REVIEWER IN METEOROLOGY

Meteorology- Study of the earth’s atmosphere and especially study of weather.

 Concerned with the current state of the atmosphere at a given time and place
 Focuses on lower parts of the atmosphere
 Meteorology (Greek word, meteoros) means high in the air

METEOROLOGICAL SPECIALIZE SCIENCES

 Physical Meteorology -Physical aspects of the atmosphere (clouds, rain, thunderstorms,

lightning, mirages, rainbows and halos)
 Dynamic Meteorology - Study of the winds and laws that govern atmospheric motion.
 Synoptic meteorology -study and analysis of large weather systems that exist for more than
one day.
 Agricultural Meteorology - Deals with the weather and its relationship to crops and
vegetation
 Marine Meteorology - Deals with the weather and its effect/relationship to fishing activities
 Micrometeorology -study of atmospheric conditions over an area smaller than 1 sq.km (0.4
sq.mi)
 Climatology- the study of a region’s average daily and seasonal weather events over a long
period

BRIEF HISTORY na suuubrang brief ―UKININAM

 340 BCE-The Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote the first major study of the atmosphere entitled
“Meteorologica”
 17th and 18th centuries- rowing belief in the scientific method profoundly changed the study of
meteorology
 Evangelista Torricelli, an Italian physicist, observed that changes in air pressure were connected
to changes in weather
 1643- Torricelli invented the barometer, to accurately measure the pressure of air.
 1714, - Daniel Fahrenheit, a German physicist, developed the mercury thermometer
 mid-1800s- Samuel Morse, American invertor invented the telegraph. - produce the first
modern weather maps (isobars and isotherms)
 1920s- a group of Norwegian meteorologists developed the concepts of air masses and fronts
that are the building blocks of modern weather forecasting.
 Military operations during World War I and World War II brought great advances to meteorology.
The most important of these new technologies was radar, which was developed to detect the
presence, direction, and speed of aircraft and ships.
 1950s and 1960s- technological developments made it easier and faster for meteorologists to
observe and predict weather systems on a massive scale.
 1950s- computers created the first models of atmospheric conditions by running hundreds of
data points through complex equations. - able to predict large-scale weather, such as the series
of high- and low-pressure systems that circle our planet.
 April 1, 1960- TIROS I, the first meteorological satellite, provided the first accurate weather
forecast from space. - launched from Cape Canaveral on April 1, 1960. -Television Infrared
Observation Satellite (TIROS), demonstrate the advantage of mapping the Earth's cloud cover
from satellite altitudes.

Diwata 1 is the Philippines' first microsatellite designed, developed, and assembled by Filipino
researchers and engineers under the guidance of Japanese experts from Hokkaido University and
Tohoku University.

 the satellite is designed to provide real-time images for disaster risk management and other
applications.
 improved weather detection and forecasts, disaster risk management, detection of
agricultural growth patterns, and the monitoring of forest cover, mining, protection of
cultural and historical sites, and the territorial borders of the Philippines.
 the 50 kg satellite measures 55 cm × 35 cm × 55 cm. powered by body-mounted solar cells
 a high precision telescope (HPT) with a resolution of 3 meters that can determine the
extent of damages from disasters. It can also monitor changes in cultural and natural
heritage sites, like the Mount Apo or Mayon Volcano.
 a multispectral imager (SMI) with LCTF to monitor changes in vegetation and monitor
oceans productivity. It has a resolution of 80 meters.
 a wide field camera with 7 km resolution to help scientists and weather forecasters better
observe cloud patterns and more accurately predict weather disturbances.
 a middle field camera with a resolution of 185 meters assists in determining the locations of
images captured using the HPT and SMI
 Diwata 1 was launched in March 2016 on board of Cygnus CRS-6 to the ISS, were it was
deployed later on 27 April 2016 using J-SSOD (JEM Small Satellite Orbital Deployer) from
the Japanese JEM. Part of the three-year program is the development of a second
microsatellite, Diwata 2, to be completed in late 2017 and to be launched in 2018.
Compared to Diwata-1, which hosted wide and middle field cameras, Diwata-2 will host
enhanced resolution cameras and an amateur radio payload for disaster relief purposes.
 April 27, 2016 Diwata-1 successfully released into orbit Via Japanese Experiment Module
‘Kibo’ on board the International Space Station (ISS) at 20:44 (JST)
 March 23, 2016 Diwata-1 launched to the International Space Station (ISS)
 May 6, 2016 Diwata-1 ‘s First Image of Earth
 March 20, 2020 Diwata-1 altitude gradually decreases Signaling approach of end of
mission
 Last signal received April 6, 2020 – 4:49 AM
DIWATA 2 is the second 50 kg. earth observation microsatellite of the Philippines built by researchers
from the University of the Philippines Diliman (UPD) and the Advanced Science and Technology
Institute of the Department of Science and Technology (DOST-ASTI) in cooperation with Tohoku
University and Hokkaido University in Japan under the Philippine Scientific Earth Observation
Microsatellite (PHL-Microsat) Program

