process lie
somewhere in between fusion welding and solid state welding. These processes have some advantages over
welding process. These can join the metal having poor weld ability, dissimilar metals; very less amount of
heating is needed. The major disadvantage is joint made by soldering and brazing has low strength as
compared to welded joint.
Principle of brazing
• Joining of metal pieces is done with the help of filler metal.
– Filler metal is melted and distributed by capillary action between the faying surfaces of the
metallic parts being joined.
– In this case only filler metal melts.
– There is no melting of work piece metal.
• The filler metal (brazing metal) should have the melting point more than 450Co.
– Its melting point should be lesser than the melting point of work piece metal.
 • The metallurgical bonding between work and filler metal and geometric constrictions imposed on
the joint by the work piece metal make the joint stronger than the filler metal out of which the joint
has been formed.
Advantages of brazing
• It's easy to learn.
• You can join virtually any dissimilar metals.
• The bond line can be very neat in appearance.
• Joint strength is strong enough for most non-heavy-duty use applications
Disadvantages of brazing
• A badly brazed joint looks similar to a good joint, and can have a VERY low strength.
• The metal used to bond the two parts may be different in color than the parts being bonded. This
may or may not be a problem.
• Long-term effects of dissimilar metals in constant contact may need to be examined for special
applications.
• Since the filler material (typically bronze) melts at a relatively low temperature, brazed parts may
not be put in an environment which exceeds the melting point of the filler metal.

Common braze metal families

Principle of soldering
• Soldering is very much similar to brazing and its principle is same as that of brazing.
 – The major difference lies with the filler metal, the filler metal used in case of soldering
should have the melting temperature lower than 450Co.
– The surfaces to be soldered must be pre-cleaned so that these are faces of oxides, oils, etc.
• An appropriate flux must be applied to the faying surfaces and then surfaces are heated.
• Filler metal called solder is added to the joint, which distributes between the closely fitted surfaces.
• Strength of soldered joint is much lesser than welded joint and less than a brazed joint.

Advantages of soldering
• Low power is required;
• Low process temperature;
• No thermal distortions and residual stresses in the joint parts;
• Microstructure is not affected by heat;
• Easily automated process;
• Dissimilar materials may be joined;
• High variety of materials may be joined;
• Thin wall parts may be joined;
• Moderate skill of the operator is required.
Disadvantages of soldering
• Careful removal of the flux residuals is required in order to prevent corrosion;
• Large sections cannot be joined;
• Fluxes may contain toxic components;
• Soldering joints can not be used in high temperature applications;
• Low strength of joints.
COMPARISON OF SOLDERING, BRAZING AND WELDING
• The three processes soldering, brazing and welding have similarity that these are bonding processes.
• All the three uses filler metal, flux and application of heat.
• These processes also are dissimilar regarding the cost involved, performance, application area, etc.
• This comparison is tabulated in next page
 SI. x o. welding Soldering Brazing
I. These are the These are weakest These are stronger
strongest joints used joint out of three. Not than soldering but
lo bear the load. meant to bear the weaker than welding.
Strength of a welded load. Use lo make These can be used to
joint may be more electrical contacts bear the load upto
than the strength of generally. some extent.
base metal.
2. Temperature required Temperature It may go to 600"C in
is upto 3800°C of requirement is upto brazing.
welding zone. 450°C.

3. Workpiece to be No need to heat the Workpieces are

joined need to be workpieces. heated but be low their
heated till their melting point.
melting point.

4. Mechanical properties No change in May change in

of base metal may mechanical properties mechanical properties
change at the joint due after joining. of joint but it is almost
to heating and negligible.
cooling.

5. Heat cost is involved Cost involved and Cost involved and sill
and high skill level is skill requirements are required are in
required. very low. between others two.

6. Heat treatment is o heat treatment is No heat treatment is

generally required to required. required after brazing.
eliminate undesirable
effects of welding.

7. No preheating of Preheating of Preheating is desirable

workpiece is required workpieces before to make strong joint as
before welding as it is soldering is good for brazing is carried out
carried out at high making good quality at relatively low
temperature. joint. temperature.
Page 13
1.6 Safety in welding
Welding and related thermal processes utilize compressed gas and/or electric current to provide a
concentrated heat source which melts or burns away steel and other metals. Proper safety precautions are
required to avoid accidents related to the gas and power supplies, to the sparks, heat, fumes, and visible and
invisible rays from the heat source.
Welding procedures for a number of applications written on board, should be known and followed
wherever applicable, and welding should be performed by qualified personnel under proper supervision.
1.6.1 Personal protection
General body protection
A welder at work is isolated from his surroundings. He must concentrate on the welding operation and
cannot see what may be happening in the surrounding area. He must therefore always wear a safety helmet,
safety shoes etc. which will offer him protection against accidents beyond his control. The following are
the main safety devices used during welding.
 Gloves  Goggles
 Leather Apron,  Helmet
 Face shield,  Leather Shoes, Proper cloth

Therefore, the welder should wear all the necessary safety clothes and equipments to protect him/her
self from;
Electric shocks: can be the cause of two types of accidents:
– Direct accidents caused by the shock itself can be anything from minor burns to heart failure.
– Indirect accidents caused by falls from scaffolding and platforms.
Burns: Burns may be caused by hot work pieces, sparks, molten metal, red-hot electrodes etc.
Ultraviolet and infrared light: Many welders have experienced the discomfort of arc-eye or “sun
burnt” skin on unprotected parts of the body, usually due to insufficient protective equipment.

