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Vy, Son Tung, Mahendran, Mahen, & Sivaprakasam, Thananjayan

(2021)
Built-up back-to-back cold-formed steel compression members failing by
local and distortional buckling.
Thin-Walled Structures, 159, Article number: 107224.

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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tws.2020.107224
Built-up Back-to-Back Cold-formed Steel Compression Members Failing by Local and
Distortional Buckling

Son Tung Vya,b , Mahen Mahendrana and Thananjayan Sivaprakasama

a
Queensland University of Technology (QUT), Brisbane, Australia
b
National University of Civil Engineering (NUCE), Hanoi, Vietnam

ABSTRACT

The current design methods for built-up back-to-back cold-formed steel (CFS) channel com-
pression members are considered inadequate despite several research studies in recent times.
These research studies have proposed improved DSM based design equations, however, they
have in general led to predictions of varying accuracy. Further, there were some contradicting
observations regarding the effects of screw connections on their compression behaviour and
capacities. Therefore, this research focused on the compression behaviour and capacity of built-
up back-to-back CFS channel sections subject to local and/or distortional buckling. It included
compression tests of short single and back-to-back channel members failing by local-distor-
tional interaction buckling, development and validation of finite element models and finally a
parametric study to examine the effects of screw fastener characteristics and arrangements on
the compression behaviour and capacities of back-to-back channel members failing in local
and/or distortional buckling. Using the results, the accuracy of currently available design equa-
tions in the CFS design standards and recently published research papers was investigated and
a simple DSM based design method is recommended. This paper presents the details of this
research and the results including its findings.

Keywords: Cold-formed steel; Built-up members; Back-to-back sections; Local buckling; Dis-
tortional buckling; Screw Connections.

1. Introduction

Recently, cold-formed steel (CFS) applications are increasing in the construction of various
residential and industrial buildings. In conventional applications, CFS structural members are
normally made of single channel or zed sections, which have limited load-bearing capacities
due to their low torsional and flexural rigidities. For applications with higher load-bearing ca-
pacities, single channel or zed sections are inadequate and CFS built-up screw-connected back-
to-back channel (BC) members shown in Fig. 1 are often used by engineers. This is because

1
these BC members can be easily fabricated from commercially available single channel mem-
bers, and they may have greater compression (or bending) capacities than the sum of their
individual member capacities. In other words, they can provide an economical solution in many
applications where higher load-bearing capacities are needed.

Fig. 1. Single channel and built-up back-to-back sections.

The BC members under compression loading can fail in one of the three failure modes: global
(G), local (L) and distortional (D) buckling, or an interaction among these three failure modes.
The two major cold-formed steel design standards in North America and Australia/New Zea-
land [1, 2] use the Effective Width Method (EWM) and the Direct Strength Method (DSM) for
the calculations of CFS member compression capacities. They state that the compression ca-
pacity of built-up members can be determined using the same methods as single members, but
with a modified slenderness ratio (le/r)m defined by Eq. (1) instead of using that of single/indi-
vidual members (le/ri).

𝑙 𝑙 𝑠
= + (1)
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟

where (le/r)o is the overall slenderness ratio of the entire section about the built-up member
axis, s is the intermediate fastener or spot weld spacing, and ri is the minimum radius of gyra-
tion of the full unreduced cross-section of an individual member in the built-up section. This
replacement results in the improvement of the flexural buckling stress, which may lead to an
increase in the compression capacity of the built-up member (to more than twice of its individ-
ual member capacity) if the failure mode is global buckling or global-local interaction buckling.

