Running Certification Ch1 1

Foundations and Applications of
RUNNING TECHNIQUE
AND PROGRAMMING
First Edition
AUTHOR
Jason R. Karp, PhD, MBA
ABOUT AUTHOR
A competitive runner since sixth grade, Dr. Jason Karp quickly learned how running molds us into better, more
deeply conscious people, just as the miles and interval workouts mold us into faster, more enduring runners.
This passion Jason found as a kid placed him on a road that he still follows as a coach, exercise physiologist,
author of 12 books and 400 articles, and TED speaker. In 2021, he became the first American distance
running coach to move to Kenya to coach a group of Kenyan runners. He is the 2011 IDEA Personal Trainer of
the Year and two-time recipient of the President’s Council on Sports, Fitness & Nutrition Community Leadership
award. His REVO2LUTION RUNNING™ certification has been obtained by coaches in 25 countries.
Dr. Karp received his PhD in exercise physiology with a physiology minor from Indiana University, his MBA at
San Diego State University, his master’s degree in kinesiology from the University of Calgary, and his bachelor’s
degree in exercise and sport science with an English minor from Penn State University. His research has been
published in several scientific journals, and he serves as a journal expert peer reviewer.
CONTRIBUTORS
Vanessa Porter, BS John Bauer, BA
Senior Production Manager, ISSA Content Developer, ISSA
Scottsdale, AZ Mountain View, CA
Jenny Scott, MS Madison Grey, BA
Senior Content Developer, ISSA Content Coordinator, ISSA
Scottsdale, AZ Tempe, AZ
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Pineapple Media
Marketing and Design Solutions
Toronto, ON
www.pineapplemedia.ca
Official course text for: ISSA’s Running Technique and Programming
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Copyright © 2022 ISSA LLC
Produced by ISSA LLC, Phoenix, AZ, 85020
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including xerography, photocopying, and recording,
or in any information storage and retrieval system without the written permission of the publisher.
Direct inquiries about copyright, permissions, reproduction, and publishing inquiries to:
ISSA LLC, 11201 N. Tatum Blvd Ste 300 Phoenix AZ 85028-6039
DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTY
This text is informational only. The data and information contained herein are based upon information from various published and
unpublished sources that represent training, health, nutrition, and genetics literature and practice summarized by ISSA LLC and Genetic
Direction. The publisher of this text makes no warranties, expressed or implied, regarding the currency, completeness, or scientific
accuracy of this information, nor does it warrant the fitness of the information for any particular purpose. The information is not intended
for use, in connection with the sale of any product. Any claims or presentations regarding any specific products or brand names are strictly
the responsibility of the product owners or manufacturers. This summary of information from unpublished sources, books, research
journals, and articles is not intended to replace the advice or attention of health care professionals. It is not intended to direct their
behavior or replace their independent professional judgment, If you have a problem or concern with your health, or before you embark on
any health, fitness, or sports training programs, seek clearance and guidance from a qualified health care professional.
SUBJECTS
COVERED
RUNNING CERTIFICATION
Basic human anatomy
Muscles by body region
Running form and technique
Resistance training and drills for running
Running training workouts
Common running injuries
Aging and running
Female-specific running training
Running for fitness and weight loss
Effective coaching skills
4 Full race-prep training programs

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1| HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY 8
• Energy Production 10
• Cardiovascular Factors 13
• Muscular Factors 22
• Metabolic Factors 28
• The 3 Players of Distance Running 32
2| RUNNING TECHNIQUE AND DRILLS 38

• Basic Human Anatomy and Terminology 41
• Elements of the Running Stride 51
• Running Drills 59
3| CONCEPTS OF RUNNING TRAINING 68

• Training Adaptation 82
• Components of Training 85
• Periodization 106
• Recovery 116
• Aging 123
4| PROGRAMMING FOR RUNNING TRAINING 124

• 800-Meter/1,500-Meter/Mile Training 131
• 5K/10K Training 132
• Half-Marathon/Marathon Training 133
• Tapering 136
• Running in the Heat 137
• Running at Altitude 140
• Supplemental Training 146
5| RUNNING WORKOUTS 170

• Easy and Long Runs 172
• Acidosis Threshold (AT) Workouts 173
• VO2max Workouts 175
• Anaerobic Capacity Workouts 178
• Anaerobic Power Workouts 180
• Hills 180
• Fartleks 181
• Race Prep Workouts 182
• Group Workouts 184
• Treadmill Workouts 186
6| RUNNING INJURIES 188

• Secrets of Running Injury Prevention 193
• Returning From and Managing Injuries 196
• Common Running Injuries 197
7| SPECIAL RUNNING CONSIDERATIONS 208
• Female Runners 210
• Aging and Running 225
8| RUNNING FOR WEIGHT LOSS 228

• Running to Burn Calories 231
• Calories and Metabolism: The Principles of Weight Loss 232
• Weight Loss Research 239
• Running Strategies for Burning Calories 240
• Eating to Lose Weight 244
9| RUN TRAINING PROGRAMS 254

• 5K/10K Training Program (Intermediate) 256
• Half-Marathon Training Program (Beginner) 265
• Half-Marathon Training Program (Advanced) 273
• Marathon Training Program (Beginner) 282
10| COACHING RUNNING 292

• Leadership 294
• Goal Setting 301
• Coaching Philosophy 306
• Coaching Style 308
• Business 309
• Marketing 311
APPENDIX A: RUNNING SHOES 318

• Choosing Running Shoes 320
APPENDIX B: SUGGESTED READINGS 324

• Running Physiology 326
• Women’s Running 331
• Running Biomechanics & Technique 332
• Running Training 335
• Strength Training & Plyometrics 339
• Periodization 340
• Altitude Training 341
• Running Injuries 342
• Recovery Nutrition 343
• Running For Weight Loss 346
GLOSSARY 348
ISSA | Running Technique and Programming | 8
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER 01
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1 | Identify the three pathways the body uses to generate energy.
2 | Explain how oxygen is delivered in the body and the role oxygen plays in
cellular metabolism.
3 | Name and describe the muscular adaptations that occur in response to

running training.
4 | Define metabolism and explain how the macronutrients in food are broken
down for energy.
5 | Explain the three primary physiological components that must be trained to

improve running performance.

CHAPTER 01 | Human Physiology
If you were to ask a physiologist why people run, they might say people run because they have
running bodies: running hearts, running lungs, running muscles, running bones, running glands.
Without a long ancestry of running, these bodily structures would not be what they are and would
not function as they do.
Throughout a long racial history, Homo sapiens has had to depend upon himself whenever he wanted
to go somewhere, and sometimes he wanted to go somewhere in a hurry. He had to run and by
running he became a man who runs. Had he stuck to walking, he would now be quite physically
different. His heart never would have reached the maximum stroke volume of 200 milliliters of blood
per beat nor the maximum rate of 190 or more beats per minute that a trained young adult runner’s
heart can reach. His muscles never would have developed the 60,000 miles of capillaries that
surround them like intricate spider webs to deliver oxygen. His lungs never would have developed such
a thin wall over such an enormous area to become the perfect medium for oxygen and carbon dioxide
gas exchange. His eccrine glands never would have developed into such efficient sweat producers
ECCRINE GLANDS: that enable rapid evaporation and the ability to stay cool in very hot environments. The physiologist
A type of sweat gland found
in most surfaces of the body. would argue that our bodies are exquisitely made for running.
Running includes a beautiful integration of cardiovascular, muscular, metabolic, and neurological

systems that operate cooperatively to influence the transportation of oxygen, the extraction and
use of that oxygen, and the use of the muscle fuels of fat and carbohydrate. This course describes
all of that, and a whole lot more.
ENERGY PRODUCTION
Understanding how energy is produced to run is the basis for understanding how to train most
effectively. After all, if a runner wants to get faster or run without injury, every workout he or she
ADENOSINE does should have a specific, physiological purpose.
TRIPHOSPHATE:
As we learned in high school biology class, the energy to move our bodies comes from the
An energy-carrying molecule
used to fuel body processes. chemical breakdown of a high-energy metabolic compound found in our muscles called
adenosine triphosphate, or ATP. ATP is broken down into its two constituents—adenosine
ADENOSINE diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi). Since our muscles store only a small,
DIPHOSPHATE (ADP): emergency amount of ATP, we must constantly resynthesize it before we can break it down. The
An organic compound
essential to the flow of formation and resynthesis of ATP are thus part of a circular process—ATP is broken down into ADP
energy in living cells.
and Pi, and then ADP and Pi combine to resynthesize ATP. Simplistically speaking, running faster
comes down to increasing the rate at which ATP is resynthesized so it can be broken down to
PHOSPHAGEN SYSTEM: liberate energy for muscle contraction.