 It was successfully deployed into 600 km SSO orbit on 29 October 2018 and carries the
same optical cameras for scientific earth observation found in Diwata-1.
 It has since captured over 3,900 images total around the world, over 2,290 of which are of
the Philippines (image count as of June 2019).
 Specifically, improvements in Diwata-2 include an Enhanced Resolution Camera (ERC) for
pan sharpening images captured by the SMI, experimental modules for attitude
determination & and sensing, and an experimental amateur radio unit (ARU) which can be
used as an alternative mode of communication for emergency response.
 October 29, 2018 Diwata-2 launched to space Successfully launched at 12:08 GMT+08
from the Tanegashima Space Center
 November 14, 2018 -First images of Philippines captured that includes the ff:
 Apo Reefs, Mindoro, Tubataha Reefs, Palawan, Subi Reefs, West Philippine Sea, Mapuyan
Island, Babuyan Island, Cagayan ; Super Typhoon Henry

HIMAWARI 8/9

 The HIMAWARI 8/9 are geo-stationary weather satellites, successors to Japan

Meteorological Agency's (JMA) Multi-functional Transport Satellite (MTSAT) series.
 Himawari 8 was launched by JMA in July 2015 and was installed at PAGASA last December
2015.
 It is the most utilized satellite imagery in real-time weather forecasting, tropical cyclone
analysis and for research purposes as it generates images every 10 minutes.
 Himawari 9 was launched in November 2016 and started back up operations in March
2017. Their operation has been switched to place Himawari 9 in the main observational
role with Himawari 8 as back-up on 13 December 2022.