The CFS design standards [1, 2] are important for the practical design of BC members, how-
ever, they still have many limitations. Firstly, Stone and LaBoube [3] showed that using the
modified slenderness ratio in predicting the compression capacity of BC members is over-con-
servative with differences between test results and design standard predictions varying in the

2
range of 16 to 65%. Roy et al. [4] showed that the current design standards are unconservative
by about 12% for short BC compression members failing mainly by local buckling. Secondly,
while the modified slenderness ratio is only useful to calculate the minor axis flexural buckling
stress of BC members, no guidelines are given to determine their torsional or flexural-torsional
buckling stresses. Thirdly, the DSM design guidelines for predicting the compression capaci-
ties of BC members failing in local or distortional buckling mode are not given in these stand-
ards, which suggest the EWM design method of single channel members without any justifi-
cation. Finally, no guidelines are available for the required number and arrangement of screws
along each row in BC members, which may result in different assumptions as shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. Different number of screws and arrangements in BC members.

To overcome the limitations of the current CFS design standards [1, 2] and enhance the
knowledge and understanding of the compression behaviour and capacity of BC members,
many research studies have been conducted in recent years. Li et al. [5] developed finite ele-
ment (FE) models of BC members and showed that (1) the compression capacities of short BC
members, which fail in local buckling, cannot be greater than the sum of their individual mem-
ber capacities, (2) for BC members buckling about the symmetric axis, the torsional or flexural-
torsional buckling does not have to be considered, and (3) the effect of screw spacing on their
compression capacities is not evident. They also proposed new design methods of BC com-
pression members based on the EWM and DSM. Zhang and Young [6] conducted compression
tests of BC members made of single channel sections with edge and web stiffeners. Using these
test results, Zhang and Young [7] developed and validated FE models and proposed DSM-
based design methods for these members. Lu et al. [8] conducted a compressions test series of
BC members made of plain lipped single channel members, where many specimens failed by
the interaction of local, distortional and global buckling modes. Thus, they proposed a novel
DSM-based design method for BC members that may fail due to these interaction buckling
modes. They also showed that the effect of screw spacing on the local and distortional buckling

3
capacities of BC members is insignificant. Additionally, recent research studies [9, 10] have
developed compound strip method based models, which can include the effects of discrete
screw fasteners and provide the elastic buckling loads of BC members. Abbasi et al. [11] used
these models and DSM to predict the compression capacities of BC members.

Fratamico et al. [12] conducted a compression test series of short BC members failing by local
or local-distortional buckling mode. They used the test results to (1) investigate the effects of
screw spacing on the web buckling compatibility, and (2) show that the screw fasteners have a
marginal effect on those members’ capacities, which agreed with the findings of [5, 8]. Then,
Fratamico et al. [13] used an experimental study to (1) show the considerable effects of the end
fastener groups on the compression capacities of long BC members that fail mainly by local-
global interaction (or global) buckling, and (2) propose a DSM-based design method for these
members. Besides, they stated that composite action can develop in BC members when global
(flexural) buckling controls. Meanwhile, Fratamico et al.’s [14] test results showed that (1) BC
compression members lined with oriented strand boards (OSB) on both sides failed by local
buckling, and (2) the steel-to-steel screw fasteners did not influence considerably the member
failure modes and capacities. Based on these results, they developed suitable design approaches
using an extension of DSM.

Recently, Kechidi et al. [15] developed advanced FE analyses of unlined and OSB-lined BC
members, verified the experimental findings in [13, 14] and showed that the current standard
requirements for the shear capacity of screws in BC compression members are over-conserva-
tive. Some other research studies, such as [16, 17], proposed improved formulae to predict the
flexural stiffness and the elastic flexural buckling stress of BC members. These improved for-
mulae provided more accurate predictions than the standard method based on the modified
slenderness ratio. Furthermore, improved EWM-based design methods were proposed by re-
search studies [4, 18]. Ting et al. [19] investigated the effect of screw spacing on the compres-
sion behaviour and capacities of BC members with varying slenderness ratios. They found that
the compression capacities of short BC members, failing in local buckling, might reduce by
about 5 to 10% when the screw spacing is doubled, which contradicts the finding in [5, 8, 12].