The anaerobic energy system
that provides rapid energy Like many other animals, humans produce ATP through three metabolic pathways that consist of
using creatine phosphate to
generate ATP.
many enzyme-catalyzed chemical reactions. Two of these pathways, the phosphagen system

and anaerobic glycolysis, do not use oxygen to create ATP and are therefore referred to as
anaerobic. The third pathway uses oxygen to create ATP and is therefore referred to as aerobic. ANAEROBIC
GLYCOLYSIS:
The anaerobic energy system
converting glucose to lactate
ENERGY SYSTEMS when oxygen is limited.
ANAEROBIC:
ANAEROBIC AEROBIC Without or not requiring
oxygen.
(WITHOUT OXYGEN) (WITH OXYGEN)
AEROBIC:
With or in the presence of
ATP/CP GYCOLYSIS OXIDATIVE oxygen.
Figure 1.1 The Human Energy Systems
PHOSPHAGEN SYSTEM
During short-term, intense activities, a large amount of power needs to be produced by the
muscles, creating a high demand for ATP. The phosphagen system (also called the ATP-CP system)
is the quickest way to resynthesize ATP. Creatine phosphate (CP), which is stored in skeletal
CREATINE PHOSPHATE
muscles, donates a phosphate to ADP to produce ATP:
(CP):
A high-energy molecule
ADP + CP → ATP + C
stored in skeletal muscle,
the myocardium, and the
No carbohydrate or fat is used in this process; the regeneration of ATP comes solely from stored brain.
CP. Since this process does not need oxygen to resynthesize ATP, it is anaerobic, or oxygen-
independent. As the fastest way to resynthesize ATP, the phosphagen system is the predominant
energy system used for all-out sprinting lasting up to about 10 to 15 seconds. However, since we
have a limited amount of stored CP and ATP in our muscles, fatigue occurs rapidly when we sprint.
While the stores of ATP and CP per pound of muscle and the ability to rapidly acquire ATP from
the breakdown of CP are the same between men and women, the total amount of stored ATP and
GLUCOSE:
CP—and therefore the total energy available from these fuel sources—is greater in men due to
A simple sugar the body uses
their larger muscle mass. This enables men to sprint faster than women. for energy production on a
cellular level.
ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS
GLYCOGEN:
Anaerobic glycolysis is the predominant energy system used for all-out running lasting from 30
The stored form of glucose
seconds to about two minutes and is the second fastest way to resynthesize ATP. During anaerobic found in muscle tissue and
the liver.
glycolysis, carbohydrate, either in the form of glucose in the blood or its stored form of glycogen in the

muscles and liver, is broken down through a series of chemical reactions. Every molecule of glucose
broken down through glycolysis produces two molecules of usable ATP. Thus, very little energy is
produced through this pathway, but the trade-off is that we get the energy quickly, so we can run fast.
We rely on anaerobic glycolysis when oxygen is not supplied fast enough to meet our muscles’
needs for ATP. When this happens, our muscles lose their ability to contract effectively because
of an increase in hydrogen ions, which causes the muscle pH to decrease, a condition called
acidosis. The concentration of other metabolites, including potassium ions and the two
ACIDOSIS: constituents of ATP (ADP and Pi) also increase. Acidosis and the accumulation of these other
A state of elevated cellular
pH resulting from the metabolites cause a number of problems inside muscles, including inhibition of specific enzymes
inability of the kidneys
and lungs to clear excess involved in metabolism and muscle contraction, inhibition of the release of calcium (the trigger
hydrogen ions. for muscle contraction) from its storage site in muscles, and interference with muscles’ electrical
charges, ultimately leading to a decrease in muscle force production and running speed.
AEROBIC SYSTEM
Since humans evolved for aerobic activities, it’s not surprising that the aerobic system, which is
dependent on oxygen, is the most complex of the three energy systems. The metabolic reactions
that take place in the presence of oxygen are responsible for most of the energy our cells produce.
Races longer than two minutes (800 meters to ultramarathons) rely most heavily on the aerobic
system. However, aerobic metabolism is the slowest way to resynthesize ATP.
The aerobic system uses blood glucose, muscle and liver glycogen, and fat as fuels to resynthesize
ATP. The aerobic use of carbohydrates produces 38 molecules of ATP for every molecule of glucose
broken down. Thus, the aerobic system produces 19 times more ATP than does glycolysis from
each glucose molecule. If that sounds like a lot, using fat gives us much more ATP—a whopping
130, give or take, depending on the specific fatty acid being used.
Running performance, whether recreational or elite, is most dependent on the aerobic system.
The more developed the aerobic system, the faster a person will be able to run before he or she
begins to rely on the anaerobic energy pathways and experiences the consequent fatigue.
Table 1.1 The Energy Pathways
ENERGY PRIMARY OXYGEN WHEN IT DOMINATES

PATHWAY SUBSTRATE(S) REQUIREMENT ENERGY PRODUCTION
Phosphagen System Creatine phosphate (CP) Anaerobic 0-15 seconds
Anaerobic Glycolysis Glucose and glycogen Anaerobic 30 seconds – 2 minutes
Aerobic System Glucose, glycogen, fats Aerobic Longer than 2 minutes

Which pathway that’s used for the primary production of ATP depends on how quickly we need
it and how much of it we need. Sprinting, for instance, requires energy much more quickly
than jogging, necessitating the reliance on the phosphagen system and anaerobic glycolysis.
Conversely, running a 10K or marathon relies more heavily on the aerobic system. Regardless
of how fast or slow we run or the type of workout we’re running, the production of ATP is never
achieved by the exclusive use of only one energy system, but rather by the coordinated response
of all three energy systems contributing to different degrees.
Think of three dials that are always being adjusted to optimize the production of energy. When we race
100 meters, the phosphagen dial is turned up very high, while the other two dials are turned down
low. When we run a marathon, the aerobic system dial is turned up very high, while the other two dials
are turned down low. When we race a 5K, the aerobic system dial is turned up high, the anaerobic
glycolysis dial is turned to medium, and the phosphagen system dial is turned down low.
CARDIOVASCULAR FACTORS
The heart is the most extraordinary muscle we have. It has the unique ability and responsibility to
deliver the most important chemical—oxygen—throughout our bodies to sustain life. Oxygen also
sustains a runner’s pace.
Located just beneath your ribs under your left breast, your heart is composed of four chambers:
the left and right atria and the left and right ventricles. The left ventricle is the largest and most
important chamber because it’s responsible for sending blood to the entire body except the lungs.
Aorta
Superior
vena cava
Pulmonary trunk
Right pulmonary Left pulmonary

artery artery
Pulmonary
semilunar valve Left pulmonary
veins
Right pulmonary Left atrium
veins
Left coronary
Right atrium artery
Great cardiac
vein
Tricuspid valve
Mitral valve
Right coronary
artery Aortic semilunar valve
Small cardiac
vein
Papillary muscle
Chordae tendineae
Left ventricle
Right ventricle
Interventricular Myocardium
septum
Adipose tissue
Figure 1.2 Human Heart Anatomy

Inside the blood are millions of red blood cells that carry oxygen all around your body, including
your running muscles. In fact, those red blood cells travel a specific route when they are pumped
from your heart.
Rather than describe what happens, let’s let the red blood cell speak for itself…
Hi. I’m a red blood cell. I’m responsible for transporting oxygen in your blood. I guess you could say I’m
a big deal. I travel through your circulatory system, delivering oxygen to all your cells. Like the mailman,
I work rain or shine. But I also work on Sundays. Oxygen must be delivered every day, after all.
Inside of me is a very important protein. His name is hemoglobin. Actually, he’s the one who
HEMOGLOBIN: transports oxygen since he lives inside of me. (I charge him expensive rent.) The concentration of
A molecule made of iron
and heme responsible for hemoglobin in your blood is 45 to 50 percent. So, about half of your blood is made up of
transporting oxygen in the
blood. hemoglobin. When you get a standard blood test (called a CBC, Complete Blood Count),
hemoglobin concentration is one of the things your doctor checks for. We’ll talk more about
hemoglobin in a little while. Right now, let’s talk more about me.
I like to travel. I travel in blood throughout your whole body, from the tippy top of your head all
the way down to your pinky toe. I always travel in the same direction because blood flow must be
unidirectional for things to get done. You can’t have blood going every which way, causing traffic
jams and such.
To help me glide through your blood vessels, I’m a disc shape, like a Frisbee. I’m very small, about
25,000 times smaller than a grain of sand. You can’t see me with your naked eye, only with a
microscope. If there’s something wrong with me and my shape changes (like in the case of sickle
cell anemia, when I look more like a sickle), it’s harder for me to travel through blood, and that’s
not good for oxygen delivery to your organs. When you get a standard blood test, one of the things
your doctor will check for is my shape. Shape matters.
Starting from the left ventricle of your heart, I travel with a lot of oxygen baggage through the
aorta, which is your body’s largest artery.
From the aorta, I travel through other arteries. From arteries through smaller arterioles.
From arterioles through very small capillaries that supply oxygen to your organs, including your
muscles, brain, kidneys, liver, stomach, intestines, pancreas, and skin.
When I get to the organs, including your skeletal muscles, I make a pit stop so hemoglobin can
release oxygen bound to it for your muscles to hold the running pace and for your other organs
to use for their specific jobs.