 01 January 1865 – Philippine Meteorological Service begun under the Observatorio

Meteorologico de Manila now Manila Observatory.
 7 July 1879 – The first issuance of typhoon warning crossing Northern Luzon made by the
Observatorio and in November of the same year predicted that a strong typhoon will cross over
Manila
 28 April 1894 – Under the Royal Decree of Spain, the Manila Observatory was recognized as an
official institution under the Jesuits.
 22 May 1901 - By act of the Philippine Commission, the Observatorio was re-organized under
the Act No. 131 and was formally named as Weather Bureau under the administrative control of
the Department of Interior.
 1917 – The Weather Bureau was placed under Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources
when the latter was created
 February 1945 – The Weather Bureau was blasted to destruction during the battle of Manila. All
instruments, records and scientific knowledge accumulated through the years were lost.
 24 July 1945 – Re-establishment of the Weather Bureau with 7 men constituting its personnel
under Mr. Edilberto Parulan as OIC
 1946 – Pursuance to the provision in the Philippine Rehabilitation Act of 1946, a U.S. Weather
Mission was sent to Manila to undertake survey of the Bureau’s need. As a result, the Bureau
acquired meteorological equipment and technical assistance from the U.S. and pave the way for
the establishment of standard weather services patterned after similar institutions in the more
technically advanced countries of the world. The Bureau was placed under the Department of
Commerce and Industry during this time.
 1947 – The Weather Bureau under the Commonwealth era was transferred to→ Department of
Agriculture and Commerce → brief period under the Department of Public Works and
Communications during the Japanese Occupation.
 Likewise, the Weather Bureau’s Central Office was moved to Marsman Bldg. opposite Pier 15 at
the Port Area, while the Forecasting Center was transferred to the MIA Balagbag terminal and
it became the Manila Main Meteorological Office or MMMO.
 1949 – New Geophysical Observatory was set-up behind the UP grounds.
 1950 – A teletype service connected the Forecasting Center to Clark Air Force Base, Sangley
Point Naval Base and the Bureau of Telecommunications. Exchange of weather reports
 1954 – Astronomical Observatory, UP Diliman Campus. Time signals were transmitted seven
times daily by radio.
 15 July 1954 – Dr. Casimiro del Rosario was appointed Vice Chairman of the NSDB and Mr.
Ricardo C. Cruz Chief of the Astronomical Division was appointed OIC.
 1 August 1958 - Dr. Roman L. Kintanar was appointed Director of the Weather Bureau. The
youngest ever to hold the post anywhere in the government at the age of 29.
 1963 – The first weather surveillance radar was installed atop the Marsman Building ― was
damage by fire and beyond repair in 1978.
 1968 – Computerization of the Weather Bureau and the setting up of a Telemetry System in
Marikina River Basin.
 1969 – Weather Bureau Central Office moved once again → Asiatrust Bldg, Quezon. Ave. Q.C.
 1970 - Satellite Meteorology came of age in the Philippines when an Automatic Picture
Transmission (APT) system was set-up to intercept photo-transmission of the upper atmosphere
by satellite. ESCAP/WMO Typhoon Committee Secretariat established its headquarters in the
Weather Bureau.
 1971 – Five new radar stations were linked with the Manila radar station to form the Weather
Radar Surveillance Network.
 1972 – Establishment of PAGASA under PD 78. PAGASA was transferred from Department of
Commerce and Industry → Department of National Defense.
 02 June 1977 - Transfer of the administrative control of the Typhoon Moderation Research and
Development Council to PAGASA
 17 September 1984 – PAGASA under EO 984 was transferred from Ministry of National Defense
(MND) → National Science & Technology Authority (NSTA)
 30 January 1987 - EO No. 128 mandated the reorganization of NSTA now Department of Science
and Technology (DOST) in which PAGASA is one of their line agency
  01 January 1988 – Pursuant to EO 128, the PAGASA was reorganized consisting of (5) major
branches and (3) support units.
 15 January 2003 – PAGASA Central Office moved again to a new building and now its permanent
headquarters, at the ScienceGarden, Agham Road, Diliman, Quezon City.
 October 2008 – Pursuant to Executive Order 366 series of 2004, the PAGASA was then re-
organized under the Rationalization Program in a goal to make the government focus its efforts
on vital/core functions and enhance effectiveness and efficiency of public service. PAGASA was
re-organized to 5 technical divisions, 5 Regional Services Divisions and 2 support divisions.

SCALES OF METEOROLOGY
1. MICROSCALE METEOROLOGY - focuses on phenomena that range in size from a few
centimeters to a few kilometers, and that have short life spans ―these phenomena affect very
small geographic areas.
2. MESOSCALE METEOROLOGY - phenomena range in size from a few kilometers to roughly 1,000
kilometers (620 miles). Two important phenomena:
 Mesoscale Convective Complexes (MCC) - single system of
clouds that can reach the size of the state of Ohio and
produce heavy rainfall and flooding.
 Mesoscale Convective Systems (MCS). - a smaller cluster of
thunderstorms that lasts for several hours.
*Both react to unique transfers of energy, heat, and moisture caused by convection.
3. SYNOPTIC SCALE METEOROLOGY - phenomena cover an area of several hundred or even
thousands of kilometers.
 also known as large scale or cyclonic scale is a horizontal length scale of the order of 1000
kilometers (about 620 miles) or Large storm systems, such as hurricanes and typhoons.
4. GLOBAL SCALE METEOROLOGY -Phenomena are weather patterns related to the transport of
heat, wind, and moisture from the tropics to the poles.
 An important pattern is global atmospheric circulation, the large-scale movement of air that
helps distribute thermal energy (heat) across the surface of the Earth.
 Global atmospheric circulation is the fairly constant movement of winds across the globe.
Global atmospheric circulation is largely driven by Hadley cells.
 Hadley cells are tropical and equatorial convection patterns. Convection drives warm air
high in the atmosphere, while cool, dense air pushes lower in a constant loop. Each loop is
a Hadley cell.
 Hadley cells determine the flow of trade winds, which meteorologists forecast.
 OVERVIEW OF THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE
Atmosphere is a delicate life-giving blanket of air that surrounds the fragile earth