Page 14
Chemicals: It is always recommend that one does the mixing and application in a ventilated area and
always wear the gloves supplied with the set, when handling polymer products.
Flying chips: When using a chipping hammer to remove slag from the weld, there is always a risk of
flying chips which are a potential danger. The chips are sharp and can cause serious damage to the
eyes
Operator / assistant protection
 When working, wear safety shoes, do not wear clothes of highly combustible materials or wet
clothes, and do not carry combustible material, e.g. matches, lighters, oily rags.
 Welding gloves should always be used, and when necessary also use additional leather clothing
for protection against sparks, heat and electric shock.
 Use head and face protection (helmet, shield, goggles). Ensure that filter glasses are unbroken
and have the correct shade.
 For heavy duty work (above 200 Amps), wearing leather trousers, leather jacket, safety boots
with steel toes are mandatory in addition to the other safety devices.
 Where necessary use a fresh air unit or breathing apparatus to avoid inhaling fumes and dust
from the welding process.
 Never use acetylene or oxygen to blow away dust from yourself or the workplace. Always keep
dry and keep the workplace dry, especially when arc welding.
1.6.2 Work site protection
In order to protect the surrounding area from sparks and spatter, ultra violet and infrared light, welding
curtains and/or blankets should be used.
Welding Curtain: The purpose of the Welding Curtain is to avoid other personnel being harmed by
the welding work taking place. The curtain blocks out all hazardous ultraviolet and infrared light from
the welding arc.
Welding spatter blanket: Non-asbestos woven glass fabric with a fire retardant weave lock, for
protecting combustible materials and delicate machinery from spatter and spark during welding and
cutting.
Fire extinguisher: Always keep a fire extinguisher ready when welding outside workshop.
1.6.2.1 Welding Equipment
 Check that the power source functions correctly is correctly connected to mains, and that you are
familiar with its operation.
 Ensure that gas cylinders are properly secured, in upright position, and fitted with correct and
properly functioning regulators for the gas. Acetylene and oxygen regulators shall be fitted with
flashback arrestors. Protect cylinders against heat and mechanical damage.
 Hoses shall be in good condition, without leaks or damage, and with correct color coding for the
gas. (Red for acetylene, blue for oxygen, black for shielding gases and filtered air). Use correct
hose connectors and hose clamps. Pieces of pipe and twisted wire must never be used. Never use
oil or grease in connection with welding gases and never use copper in connection with acetylene.
 Cables shall be of oil resistant type with undamaged insulation and properly mounted cable
connectors.
 Both welding and ground clamp cables should be stretched to the work place, and the ground
clamp should be fastened with good electrical contact directly on the work piece.
 Keep your welding equipment well maintained.
 Never use defective welding cables.
 Do not install, operate or repair equipment for welding or related thermal processes unless you are
thoroughly familiar with Instruction Manual for the equipment, Rules and regulations relating to
 the handling and installation of the equipment, Rules and regulations relating to hot work onboard,
Proper use of protective equipment and accessories related to the hot work, like fire extinguishers,
fume extraction equipment, etc., Proper use of the filler material and fluxes for the job
1.6.2.2 Work place:
Tidy up the work place and remove any flammable materials, liquids and gases from workplace and
adjacent spaces including spaces above/below decks, behind bulkheads and inside pipes or containers.
 Shield the work place to protect others from sparks and radiation from the arc, and post a
warning sign that welding is in progress.
 Ensure that sufficient and correct firefighting equipment is available at the workplace, and
those personnel familiar with its use is present.
 Ensure that the work place is properly ventilated, if necessary with special fume extraction
equipment. This is especially important when working on galvanized or coated surfaces which
may produce harmful fumes when heated.
1.6.2.3 When work is paused or completed
 Always remove coated electrodes from the electrode holder and switch/close off gas and
current at the source (welding machine, cylinder valve, gas outlet) also during short breaks for
meals etc.
 Do not leave the workplace unattended. When hot work is completed the work place shall be
inspected at regular interval to ensure that no risk of fire remains. Only when this has been
assured should firefighting equipment be returned to its normal storing place.