For the first half of this circuit, after me and my brother and sister red blood cells leave the heart
from its left ventricle, our flow to the muscles depends on several factors:
• Redistribution of blood away from other, less important organs to the active muscles. When
running, it’s ideal to have as much blood as possible going to the muscles so they can get more
oxygen.
• Resistance of blood flow through the blood vessels. The more dilated the blood vessels, the
less resistance there is, making it easier for blood to flow through. The amount of vessel
dilation depends on the interplay between two branches of the autonomic nervous system
and their associated hormones—the sympathetic (excitatory, causing vasoconstriction) and
parasympathetic (calming, causing vasodilation) nervous systems.
• Ability to transport oxygen in the blood. The more of me and of hemoglobin there are,
the more oxygen the blood can carry.
• Ability to transport oxygen in the muscles. Myoglobin is a protein that carries oxygen
inside the muscles. After hemoglobin carries oxygen to the muscles, it hands off the
oxygen to myoglobin, like a relay baton pass.
• Density and volume of capillaries around the muscle fibers.
After all that sightseeing, I’m now low in oxygen and high in carbon dioxide from the chemical reactions
of the muscles’ metabolism. So, I must travel back to the heart and lungs to get more oxygen.
Ok, it’s time to go back to the heart. Let’s go!
From the capillaries, I travel through venules, which are small veins. From venules through veins.
From veins through the vena cava, which is your body’s largest vein.
From the vena cava into the right atrium of the heart. As I fill the right atrium, it contracts, pushing
me through the tricuspid valve.
From the right atrium via the tricuspid valve (remember tri is on the right side) into the right
ventricle. When the right ventricle contracts, I am pushed through the pulmonary artery.
From the pulmonary artery to the lungs, where they discard the carbon dioxide and pick up the
oxygen that is inhaled from the air.
From the lungs through the pulmonary vein.
From the pulmonary vein to the left atrium. As I fill the left atrium, it contracts, pushing me
through the bicuspid (mitral) valve and into the left ventricle.

From the left atrium via the mitral valve (remember mitral is on the left side), back into the left
ventricle.
Whew! I’m exhausted! That was a long trip! And I must take that cyclical trip all over again!
Figure 1.3 Blood Flow Through the Heart
While you’re sitting reading this, about five liters of blood are pumped out of the left ventricle of
your heart every minute. When you’re exercising as hard as you can, your heart can pump up to
20 to 25 liters of blood every minute for a man, about 15 to 20 liters every minute for a woman,
depending on how fit the cardiovascular system is. The best male endurance athletes on the
planet pump up to 35 to 40 liters of blood every minute, and the best female endurance athletes
about 25 to 30 liters every minute. That’s a lot of blood!
When you exercise aerobically, like run and bike, on a regular basis, you make more red blood
cells like me, and you increase your total blood volume, which increases your ability to transport
oxygen. The process by which you make more of me is given a fancy name because of how
important it is—erythropoiesis. “Erythro” refers to erythrocytes, which are immature versions of

ERYTHROPOIESIS: me. Erythropoiesis is important because my lifespan is very short—about 90 to 120 days. That’s
The production of red blood
cells. the only life I have, so I better make my time worth it.
Back to hemoglobin. Hemoglobin, which contains iron, is responsible for my red color. Hemoglobin
needs iron to live, so make sure you eat lots of dark, green, leafy vegetables and lean meats to
get your iron. (He’s like a tenant who won’t stop eating my food.)

Each molecule of hemoglobin carries four oxygen molecules when hemoglobin is fully saturated
with oxygen, which is almost always. Only under certain conditions is hemoglobin not fully
saturated, like if you go to high altitude, where there’s less pressure of oxygen in the air (called
partial pressure), or if oxygen is somehow prevented from entering your arterial blood or limited
from diffusing from the alveoli in your lungs into the pulmonary capillaries. PARTIAL PRESSURE:
The condition of the pressure
of oxygen outside of the
In arterial blood (blood in your arteries, arterioles, and the left side of your heart), the partial lungs being lower than the
pressure inside the blood as
pressure of oxygen is 100 mmHg (millimeters of mercury, same units as when you get your blood in higher altitudes.
pressure checked), and hemoglobin is almost 100 percent saturated, which means that all four
hemoglobin subunits are carrying oxygen.
In venous blood (blood in your veins, venules, and the right side of your heart), the partial pressure
of oxygen is 40 mmHg, and hemoglobin is 75 percent saturated, which means that three of the
four hemoglobin subunits are carrying oxygen.
When the partial pressure of oxygen is 25 mmHg, hemoglobin is only 50 percent saturated, which
means that only two of the four hemoglobin subunits are carrying oxygen.
The lower the partial pressure of oxygen, the fewer oxygen molecules are bound to hemoglobin
because they have been released to the organs and tissues that need it.
The main factors that determine the ability for oxygen to diffuse into blood are:
1. The partial pressure of oxygen
2. The distance oxygen needs to diffuse (travel)
3. The surface area of the lungs, alveoli, and blood vessels
Therefore, things like heart or lung disease or edema (inflammation) decrease hemoglobin
saturation because of how they affect either the diffusion distance or the surface area. In an
individual with emphysema, for example, oxygen diffusion decreases because the surface area
for diffusion has decreased. In some elite endurance athletes, who have very large cardiac
outputs because their hearts pump a large quantity of blood every minute, there isn’t adequate
time for me to travel within lungs for hemoglobin to pick up all the oxygen. This decrease in my
transit time through lungs causes a drop in hemoglobin saturation, a condition called exercise-
induced hypoxemia. EXERCISE-INDUCED

HYPOXEMIA:
Hemoglobin is very attractive. (He’s very proud of that.) He is so attractive that oxygen rushes The abnormally low
concentration of oxygen in
to bind to him. He has a quaternary structure, which means he has four protein subunits. Each the blood caused by exercise
or endurance activity.
subunit is composed of a protein chain tightly associated with a non-protein heme (iron) group.
Each protein subunit carries one oxygen molecule.

Hemoglobin’s shape changes as the number of oxygen molecules attached to him changes.
The more oxygen molecules bound to hemoglobin, the more attractive hemoglobin becomes to
oxygen, and the more oxygen wants to be bound to hemoglobin. When only one oxygen molecule
is bound to hemoglobin, hemoglobin is not so attractive. But when three oxygen molecules are
bound to hemoglobin, the fourth one can’t bind itself fast enough, so beautiful hemoglobin
becomes. (When he has four oxygen molecules attached, he can’t stop looking at himself in the
mirror.) This change in affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen is important because it facilitates the
loading of oxygen in lungs and unloading of oxygen in the muscles and other organs.
This change in hemoglobin’s shape is how doctors and nurses know when blood’s oxygen
saturation is low. You know that little finger clip they put on your finger in the hospital or doctor’s
office? There’s an infrared light inside of that clip. When hemoglobin changes shape, it changes
how it refracts light. So, that clip is “reading” how the infrared light is refracting because of
hemoglobin’s shape. If blood’s oxygen saturation is less than optimal (98 to 100 percent at sea-
level), the light refracts differently because hemoglobin’s shape is different.
The saturation of oxygen on hemoglobin is determined by the partial pressure of oxygen in blood.
The lower oxygen’s partial pressure, the lower the hemoglobin saturation. When you go skiing or
hiking at high altitude, the partial pressure of oxygen in the air decreases, which decreases the
partial pressure of oxygen in your blood. Up to an altitude of about 3,000 feet, the drop in the
air’s partial pressure of oxygen is minimal, so your blood’s oxygen saturation doesn’t change; it
remains at 98 to 100 percent. But when you travel above 3,000 feet, blood oxygen saturation
begins to drop. That’s why it’s hard to do aerobic exercise at high altitude—because hemoglobin
has less oxygen bound to it as it travels through your circulatory system.
The more of me you have, the greater your ability to transport oxygen through your circulation. The
greater your ability to transport oxygen, the better your aerobic fitness. One of the ways to help
your clients become better runners is by making more of me and my tenant hemoglobin (make
sure there’s enough iron in the fridge for him!) so we can transport more oxygen in the blood.
HEART RATE
When running, the heart must work hard to ensure enough oxygen gets to the muscles. The rate
at which it beats and the amount of blood it pumps increase dramatically to ensure the supply of
MAXIMUM HEART oxygen meets the muscles’ demand. Depending on how fast someone runs, the heart rate can
RATE: climb all the way up to about 200 beats per minute, depending on his or her age. The older a
The estimated maximum
number of times the heart runner is, the lower his or her maximum heart rate. Some people have a genetically high
should or can beat per
maximum heart rate, higher than what would be predicted for their age. This is a good thing for a
minute during exercise or
activity. runner, since a high heart rate means more blood and oxygen traveling to the working muscles.