 Earth’s distance from the sun of nearly 150 million kilometers (km), or 93 million miles
(mi)
 Earth’s surface maintains an average temperature of about 15°C (59°F). Although this
temperature is mild, the earth experiences a wide range of temperatures, as readings
can drop below –85°C (–121°F ).
 the thin blue area near the horizon represents the densest part of the atmosphere.
Although our atmosphere extends upward for many hundreds of kilometers, almost 99
percent of the atmosphere lies within a mere 30 km (about 19 mi) of the Earth’s
surface.
 This thin blanket of air constantly shields the surface and its inhabitants from the sun’s
dangerous ultraviolet radiant energy
 There is no definite upper limit to the atmosphere; rather, it becomes thinner and
thinner, eventually merging with empty space

PERMANENT GASES
 Nitrogen (78%) is a relatively inert gas produced primarily by volcanic activity
- Most atmospheric nitrogen enters the soil by nitrogenfixing
microorganisms.
 Oxygen (21%) is important for plant and animal respiratory processes. It is also
important to chemical reactions (oxidation) that breakdown rock materials (chemical
weathering).
 ARGON (0.93%) IS A COLORLESS, ODORLESS RELATIVELY INERT GAS, THE REASON IT USE
TO ELECTRIC LIGHT BULBS, FLUORESCENT TUBES. IT IS USED TO FORM INERT
ATMOSPHERE FOR ARC WELDING, AND GROWING SEMICONDUCTOR CRYSTALS
 VARIABLE GASES
 Carbon dioxide(co2 ) makes up only 0.036% of the atmosphere by volume. . Carbon
dioxide is essential to photosynthetic processes of plants.
 Methane (CH4 ) is a greenhouse gas contributing to about 18% of global warming and
has been on the rise over the last several decades. Though methane makes up far less of
the atmosphere (.0002%) than carbon dioxide, it is 20 times more potent than CO2 as a
greenhouse gas.
- Methane is a product of the decomposition of organic matter, with major natural
sources being that which occurs from wetlands, termites, the oceans, and hydrates
 Ozone (O3 ) is both beneficial and harmful to life on earth. Much of the ozone in the
atmosphere is found in the stratosphere. Here, ozone absorbs UV light from the sun
preventing it from reaching the surface.
 Water vapor is an extremely important gas found in the atmosphere. water vapor is a
good absorber of earth's outgoing radiation and thus is considered a greenhouse gas.
When water vapor is converted to a liquid during condensation, clouds are formed
 Particulates and aerosols play several important roles in atmospheric processes.
Particulate matter includes dust, dirt, soot, smoke, and tiny particles of pollutants.
Major natural sources of particulates are volcanoes, fires, wind-blown soil and sand, sea
salt, and poll
- PARTICULATES ARE VERY EFFECTIVE AT ALTERING THE ENERGY AND MOISTURE
BALANCES OF THE EARTH SYSTEM.

LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE BASED ON TEMPERATURE

 Troposphere (Greek word “tropein” means to turn or to change
- from the surface up to about 11 km contains all the weather we are familiar
- Contains about 75% of all of the air in the atmosphere, and almost all of the water
vapor
- In this part of the atmosphere the temperature gets colder as the distance above the
earth increases, by about 6.5°C per kilometer.
- above 11 km the air temperature normally stops decreasing with height.
- air temperature remains constant with height (isothermal- equal temperature zone)
 Stratosphere -stratosphere at an altitude near 20 km (12 mi), the air temperature begins to
increase with height, producing a temperature
- Tropopause - boundary separating the stratosphere and troposphere
 MESOSPHERE (Middle sphere) - air is extremely thin and the atmospheric pressure is quite low.
Temperature again decreases with height, reaching a minimum of about -90°C at the
"mesopause". This layer extends from around 31 miles (50 km) above the earth's surface to 53
miles (85 km).
  THERMOSPHERE (hot Layer)
- Between about 53 miles (85 km) and 375 miles (600 km) lies the thermosphere,
known as the upper atmosphere.
- Oxygen molecules (O2) absorb energetic solar rays, warming the air.
- In the thermosphere, There are relatively few atoms and molecules. Consequently, the
absorption of a small amount of energetic solar energy can cause a large increase in
air temperature that may exceed 500°C, or 900°F

LAYER OF THE ATMOSPHERE BASED ON COMPOSITION

Heterosphere is the outer most sphere where gases are distributed in distinct layers by gravity according
to their atomic weight.

- Extending from an altitude of 80 km (50 mi), the lightest elements (hydrogen and helium) are
found at the outer margins of the atmosphere.
- The heavier elements (nitrogen and oxygen) are found at the base of the layer.

Homosphere lies between the Earth's surface and the heterosphere. Gases are nearly uniformly mixed
through this layer even though density decreases with height above the surface.

LAYER OF THE ATMOSPHERE BASED ON ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

Ionosphere is not really a layer, but rather an electrified region within the upper atmosphere where fairly
large concentrations of ions and free electrons exists.

ANTICYCLONE & CYCLONE

CYCLONE
Tropical Cyclone - is a generic term used by meteorologists to describe a rotating, organized
system of clouds and thunderstorms that originates over tropical or subtropical waters and has closed,
low-level circulation.

- These water evaporated from the sea/ocean is carried up into the atmosphere and condenses,
forming clouds from which all forms of precipitation result.Sometimes, intense cyclonic
circulations occur which is what we call the tropical cyclones.
- TC are warm-core low pressure systems associated with a spiral inflow of mass at
the bottom level and spiral outflow at the top level.

Tropical cyclone is defined as a non-frontal, synoptic- scale cyclone - developing over tropical and sub-
tropical waters at any level and having a definitely organized circulation.

• In the North Atlantic, Eastern North Pacific and South Pacific Ocean, they are called “hurricanes"

• In the bay of Bengal, Arabian Sea and Western South Indian Ocean, the name is “cyclonic"
• In the eastern part of the Southern Indian Ocean, it is "willy-willy"

• In the Western North Pacific Ocean, they are called "typhoons"

Tropical cyclones can only form over oceans of the world except in the South Atlantic Ocean and the
south eastern Pacific where a tropical cyclone could never be formed due to the cooler sea surface
temperature and higher vertical wind shears.

The Philippines is prone to tropical cyclones due to its geographical location which generally produce
heavy rains and flooding of large areas and also strong winds which result in heavy casualties to human
life and destructions to crops and properties.

Several theories have been formulated on the formation of tropical cyclones .

A. CONVECTIVE THEORY

- According to the convective theory, a large mass of air becomes convectively unstable and moist
compared with its surroundings, which results in an upward motion of air. The air from the
surroundings tends toward the low pressure area formed, so that, a cyclonic circulation is
formed

B. FRONTAL OR CURRENT-COUNTER THEORY

- -The frontal theory indicates that many tropical cyclones form along the front
- Winds develop along this front and when conditions are favorable, forms into tropical cyclones

* In general, therefore, development of a tropical cyclone takes place when there is proper
combination of circulation, divergence and convergence which is maintained over a considerable
period of time on a proper scale.

TROPICAL DEPRESSION
The weakest tropical cyclones— 39 miles per hour maximum sustained wind

TROPICAL STORM - 75 miles per hour or higher maximum sustained wind (hurricane, typhoon, or
tropical cyclone

STRUCTURE OF CYCLONE
EYE - The cyclone center is a relatively calm, generally clear area of sinking air and light winds that
usually do not exceed 15 mph (24km / h) and is typically 20-40 miles (32-64 km) across.

- An eye will usually develop when the maximum sustained wind speeds go above 74 mph
(119km / h) and is the calmest part of the storm
- The cause of eye formation is still not fully understood. It is probably related to the combination
of "the conservation of angular momentum" and centrifugal force
EYE WALL

- Where the strong wind gets as close as it can is the eyewall.

- consists of a ring of tall thunderstorms that produce heavy rains and usually the strongest
winds.
- Changes in the structure of the eye and eyewall can cause changes in the wind speed, which is
an indicator of the storm's intensity. The eye can grow or shrink in size, and double (concentric)
eyewalls can form.