STROKE VOLUME
Heart rate isn’t the only variable that dictates the flow of oxygen to the muscles. Every time the
heart contracts, a specific volume of blood is pumped out of the left ventricle, which is responsible
for sending blood and oxygen everywhere in our bodies except the lungs. (The right side of the
heart handles blood flow to the lungs.) The volume of blood pumped out of the left ventricle with
each beat is called the stroke volume, which is determined by:

STROKE VOLUME:
• The volume of blood returning to the heart through the veins. As described above, when The amount of blood
pumped by the left
the heart pumps blood, it travels through the arteries to get to the muscles. Then the ventricle of the heart in one
contraction.
blood travels back to the heart through the veins. The amount of blood that travels back
to the heart is called the venous return. The greater the venous return, the greater the
stroke volume, because the heart has more blood it can pump with the next beat.
• The heart’s ability to contract quickly and forcefully. Like other muscles, the heart
produces more force and pumps more blood when it contracts strongly, a measurement
called contractility.
• The amount of pressure in the heart’s left ventricle. When blood enters the left
ventricle from the left atrium, it pushes against the left ventricle’s walls, creating
pressure in that chamber. This pressure is called the preload. When a large volume
of blood dumps into the left ventricle and pushes against its walls, the walls actively
stretch. The left ventricle, like skeletal muscles, contracts more strongly when actively
stretched immediately before contracting, ejecting more blood out of the chamber and
thus increasing the stroke volume.
• The amount of pressure in the aorta. When blood is ejected from the left ventricle, the
first place it goes is the aorta. Like a narrow hose that shoots out a lot of water, there’s
a pressure head at the front end of the aorta, creating resistance to blood flow. This
pressure is called the afterload. The smaller the afterload, the less resistance there is
for blood to flow through the aorta, and the greater the stroke volume.
• The size of the heart. Size matters when it comes to the heart. Imagine what the heart
goes through during training. After a runner completes a difficult workout, his heart
says, “Geez, he is running hard workouts on a regular basis that cause me to reach my
maximum capability to pump blood. If he keeps doing this and I don’t do something,
I’m not going to be able to survive.” Thus, in response to the imposed threat of running
at the heart’s maximum ability to pump blood, the heart responds by increasing its
pumping strength and by enlarging its most important chamber—the left ventricle—so

that it can send more blood and oxygen to the working muscles. An enlarged heart is so
characteristic of individuals who run a lot that scientists and doctors have given it the
medical term, athlete’s heart. The larger the left ventricle, the more blood it can hold;
the more blood it can hold, the more it can pump.
CARDIAC OUTPUT
Multiply heart rate by stroke volume and we get the volume of blood that the heart’s left ventricle
pumps per minute, called the cardiac output. Cardiac output is extremely important for running
CARDIAC OUTPUT: because the more blood the heart pumps each minute, the more oxygen gets to the muscles and
The amount of blood
pumped through the heart, the faster the pace one can run.
or specifically the left
ventricle, per minute.
When sitting comfortably at rest, cardiac output is about 5 liters of blood per minute, give or take,
depending on how big of a person you are (and therefore how much blood you have). Resting
cardiac output is about the same for everyone, regardless of how fit you are. What’s different is
resting heart rate—unfit people achieve their resting cardiac output by having a high heart rate
RESTING HEART RATE: and a low stroke volume. Fit people achieve their resting cardiac output by having a low heart rate
The number of times the
heart beats per minute when and a high stroke volume. That’s why resting heart rate is lower when we’re fit—stroke volume is
the body is at rest.
greater, so the heart doesn’t have to pump as many times each minute to send out the same
volume of blood.
Maximum cardiac output, however, which occurs when the heart is working as hard as it can,
is very different among people—the fitter the person, the greater the heart’s maximum ability to
pump blood. As a point of reference, the maximum cardiac output of a sedentary person is about
15-20 liters of blood per minute, while that of an elite male runner is nearly 40 liters per minute.
That means the heart of an elite male runner pumps over 10.5 gallons of blood every minute. No
wonder elite runners have such big hearts.
Maximum cardiac output is very important and is one of the key traits a runner should focus on
improving to become a better runner. Specific training can make the heart larger and increase
stroke volume and cardiac output.
Women have smaller hearts than men, even when comparing similarly trained runners. The
larger heart gives men a greater stroke volume and cardiac output, contributing to a greater
VO2max. Maximum cardiac output averages 20-25 liters per minute in trained women vs. 30
VO2MAX: liters per minute in trained men (compared to 35-40 liters per minute in those who are elite).
The maximum amount of
oxygen the body can take up Men also have a larger blood volume and more hemoglobin in their blood to transport oxygen.
during exercise or activity.
Hemoglobin concentration averages 13.7 grams (normal range of 12-16 grams) per 100

milliliters of blood in women vs. 15.8 grams (normal range of 14-18 grams) per 100 milliliters of
blood in men. Together, the larger heart, greater blood volume, and greater blood hemoglobin
concentration create a cardiovascular system that supplies more blood and oxygen to the running
muscles, giving men greater cardiovascular endurance than women.
While it may seem that a 2.1-gram difference in hemoglobin concentration is very small, it’s
actually a big difference. Each gram of hemoglobin can transport 1.34 milliliters of oxygen when
hemoglobin is fully saturated with oxygen. On this trait, men and women are equal—there is no
evidence of a sex difference in the ability to saturate the blood with oxygen, which is dependent
on the diffusion capacity of the lungs and the environmental altitude. The 2.1-gram difference
between men and women means that men can carry 2.8 more milliliters of oxygen per 100
milliliters of blood. Multiply this difference by the difference in maximum blood flow to the muscles
between women and men while running as hard as they can (i.e., a 10,000-milliliter difference
in maximum cardiac output), and men send 280 more milliliters (a little more than one cup) of
oxygen to the muscles every minute compared to women.
One of the first changes that occurs inside the runner’s body from running is an increase in
their blood volume. More blood means the heart pumps a greater volume with each beat, which
increases the stroke volume. More blood also means more red blood cells and hemoglobin to
carry oxygen to the muscles used for running. Overall, a greater blood volume increases the
runner’s ability to transport oxygen to their muscles.
LUNGS
When someone first starts running, they may notice that they have trouble breathing. Many new
runners complain that they can’t breathe as soon as they start running around the block. Indeed,
getting enough air is foremost on their minds. Beginning runners seem to get frustrated with
their lungs because they perceive them as limiting their ability to continue running. Even trained
runners sometimes feel this way.
At first glance, running seems to have everything to do with big, strong lungs. After all, we get
oxygen through our lungs. If the size of our lungs mattered, we would expect the best runners to
have large lungs that hold a lot of oxygen. However, the best runners in the world are comparatively
small people, with characteristically small lungs. Total lung capacity, which is the maximal amount
of air the lungs can hold, is primarily influenced by body size; bigger people have larger lung
capacities. Despite what people may think or feel when they’re just beginning to run, their lungs
don’t limit their ability, especially if they’re not an elite runner.

Breathing more deeply to try to get in more oxygen doesn’t make running easier, because oxygen
input doesn’t limit our ability to run. That limitation rests on the shoulders of the cardiovascular
and metabolic systems, with blood flow to and oxygen use by the muscles the major culprits.
There’s no relationship between lung capacity and how fast someone runs a 10K.
Unlike the cardiovascular and muscular systems, the lungs don’t adapt to training. The lungs
may limit running performance only in elite runners who have developed the more trainable
characteristics—cardiac output, hemoglobin concentration, and mitochondrial and capillary
volumes—to capacities that approach the genetic potential of the lungs to provide for adequate
diffusion of oxygen into the blood. In other words, the lungs may limit performance in elite runners
by lagging behind other, more readily adaptable characteristics. But this is only a problem when
those other characteristics have been trained enough to reach their genetic potential.
The main stimulus to breathe (at sea level) is an increase in the blood’s carbon dioxide content,
not a need for more oxygen. The reason we breathe more when we run fast is because carbon
dioxide is produced in our muscles from metabolism and needs to be expelled through our lungs.
Oxygen is all around us and has no problem diffusing from the air into our lungs. Even when we
run as fast as we can, the hemoglobin in our blood is nearly 100 percent saturated with oxygen.
If we run at a high altitude, however, we breathe more to get more oxygen into our lungs to
compensate for our blood being less saturated with oxygen.
Training the cardiovascular and metabolic characteristics improves the ability to transport and use
oxygen, making someone feel less out of breath. So, when a client is running up a hill or finishing a
hard run and they’re thinking, “I can’t catch my breath,” tell them not to blame their lungs.
MUSCULAR FACTORS
To most people, muscles are external structures, admired from the outside. But what lies
within a shapely calf muscle is a wonderfully complex structure responsible for everything from
metabolism to movement.
Getting blood from the heart to the muscles is only half the story. Even though the cardiovascular
system is very important for running, it’s the legs that run. So, they need to have some specific
machinery to handle the job. How do the legs use all that oxygen that the heart sends to them?
Once oxygen is delivered to the muscles, the muscles extract from the blood however much
oxygen they need to maintain the running pace.