RAINBANDS

- Curved bands of clouds and thunderstorms that trail away from the eye wall in a spiral fashion.
- These bands are capable of producing heavy bursts of rain and wind, as well as tornadoes.

Areas of Formation of Tropical Cyclones

 Tropical North Atlantic Ocean
 East of the Lesser Antilles and the Caribbean, east of 70 deg * W during the months of
July to October.
 North of the West Indies in June to October.
 Western Caribbean during the months of June and late September to early November.
 Gulf of Mexico during the months of June to November.
 Western North Pacific Ocean,
 including the Philippines, during the months of May to November, but storms
sometimes occur in all months.
 North Pacific off the West Coast of Central America during the months of June to
October.
 Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea from May to June and October to November.
 South Pacific Ocean, West of 140 deg * W from December to April.
 South Indian Ocean from December to April.
 Northwestern Coast of Australia during the months of November to April
 West of 90°E from November to May

Life History of Tropical Cyclone

Tropical cyclones undergo constant metamorphosis from birth through maturity to decay. They last for
about six days, in general, before they enter the land or reach sub-tropical latitudes. However, some can
be detected only a few hours or perhaps a day or two, while others are observed as long as a fortnight

 Formative Stage -The incipient stage when the tropical cyclone form in waves and in shear lines
of pre-existing disturbances and winds usually remain below the typhoon force.
  Mature Stage - The stage of maturity of the tropical cyclones where the areas of circulation
expands while the surface pressure no longer falls and no increase in maximum winds speed can
be observed which may last for a week.
 Decaying Stage - The dissipating stage of the tropical cyclone where the surface pressure rises
and the area affected by the cyclones diminishes in size as it recurves or dissipate due to friction
and lack of moisture over continents or when colder and drier air enters through when they go
poleward.

Classification of Tropical Cyclones

The classification of tropical cyclones according to the strength of the associated winds as adopted by
PAGASA as of 23 March 2022 are as follows:

 TROPICAL DEPRESSION (TD) - a tropical cyclone with maximum sustained winds of up to 62

kilometers per hour (kph) or less than 34 nautical miles per hour (knots).
 TROPICAL STORM (TS) - a tropical cyclone with maximum wind speed of 62 to 88 kph or 34-47
knots.
 SEVERE TROPICAL STORM (STS), a tropical cyclone with maximum wind speed of 87 to 117 kph
or 48 - 63 knots.
 TYPHOON (TY) - a tropical cyclone with maximum wind speed of 118 to 184 kph or 64-99 knots
 SUPER TYPHOON (STY) - a tropical cyclone with maximum wind speed exceeding 185 kph or
more than 100 knots.

Signs that there's upcoming Cyclone

–Pre- existing weather disturbance in warm tropical oceans, moisture, and relatively light winds.
–In warm waters, low vertical wind shear

– mid-level moisture a Sufficiently strong Coriolis force— a seed disturbance

ANTICYCLONE

- An anticyclone is a system of high atmospheric pressure characterized by cold and dry air. In
other words, it is an area of the atmosphere where air is descending, which causes pressure to
be higher in comparison to the surrounding areas.
- Anticyclones often cause clear skies and colder temperatures than normal for the time of year in
which they occur. Although they can be beneficial for agriculture and navigation, they can also
generate adverse situations, such as prolonged droughts and dense fogs

It is important to note that anticyclones are not exclusive to a particular region, but occur in different
parts of the world and move over time. Therefore, it is necessary to monitor and study their patterns
to predict their possible effects on climate and meteorology.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ANTICYCLON
 COOL AND DRY AIR - Anticyclones are areas of descending air that are typically cold and dry
 CLEAR SKIES - Anticyclones are associated with clear skies and sunshine, due to the lack of rising
air that would typically cause cloud formation.
 HIGH PRESSURE - Anticyclones are areas of high pressure, which means that the atmospheric
pressure is greater than the surrounding areas.
 SLOW MOVING - Anticyclones can be slow-moving, which can result in prolonged periods of
weather with little change.
 LOW WIND SPEEDS - Due to the high-pressure system, anticyclones are typically associated with
light winds.
 TEMPERATURE INVERSIONS - Anticyclones can also result in temperature inversions, where
warmer air is trapped above colder air, resulting in a layer of smog or fog