MITOCHONDRIA
MITOCHONDRIA:
The amount of oxygen the muscles extract and use is dependent primarily on how many A cellular organelle with a
mitochondria the muscles have. As we first learned in high school biology class, mitochondria are double membrane and many
internal folds responsible for
microscopic, energy-producing factories deep inside the muscles. They aerobically burn fat and generating chemical energy
in aerobic metabolism
carbohydrates. Inside the mitochondria are enzymes, which catalyze chemical reactions. The (cellular respiration).
number of mitochondrial enzymes is important because enzymes, through their catalyzing effect
on chemical reactions, control the rate at which energy is produced. Like bees in a beehive,
enzymes are the factory workers inside the mitochondria. The more factory workers there are, the
quicker the work gets done.
Given how important mitochondria are in providing aerobic energy, it should come as no surprise
that running increases the number of mitochondria in the muscles. Mitochondria increase both
in number and size, giving the runner more and larger power plants to run aerobically. With more
mitochondria comes a greater use of oxygen, which enables the runner to run farther and faster.
Having more mitochondria also means having more enzymes, so fuel can be used more quickly
since enzymes speed up the chemical reactions that break down carbohydrates and fat for
energy. With more mitochondria, the runner can also use more fat as a fuel source at the same
running pace. This steering in fuel use to a greater reliance on fat at the same running pace is
one of the hallmark adaptations to running. In effect, the runner becomes a better fat-burning
machine. All because of mitochondria.
CAPILLARIES
Capillaries, the smallest of blood vessels, are the muscles’ highway system. They surround and
traverse the muscle fibers like a spider web, leading to places deep inside the muscles. Oxygen
molecules in the blood “drive” along the capillaries, waiting to take an exit.
With few capillaries around the muscle fibers, oxygen molecules must diffuse a far distance from
an exit to get to their destination—the mitochondria. But if there are many capillaries, oxygen
molecules don’t have to diffuse very far to get to the mitochondria. The larger the highway system
of capillaries surrounding the muscle fibers, the shorter the distance oxygen must travel from
the capillaries to the mitochondria and the greater the total blood vessel surface area for oxygen
diffusion. The faster oxygen gets inside the mitochondria, the better a person will run.
Here’s where it gets interesting: Endurance exercise is one of the few physiological circumstances
that prompt an expansion of the capillary network, via sheer stress and mechanical forces
applied to the capillaries from the constant “push” of blood through the muscle vasculature.

Single capillaries split into two and new vessels sprout from existing capillaries, creating a larger
highway system for delivering oxygen to the muscles.
This is one of the reasons why individuals need to run a lot if they want to be better runners—to
make more capillaries!
MUSCLE CONTRACTION
Running is influenced not only by factors related to oxygen consumption, but also by factors related
to muscle fiber recruitment and contraction, muscle force production, and fatigue resistance.
CONTRACTION:
The shortening or resistance Every human movement requires a muscle action, called a contraction. The contraction is
to lengthening of a muscle
fiber. initiated by impulses, called action potentials, which are conveyed by a neural cell called a
motor neuron.
ACTION POTENTIALS:
An explosion of electrical
activity caused by a neural
impulse. Motor Neuron
MOTOR NEURON:
Nerve cells that initiate
muscle contraction or
activate glands.
Action Potential
ACETYLCHOLINE:
The neurotransmitter
released by an action
potential at the
neuromuscular junction.
Figure 1.4 The Nervous System and Muscle Contraction
ACTIN: Muscle contraction begins with our nerves. Our central nervous system sends a signal to a motor
The thin filaments of muscle
myofilaments where myosin neuron, which integrates with muscle fibers. Under the action of a specific neurotransmitter
binds to create muscle
contraction. (acetylcholine), the signal propagates deep inside the muscle fibers, causing the release of
calcium from its storage site and triggering muscle contraction by the complex interaction of
MYOSIN: specific microscopic proteins.

The thick filaments of
myofilaments with a fibrous In 1957, Nobel Prize winner Andrew Huxley discovered how those microscopic proteins—actin
head, neck, and tail that
bind to actin. and myosin—interact. Myosin, which looks like an oar with its paddle at an angle, attaches to

actin, which looks like two strings of pearls twisted together. The paddle portion of myosin, which
contains ATP, binds to actin and, when ATP is broken down, pulls it so that actin slides past
myosin. The mechanism is much like the movement of a rowboat’s oars, except that the water
(actin) moves past the stationary boat (myosin). This movement happens among millions of actin
and myosin proteins within each muscle fiber, with all the actin proteins from opposing sides
moving closer together, causing the entire muscle to shorten. The more actin and myosin proteins
inside the muscles, the more force they can produce. A boat with eight oars stroking the water is
stronger and more powerful than a boat with two.
Aside from the exception of smooth muscles that can contract partially, skeletal muscle fibers SMOOTH MUSCLES:
Muscle tissue that occurs
either contract or they don’t. There’s no such thing as a partial contraction. Like a light, fibers are in the gut and internal
organs that is involuntarily
either on or off. The amount of muscle force is varied by varying the number of muscle fibers controlled.
contracted and the frequency with which the central nervous system recruits those fibers, not by
varying their degree of contraction. SKELETAL MUSCLE

FIBERS:
Muscles contract and produce force in three ways: The voluntary muscle
attached to bones via
• When pushing off the ground, muscles shorten in a concentric contraction. tendons that produce human
movement.
• When the leg lands on the ground, muscles lengthen in an eccentric action.
• In the short time between leg landing on the ground and the leg pushing down and CONCENTRIC
back against the ground, muscle fibers remain the same length in an isometric action, CONTRACTION:
The shortening of a muscle
which stabilizes the leg.
fiber (sarcomere) as tension
is produced.
Thus, each running stride includes all three types of muscle actions. Of the three actions,
eccentric actions are the strongest and cause the most muscle damage and soreness, as the
myosin is pulled apart from its binding site on actin. That’s why running downhill makes muscles
ECCENTRIC ACTION:
The lengthening of a muscle
sorer than running uphill. fiber (sarcomere) as tension
is released.
The most obvious sex difference when it comes to muscles is that women have a smaller muscle
mass than men. Since muscular strength and power are proportional to the size of the muscle, ISOMETRIC ACTION:
The length and tension of
women cannot produce as much muscular force or power as men. Therefore, men can sprint a muscle fiber (sarcomere)
faster than women. However, for a given unit of muscle mass, women produce the same amount remain unchanged.
of force as men because there is no sex difference in the amount of force that individual muscle
fibers produce. The way that muscles contract in women is the same as that in men.
MUSCLE FIBER TYPE

The specific types of fibers that make up individual muscles greatly influence a person’s running
performance over different distances and the way they adapt to training. Humans have three

different types of muscle fibers (as well as gradations between them), the proportions of which
are largely determined by genetics. Slow-twitch (Type I) fibers are recruited for aerobic activities
SLOW-TWITCH (TYPE I) and therefore have many characteristics needed for endurance, such as perfusion with a large
FIBERS: network of capillaries to supply oxygen, lots of myoglobin to transport oxygen, and lots of
Low-threshold fatigue-
resistant muscle fibers with mitochondria. True to their name, slow-twitch fibers contract slowly (relatively speaking) but are
characteristics such as high
mitochondrial density, high very resistant to fatigue. That’s why people can run for hours at a time—because they rely on slow-
myoglobin content, and large
capillary networks. twitch muscle fibers.
Fast-twitch (Type II) fibers are recruited for shorter-duration anaerobic activities and therefore
FAST-TWITCH (TYPE II)
have many characteristics needed for strength, speed, and power including large stores of
FIBERS:
Higher-threshold muscle creatine phosphate and glycogen and an abundance of enzymes involved in the anaerobic
fibers recruited for shorter-
metabolic pathway of glycolysis. They contract quickly but fatigue easily. Fast-twitch fibers come
duration anaerobic activity
characterized by large in two forms: fast-twitch A (Type IIa) and fast-twitch B (Type IIb).
creatine and glycogen stores.
Fast-twitch B fibers are recruited for short, intense activities, such as sprinting, jumping, and
FAST-TWITCH A (TYPE lifting very heavy weights. They are also recruited during aerobic activities once the slow-twitch
IIA): fibers and fast-twitch A fibers fatigue. Fast-twitch A fibers have both endurance and power
Higher-threshold muscle
fibers with both endurance characteristics and represent a transition between slow- twitch fibers and fast-twitch B fibers.
and explosive properties that
represent a transitional fiber Fast-twitch A fibers are recruited for prolonged anaerobic activities that require relatively high
between the slow-twitch and
fast-twitch B fibers. forces, such as running a long sprint and carrying heavy objects and are also recruited during
aerobic activities to help support the workload of the slow- twitch fibers. They are more fatigue
FAST-TWITCH B resistant than the fast-twitch B fibers. In addition to the three major divisions of muscle fibers,
(TYPE IIB): there are also hybrid forms of these fiber types.
Higher-threshold muscle
fibers recruited for short, We can see the difference between the fiber types during Thanksgiving—the dark meat of our
intense activity and for
aerobic endurance activity turkey dinner, so colored because of its myoglobin content, is composed of slow-twitch fibers, and
after fast-twitch A fibers have
fatigued. the white meat is composed of fast-twitch fibers.
Muscle fiber composition has a large genetic component. We are born with specific proportions
of slow-twitch, fast-twitch A, and fast-twitch B fibers. Although it’s easy to speak of muscle fibers
as three discrete types, fibers really exist on a continuum based on a combination of their
characteristics.
Runners have a greater proportion of slow-twitch fibers in the muscles used to run. However,
there is a large degree of variability among runners in the exact percentage of slow-twitch fibers.
There is some evidence, not completely validated, that women have more slow-twitch muscle
fibers than men which, if true, may contribute to greater long-endurance performance, while

subtracting from their sprint performance. While the proportions of slow-twitch and fast-twitch
muscle fibers vary from person to person, both the structure and metabolic capacity of individual
muscle fibers may be amenable to change with specific, extreme training. Although it does not
seem possible to convert a slow-twitch fiber into a fast-twitch fiber or vice versa—making it
impossible for an elite marathon runner to become an elite sprinter or vice versa—endurance
training can change the characteristics of the fast-twitch fibers, increasing their aerobic capacity
and enabling them to support the workload of the slow-twitch fibers.
Training can also change the amount of area that the fiber type takes up in the muscle. For
example, say a muscle has a 70/30 mix of slow-twitch/fast-twitch fibers. Because slow-twitch
fibers are smaller and therefore take up less space than fast-twitch fibers, 55 percent of that
muscle’s area may be slow-twitch and 45 percent may be fast-twitch. With aerobic training, the
number of slow-twitch and fast-twitch fibers remains the same (still 70/30), but the slow-twitch
fibers get bigger and start taking up more space in the muscle. The fast-twitch fibers get smaller
because they’re not being used as much. The area of the muscle, which began at 55 percent
slow- twitch and 45 percent fast-twitch before training, may change to 65 percent slow-twitch and
35 percent fast-twitch following training. The muscle’s endurance capabilities increase.
Instead of recruiting individual muscle fibers to run, we recruit motor units—groups of muscle
fibers innervated by a single motor neuron. All muscle fibers of a motor unit are of the same type
(slow-twitch, fast-twitch A, or fast-twitch B) and all the muscle fibers of a motor unit either contract
or they don’t. We vary the amount of muscle force by varying the number of motor units we
contract and the frequency with which those motor units are recruited by the central nervous MUSCLE FORCE:
The power applied by
system, not by varying their degree of contraction. the muscle tissue while
performing work that can
be concentric, eccentric, or
Motor units are recruited along a gradient dictated by the size of the motor unit (specifically, the isometric.
size of the motor axon of the neuron supplying the motor unit), a condition known as the size
principle of muscle fiber recruitment. Small motor units (those with a small motor axon SIZE PRINCIPLE
diameter), which contain slow-twitch muscle fibers, have the lowest firing threshold and are OF MUSCLE FIBER
recruited first. Demands for larger forces or faster speeds are met by the recruitment of RECRUITMENT:
A principle stating motor
increasingly larger motor units. The largest motor units (those with the largest axon diameter), units are recruited in
order according to their
which contain fast-twitch B fibers, have the highest firing threshold and are recruited last. Thus,
recruitment thresholds and
regardless of the running pace, slow-twitch motor units are always recruited first. When jogging, firing rates.
slow-twitch motor units may be the only ones that are recruited. When running fast, such as
during an interval workout or sprinting, slow-twitch motor units are recruited first, followed by fast-
twitch A and, if needed, fast-twitch B. Fast-twitch motor units are also recruited to pick up the
slack of fatiguing slow-twitch motor units, even when the speed is slow.

For example, when running long distances, or even when holding a one-pound dumbbell, slow-
twitch motor units are initially the only motor units recruited. However, continue running or
holding that one-pound dumbbell long enough and the slow-twitch motor units will eventually
fatigue, forcing recruitment of fast-twitch motor units to continue the task. Thus, the size principle
gives us some insight into how to recruit, and thus train, fast-twitch motor units: run fast or run
long. Recruiting fast-twitch motor units by running long enough to fatigue the slow-twitch motor
units means that a runner won’t experience the negative consequence of acidosis that usually
accompanies the recruitment of fast-twitch motor units since the run is aerobic.
To hold a faster pace, a runner needs to make their slow-twitch fibers better at handling a faster
pace, because the sooner they start recruiting fast-twitch A and fast-twitch B motor units, the
sooner they start to show signs of fatigue.
METABOLIC FACTORS
Running isn’t just about our cardiovascular system and muscles; it’s also about metabolism—the
METABOLISM: chemical reactions that control how our muscles use their energy pathways to convert fat and
The chemical processes in
the body that convert food carbohydrates into energy for muscle contraction.
into energy.
At any moment, there are trillions of reactions going on inside of us, from growth of new tissue to
muscle contraction to the breakdown of food for energy. When we run, our metabolic rate
METABOLIC RATE: increases dramatically due to the increased demand for energy. The faster our metabolic
The rate at which
pathways can use the available fuel to regenerate energy for muscle contraction, the faster we
metabolism occurs in a living
organism. can run.
At slow running speeds, there’s adequate oxygen to meet the demand of the muscle cells. At
faster speeds, there is a greater reliance on anaerobic metabolism to produce energy, and
aerobic metabolism can’t keep up. When this happens, hydrogen ions accumulate in the muscles
and blood, decreasing the pH and causing metabolic acidosis and the development of fatigue.
Much of metabolism is under the direction of hormones, which act as conductors, initiating
HORMONES: signals that lead to the transportation and use of fuel. The two predominant fuels for running are
Chemical messengers
created, stored, and released carbohydrate and fat, which provide energy on a sliding scale—at slower speeds, our muscles rely
by endocrine glands.
more on fat and less on carbohydrate. As we increase our running pace, the energy contribution
from fat decreases while the energy contribution from carbohydrates increases.
INSULIN: CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

A hormone produced by the
pancreas to regulate blood Carbohydrate metabolism is controlled by the hormone insulin. Consuming carbohydrates
sugar.
elevates blood glucose concentration and increases insulin concentration. The increase in

circulating insulin, which is secreted from the pancreas, stimulates specific proteins to transport
glucose from the blood into the muscles, where it is either used for immediate energy by the cells
or stored as muscle glycogen for later use.
Figure 1.5 Insulin and Glucose Uptake
Males typically have more glycogen stored in their muscles, but also use more glycogen when
running at the same pace as women. The lower muscle glycogen in women’s muscles can partly
explain why they cannot run marathons as fast as men.
Carbohydrate is the muscles’ preferred fuel when we run. However, our muscles have only a
limited store of carbohydrate. That store of carbohydrate provides enough energy for only about
100 minutes of running. By contrast, humans’ store of fat is virtually unlimited, with enough to
fuel about five days of running or about 1,000 miles of walking for a 145-pound person with 18
percent body fat. At slow running speeds, some of carbohydrate’s metabolic responsibility for
providing energy is relieved by fat, in the form of free fatty acids in the blood and triglyceride
molecules inside the muscles. Even with fat helping to delay the depletion of glycogen, running at
a moderate pace can only be sustained for 2 to 3 hours.

Scientists first discovered in the late 1960s that endurance performance is influenced by the
amount of stored glycogen in skeletal muscles, and that intense endurance exercise decreases
muscle glycogen stores. When glycogen stores are low, fatigue sets in. The faster a runner can
resynthesize muscle glycogen, the faster their recovery. For most running races, there is enough
stored glycogen in the muscles to last the entire race. This is one of the main factors that
distinguishes the marathon from all other races—because the race is long enough that the body
will run out of carbohydrate fuel. The infamous marathon wall coincides with low glycogen and
the low blood sugar (hypoglycemia) that accompanies it.