CYCLONE vs. ANTICYCLONE

 DIRECTION OF AIR MOVEMENT
- Cyclones are areas of low pressure where air is rising, while anticyclones are areas
of high pressure where air is descending.
 WIND DIRECTION
- Cyclones are associated with counterclockwise wind rotation in the Northern
Hemisphere and clockwise rotation in the Southern Hemisphere, while anticyclones
(vice versa) have clockwise wind rotation in the Northern Hemisphere and
counterclockwise rotation in the Southern Hemisphere.
 WEATHER CONDITIONS
- Cyclones weather, typically bring stormy such as heavy rain, thunderstorms, and
high winds, while anticyclones are associated with clear skies, sunshine, and light
winds.
 TEMPERATURE
- Cyclones tend bring cooler temperatures due to the rain and cloud cover, while
anticyclones can bring colder or warmer temperatures depending location. on the
season.
 MOVEMENT
- Cyclones typically move from west to east, while anticyclones tend to be more
stationary or move more slowly.
 GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION
- Cyclones are more common in areas near the equator, such as the tropics, while
anticyclones are more common in mid-latitude areas, such as the subtropics and polar
regions
 FRONTS
Front is an inclined zone formed by the convergence of two opposing air masses with contrasting
characteristics in terms of air temperature, humidity, density, and pressure.

The process of forming of formation of the fronts. The process of dissipation of a front is known as
Frontolysis. The concept of fronts was propounded by the Norwegian meteorologist - V Bjerkens and J
Bjerkens during World War 1

FRONTOGENESIS Necessary Conditions

- it is critical to have two opposing air masses with contrasting air temperature, pressure,
density, and humidity.
- Two opposing air masses must have contrasting temperature, with one being dry and heavier
and the other being hot,humid, and light.
- In such cases, the heavier cold and denser air mass invade the area of the lighter warm air
mass.
- The two Masses must either move in the same direction or converge.
- When air masses separate, they move in opposite directions and no FRONTOGENESIS occurs.

TYPES OF FRONTS

1. STATIONARY FRONTS - When two contrasting air masses converge and form a boundary without
intermixing of winds. The wind flow parallel to the front but in opposite directions.
2. WARM FRONTS - Air masses moves towards a cold air mass, the contact zone is a warm front. As
the warm air ascends the slope it condenses and cause precipitation. The warm front has a
gentle slope.
3. COLD FRONTS - It is the front which the cold air is moving towards the warm air zone. As the
cold air mass dense, it remains on the ground. The cold air mass forcibly uplifts the warm and
less dense air mass.
4. OCCLUDED FRONTS - It is formed when a cold front overtakes a warm front. As the cold front
moves faster than the warm front, the warm sector reduce in size. Eventually, the warm air is
completely displaced . The weather conditions in the occluded front are more variable with
erratic rainfall.

AIR MASS
- An air mass is a large body of air with generally uniform temperature and humidity. The
area over which an air mass originates is what provides its characteristics.
- They can be thousand of miles across and several miles deep.They move around earth’s
surface through global wind patters

AIR PRESSURE – the force air excertson air surface

 TYPES OF AIR MASS
1. Continental Air mass - Continental air masses, designated by the lowercase letter "c”, originate over
continents and are therefore dry air masses.

2. MARITIME AIR MASS - Maritime air masses, designated by the letter "m”, originate over the oceans
and are therefore moist air masses.

3. EQUATORIAL AIR MASS - Equatorial air masses develop at latitudes from 25 degrees north to ten
degrees south. Temperatures are high, and because there isn't much land at those latitudes, equatorial
air masses are all maritime.

4. ARTIC AIR MASS - Arctic air masses, designated by the letter "A" , originate over the Arctic or
Antarctic regions and therefore are very cold

5.POLAR AIR MASS - Polar air masses, designated by the letter "P", originate over the higher latitudes of
both land and sea and are therefore not as cold as Arctic air masses

6. TROPICAL AIR MASS - Tropical air masses, designated by the letter "T”, originate over the lower
latitudes of both land and sea and therefore are warm/hot.

Maritime Arctic (mA) Maritime Polar (mP)Maritime Tropical (mT) Continental Arctic (CA) Continental
Polar (CP)Continental Tropical (ct)

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