HYPOGLYCEMIA:
The condition of lower than When runners finish a workout that severely lowers their muscle glycogen content, it’s important
normal blood sugar.
to replenish the carbohydrate so they can resynthesize more glycogen to be prepared for their
next run. Refueling nutrient-depleted muscles is possibly the single most important aspect of
optimal recovery from training and racing.
Repeatedly running for long periods presents a threat to the muscles’ survival by depleting their
storage of carbohydrates, which is their preferred fuel. If we run out of fuel, our muscles say,
“Hey, we’re running for so long that I don’t have any more fuel. If we keep this up, I won’t be able
to survive. If this activity is going to be our regular habit, I need to do something clever to protect
myself. I know—I’ll make more fuel!”
When a runner consumes carbohydrate following a long run, they respond to the empty tank
by synthesizing and storing more glycogen than usual in skeletal muscles, thus increasing the
storage of fuel (and therefore their endurance) for future efforts. Imagine if your car did that.
Imagine if you kept driving your car until the gas tank was empty and your car responded to that
threat by making its tank bigger so it could hold more gasoline. Pretty elegant.
One of the keys to long races like the marathon is to train the muscles how to use fat more
effectively so glycogen is conserved for when it’s really needed late in the race. That’s one of the
reasons for practicing very long runs—to literally run out of glycogen so the muscles are forced to
rely on fat for fuel in the moment, which makes them better at using fat for energy overall.
CARBOHYDRATE
LOADING: Research has shown that men also are more responsive to carbohydrate loading than
Consuming large doses
of carbohydrates prior to women. In other words, women do not increase muscle glycogen as much as men in response
activity with the intention of
increasing the body’s stored
to consuming more carbohydrates in their diets. However, some of this research is clouded
glycogen and improving
by the fact that women consume fewer total calories than men, so the lack of glycogen
physical performance.

storage may be due to a lower caloric or carbohydrate intake by women rather than an
inherent sex difference in the ability to store glycogen. When women increase their total
caloric intake as they also increase the amount of carbohydrates in their diets, they increase
their muscle glycogen content by a similar amount as men. From a training perspective, while
men simply need to increase the percentage of their calories coming from carbohydrates in
order to “carb load” and store more glycogen, women need to also increase the total number
of calories in their diets to get the same effect.
FAT METABOLISM
As a consequence of not using as much carbohydrate during exercise, women rely more on fat
than men. Indeed, it has been estimated that women use about 75 percent more fat than do men
while running at 65 to 70 percent VO2max. Women get about 39 percent of their energy from
fat during exercise at 65 percent VO2max, while men get about 22 percent of their energy from
fat. However, there is a lot of individual variation in the percentage of energy derived from fat, as
factors such as training status, muscle fiber type, muscle glycogen content, and mitochondrial
density all play a role.
While it’s difficult to tease out the exact reasons for the difference in carbohydrate and
fat metabolism between the sexes, it appears that estrogen is at least partly responsible.
Research done on rats has shown that when male rats are given estrogen, they have less
depletion of glycogen during exercise, there is an increased concentration of fatty acids in
the blood (suggesting a greater availability of fat for energy), and they can exercise for longer
periods of time before becoming exhausted. Increasing the number of fatty acids circulating
in the blood favors their use by muscle during exercise, resulting in a decreased reliance on
muscle glycogen and blood glucose, thus delaying glycogen depletion and hypoglycemia (low
blood sugar) and postponing fatigue.
This switch in fuel use to a greater reliance on fat at the same running speed is also an
adaptation from endurance training. Training enhances fat use by increasing the number of
mitochondria in the muscles, allowing for more aerobic metabolism and the sparing of
ADAPTATION:
The physiological changes
muscle glycogen. This shift in the energy source for muscular activity is a major advantage in that occur in the body as a
result of deliberate activity or
delaying the onset of fatigue in running events that are limited by the availability of muscle exercise stimulus.
glycogen—marathons and ultramarathons.

Since humans’ carbohydrate stores are limited, the difference in metabolism between the sexes
may give female runners an advantage for very long endurance activities, during which there
is a greater need to conserve carbohydrate and a greater use of fat because of the relatively
slow pace. In many of these very long races, women often place very high. In 2002 and 2003,
Pam Reed showed that science may be on to something, as she won the 135-mile Badwater
Ultramarathon, beating all the men. In shorter races, however, when there is a greater demand
to generate energy quickly for muscle contraction, relying more on fat will cause the pace to be
slower because energy is derived much more quickly from carbohydrate than from fat.
PROTEIN METABOLISM
The third macronutrient, protein, is often neglected in metabolism since it accounts for only
MACRONUTRIENT: about 3 to 6 percent of the amount of energy we use when running. Rather, protein is used
Nutrients required in large
quantities daily for optimal primarily for other things, such as building, maintaining, and repairing muscle, skin, and
health and wellness;
carbohydrate, protein, and blood tissue, as well as aiding in the transportation of materials through the blood. Protein
fat.
can be thought of as the body’s scaffolding and cargo. However, it can be used for energy if
the situation calls for it, as in the case of inadequate amounts of fat and carbohydrate being
available, as the body’s requirement for energy takes priority over tissue building. While the
amount of protein used for energy may be small, even a small contribution to our daily run
may be large if we run a lot and run often, which would then result in a large energy
expenditure.
Exercise increases the use of amino acids from protein breakdown, with the amount of amino
acids that the muscles use inversely related to the amount of glycogen in the muscle—when
glycogen is abundant, muscles will rely on glycogen, but when glycogen is low, muscles will
begin to rely more on amino acids. Research has shown that females use less protein during
exercise than do males. Since endurance-trained females use less muscle glycogen and
rely more on fat than endurance-trained males, protein breakdown seems to be inhibited in
females by virtue of the greater muscle glycogen.
THE 3 PLAYERS OF DISTANCE RUNNING

There are three very trainable components of the body that must be trained during running training:
• Aerobic power (VO2max)
• Running efficiency
• The lactate threshold

AEROBIC POWER (VO2MAX)
The volume of oxygen consumed (VO2) is equal to the stroke volume (SV) multiplied by the
heart rate (HR) (which equals cardiac output, CO) multiplied by the difference in oxygen content
between arterial blood (blood going to the muscles) and venous blood (blood going from the
muscles to the heart):
VO2 = SV x HR x (a-v O2 diff)
VO2 = CO x (a-v O2 diff)
Cardiac factors Muscular factors
Together, the maximum cardiac output and the maximum amount of oxygen the muscles extract
and use (i.e., the maximum a-v O2 diff) determine aerobic power, or VO2max—the maximum
volume of oxygen the muscles consume per minute.
As a runner increases their running pace from an easy jog to a hard run to running as fast as they
can, VO2 increases, first very quickly, then more slowly, to keep up with the demand of the run
until they reach VO2max. Once the runner reaches their VO2max, some of the energy needed to
continue running at that pace (or faster) is supplied to the muscles through anaerobic glycolysis.
Since fatigue occurs much more rapidly when we start to rely on anaerobic metabolism, the higher
the VO2max, the better a runner will be since the reliance on anaerobic (oxygen- independent)
metabolism will be delayed.
VO2max represents a person’s aerobic ceiling and is therefore considered the single best indicator
of a person’s aerobic fitness. It was first measured in humans in the 1920s and has become
one of the most often measured physiological characteristics in the field of exercise physiology.
There’s a lot riding on it—the faster the muscles consume oxygen, the better the person runs.
Although a high VO2max alone is not enough to run a fast 5K, it gives one access into the club. A
person simply cannot run fast or run well without a high VO2max.
While trained male runners have about a 15 percent higher VO2max than trained female runners,
there is considerable overlap between the sexes, as many trained female runners have a higher
VO2max than untrained men. Furthermore, there is no difference between the sexes in the
adaptations to training and the amount runners can improve their VO2max. Research has shown
that VO2max can improve up to 20 percent with training in both men and women. While a trained
woman will always have a lower VO2max than a similarly trained man, a trained woman may have
a higher VO2max than a sedentary or recreationally active man.

One of the biggest arguments in the field of exercise physiology is what limits VO2max (scientists
like to argue). Is VO2max cardiovascularly (oxygen delivery) limited, with the cardiac output
setting the limit, or is it peripherally (oxygen use) limited, with the muscle mitochondrial oxidative
capacity setting the limit?
While unfit people are equally limited by cardiac and muscular factors because they lack both a
high blood flow to the muscles and abundant metabolic machinery, trained runners seem to be
more cardiac-limited. After all, there is a structural limit to how big the left ventricle of the heart—
and thus stroke volume and cardiac output—can get with training. Training causes a shift of the
limitation on the sliding scale—the more fit we become, the more we move away from a metabolic,
oxygen use limitation to VO2max and the closer we move to an oxygen delivery limitation.
And then there’s a third argument—the role of the brain. VO2max may be central nervous system
limited, with the brain acting as a “central governor” to reduce muscle fiber recruitment to lower
the exercise intensity in anticipation of fatigue and before catastrophic events (e.g., cardiac
ischemia) occur.
This latter issue is one reason why it is suggested to do interval workouts with unlimited reps
rather than setting a predetermined number of reps before the workout begins. If a runner knows
they are only going to do 6 reps, they may feel very fatigued by the end of the fourth or fifth rep
because they anticipate the fatigue that comes with getting close to the end of the workout. If the
runner leaves the workout open-ended, their brain doesn’t know how many reps they are going to
do. With practice, we can attenuate the central governor limitation.
RUNNING ECONOMY
In 1930, Dr. David Dill and his colleagues at the Harvard Fatigue Laboratory were among the first
physiologists to observe that there are marked differences in the amount of oxygen different
people use when running at the same submaximal speeds. These differences in what they called
running economy is a major factor that explains differences in endurance performance—in other
RUNNING ECONOMY: words, why runners with the same VO2max do not cross the race finish line at the same time.
The measure of the
percentage of maximum
oxygen uptake (VO2max) Running economy is the volume of oxygen (VO2) that muscles consume to run at submaximal speeds.
that the muscles consume
while running at submaximal
For example, when someone runs at a 10-minute mile or 9-minute mile or 8-minute mile pace, there
speeds. is a specific amount of oxygen he’ll consume every minute (which gets higher the faster the pace) to
maintain each of those paces. While VO2max explains what happens at the upper limit of oxygen use,
running economy explains what happens at levels below that upper limit.

To understand why running economy is so important, imagine that Jack and Jill run up a hill to
fetch a pail of water at an 8-minute-per-mile pace. They have the same VO2max, but Jack uses 70
percent of that VO2max and Jill uses 80 percent while running at the same pace. The pace feels
easier for Jack because he’s working at a lower percentage of his maximum to maintain the pace.
In other words, Jack is more economical.
Jack Jill
VO2max = 50 VO2max = 50
Running together at 8:00 mile pace

70% VO2max 80% VO2max
If Jack were to run at 80 percent of his VO2max just like Jill, he’d be running faster than Jill.
Therefore, Jack can run at a faster pace before feeling the same amount of fatigue as Jill. With the
same VO2max and better running economy, Jack would almost surely beat Jill in a race.
Although VO2max gets most of the attention among runners, running economy is more important—
it exerts a much greater influence on someone’s ability to run successfully because most of the
time the person is running at a submaximal pace, even when racing. (VO2max is more important
for shorter races, like 800 meters, 1,500 meters/1 mile, and 3,000 meters, because those races
are run at, or even slightly faster than, VO2max.)
It’s difficult to determine how economical a person is because finding out exactly how much
oxygen he or she uses to run at specific paces takes some sophisticated laboratory equipment.
Unless the person is lightweight, an experienced runner, and was born with a lot of slow-twitch
muscle fibers and mitochondria, he or she is probably not very economical. Only very talented
runners are economical from the time they start running. But running economy is very responsive
to training because running builds more mitochondria, makes a person a smoother runner, and
helps him or her lose weight.

Running economy is influenced by many internal and external characteristics. The internal
characteristics include:
• Biomechanics. Running mechanics influence economy because any unnecessary
movements (and therefore unnecessary muscle contractions) increase the amount of
oxygen the body consumes to maintain the pace. The more optimal the mechanics—
including proper foot placement on the ground with just the right amount of pronation to
absorb shock upon landing, correct arm swing, minimal vertical movement (bouncing)
of the center of mass, and so on—the more economical the runner will be.
• Muscle fiber recruitment. The less muscle that’s recruited to run at the desired pace,
the better. Any extra muscle activity reduces economy because more muscle activity
means more oxygen is being used.
• Number of slow-twitch muscle fibers. Slow-twitch fibers are made for aerobic activities
like running. They’re much more efficient than fast-twitch muscle fibers, which are
made for sprinting.
• Number of mitochondria. More mitochondria means more aerobic factories to spread
around the work, which improves economy.
• Body weight. The less someone weighs, especially from the waist down and even more
so from the knee down, the less work the body does to transport the person’s weight
when he runs. Slim legs are more economical because they require less energy to lift
off the ground. Adding weight, particularly at the end of a long lever, requires more
energy to move the lever and makes the work harder.
• Ability of tendons to store and use elastic energy. Like a rubber band when stretched,
the Achilles tendon, which connects the calf muscle to the heel bone, stores energy
when the foot lands on the ground and gives back that energy at push-off, helping to
propel us forward. Long, thin Achilles tendons are good at storing energy with each
step. They make the legs work like springs, which is very economical.
The external characteristics include:
• Training. Training is the biggest external factor that affects running economy. Increasing
weekly mileage, adding faster-paced running to a base of mileage, and strength training
all improve running economy.
• Shoe weight. Lightweight shoes that still provide enough cushioning improve running economy.
• Wind. Running into the wind decreases economy because there is more air resistance
to overcome.

ACIDOSIS (LACTATE) THRESHOLD
The Acidosis threshold signifies the transition between running that is almost purely aerobic and
running that includes significant anaerobic metabolism. (The acidosis threshold is often called ACIDOSIS THRESHOLD:
The maximum effort or
the lactate threshold because lactate accumulates at the same time as acidosis develops and is intensity an individual can
maintain for an extended
easy to measure.) period of time with minimal
effect on blood lactate
All running speeds have an anaerobic contribution, although when running slower than acidosis levels.
threshold pace the contribution is negligible. Thus, the acidosis threshold is an important
determinant of running performance since it represents the fastest speed that can be sustained
aerobically without a significant anaerobic contribution (and thus the development of metabolic
acidosis). The longer the race, the more important the acidosis threshold is because the more
important it becomes to hold a solid pace for a long time.
At slow running speeds, glycolysis is used only a little, and muscles produce only a little bit of
lactate. As the runner picks up the pace, glycolysis is used more because the muscles begin
to rely more on carbohydrate for fuel. If the runner keeps picking up the pace, he’ll get to a
pace— the acidosis threshold—at which he relies on glycolysis so much that lactate begins to
accumulate in his muscles and blood. While lactate accumulates, hydrogen ions also accumulate
in his muscles, lowering the pH of his muscles and making them more acidic, a condition called
metabolic acidosis.
When running at a pace that’s slower than the acidosis threshold, everything is cool and comfortable—
the pace can be maintained for a while. When running faster than the acidosis threshold, fatigue
is felt, and the pace can’t be held for very long. The more a runner can raise his or her acidosis
threshold—that is, the faster the AT pace—the faster the pace that can be sustained.

Running Certification Ch1 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Running Certification Ch1 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Foundations and Applications of

Official course text for: ISSA’s Running Technique and Programming

Copyright © 2022 ISSA LLC

Produced by ISSA LLC, Phoenix, AZ, 85020

Muscles by body region

Running form and technique

Resistance training and drills for running

Running training workouts

Common running injuries

Aging and running

Female-specific running training

Running for fitness and weight loss

Effective coaching skills

4 Full race-prep training programs

2| RUNNING TECHNIQUE AND DRILLS 38

3| CONCEPTS OF RUNNING TRAINING 68

4| PROGRAMMING FOR RUNNING TRAINING 124

5| RUNNING WORKOUTS 170

6| RUNNING INJURIES 188

8| RUNNING FOR WEIGHT LOSS 228

9| RUN TRAINING PROGRAMS 254

10| COACHING RUNNING 292

APPENDIX A: RUNNING SHOES 318

APPENDIX B: SUGGESTED READINGS 324

3 | Name and describe the muscular adaptations that occur in response to

5 | Explain the three primary physiological components that must be trained to

ISSA | Running Technique and Programming | 9

Running includes a beautiful integration of cardiovascular, muscular, metabolic, and neurological

ADENOSINE does should have a specific, physiological purpose.

PHOSPHAGEN SYSTEM: liberate energy for muscle contraction.

ISSA | Running Technique and Programming | 10

Figure 1.1 The Human Energy Systems

ISSA | Running Technique and Programming | 11

Table 1.1 The Energy Pathways

ENERGY PRIMARY OXYGEN WHEN IT DOMINATES

Phosphagen System Creatine phosphate (CP) Anaerobic 0-15 seconds

Anaerobic Glycolysis Glucose and glycogen Anaerobic 30 seconds – 2 minutes

Aerobic System Glucose, glycogen, fats Aerobic Longer than 2 minutes

ISSA | Running Technique and Programming | 12

Right pulmonary Left pulmonary

Figure 1.2 Human Heart Anatomy

ISSA | Running Technique and Programming | 13

from your heart.

jams and such.

your doctor will check for is my shape. Shape matters.

aorta, which is your body’s largest artery.

muscles, brain, kidneys, liver, stomach, intestines, pancreas, and skin.

to use for their specific jobs.

ISSA | Running Technique and Programming | 14

and their associated hormones—the sympathetic (excitatory, causing vasoconstriction) and

parasympathetic (calming, causing vasodilation) nervous systems.

the more oxygen the blood can carry.

oxygen to myoglobin, like a relay baton pass.

• Density and volume of capillaries around the muscle fibers.

Ok, it’s time to go back to the heart. Let’s go!

me through the tricuspid valve.

oxygen that is inhaled from the air.

From the lungs through the pulmonary vein.

ISSA | Running Technique and Programming | 15

Figure 1.3 Blood Flow Through the Heart

about 25 to 30 liters every minute. That’s a lot of blood!

important it is—erythropoiesis. “Erythro” refers to erythrocytes, which are immature versions of

ISSA | Running Technique and Programming | 16