This paper focuses on short back-to-back channel (BC) compression members failing in local
and/or distortional buckling mode. These failure modes can govern the compression capacity
of BC members, when they are used as short truss members, or studs in sheathing restrained
4
light gauge steel frame (LSF) wall panels [14, 15]. Some past research studies [3, 4] have
shown that the current design standards are inadequate while some others [5, 7, 8] have pro-
posed improved DSM design rules based on different assumptions and predicted capacities
with varying levels of accuracy. Besides, there were contradicting observations regarding the
effects of screw fasteners on the compression capacity of short BC compression members [5,
8, 12, 19]. Therefore, the predictions of all these new design guidelines and observations will
be investigated by using experimental tests and FE analyses in this research, aimed at develop-
ing suitable design guidelines for short BC compression members failing in local and/or dis-
tortional buckling mode.

In this research, compression tests were first conducted on short single channel and BC mem-
bers failing in local-distortional interaction buckling mode. Finite element (FE) models of
tested columns were then developed and validated to provide a base for conducting parametric
studies of BC members with different section shapes, sizes and screw arrangements, and failing
by local, distortional or local-distortional interaction buckling. The results from tests and FE
analyses are presented in this paper, based on which, the effects of screw sizes, screw spacing
and number of screws along each row are discussed. More importantly, the DSM design guide-
lines in the current standards [1, 2] and past research studies [5, 7, 8] are investigated before
recommending a reliable and simplified DSM based approach.

2. Experimental investigation

2.1. Test specimens

A commercially available channel section (SC87D) that is commonly used as LSF wall studs
in Australia was selected in this experimental investigation. It was used as single channel and
back-to-back channel (BC) members in this investigation. This section shown in Fig. 3 is made
of a high strength steel grade, G550 (minimum yield strength of 550 MPa), and its base metal
thickness without zinc-coating is 0.95 mm. Table 1 provides the average measured dimensions
of the channel sections used in this investigation. They are designed as asymmetric sections to
enable them to be nested as closed sections for use in applications with higher compression
capacities. This also minimizes any unwanted imperfections during transportation.

5
 Fig. 3. SC87D section.

Table 1. Dimensions of SC87D section.

Dimension Value (mm) Dimension Value (mm)
h1 13.42 b1 35.71
h2 2.09 b2 0.80
h3 56.24 b3 39.30
h4 2.06 b4 0.89
h5 3.48 d1 7.01
h6 1.62 d2 8.63
h7 8.31

The specimen length was chosen as 800 mm, which was 200 mm greater than the actual length
(600 mm) used in the capacity calculations and FE models. This was because in the test set-up,
100 mm segments of specimens were clamped inside a specially designed connector at each
end. To limit the length tolerance and any non-uniform stresses applied to the specimen, each
specimen was cut to the specified length of 800 mm and milled flat at both ends.

Fig. 4. BC87D section with one and two screws along each screw row.

6
To fabricate a BC member as shown in Fig. 4, two single channel members were connected
together by using 10g self-drilling hex-head screws. Three different screw arrangements were
used as shown in Fig. 5. The relative positions of channel sections were adjusted carefully to
ensure that the built-up member was doubly symmetric and its ends were flat. The fabricated
BC members formed two groups based on the number of screws along each row, i.e., one or
two screws at the mid-depth of the web element. The screw spacing (s) used was 150 or 300
mm with the first row of screws from each end located at 15 mm.

Fig. 5. Screw fastener locations in BC members.

For ease of identification, all specimens were labelled based on their cross-sectional parame-
ters, lengths, screw spacing and other specific features. For example,

 for single channel members, the label “SC87D-600” or “SC87L-600” indicates that
channel depth is 87 mm and length is 600 mm, and the letter “D” or “L” means that
distortional or local buckling mode is dominant, however, “D” also includes local-dis-
tortional interaction buckling mode.

 for BC members, the label “BC87D-600-1S-150” or “BC87L-600-2S-150” indicates

that individual channel depth is 87 mm, length is 600 mm and screw spacing is 150
mm, while the letter “D” or “L” means distortional or local buckling mode is dominant
in its individual section with “D” also including local-distortional interaction buckling
mode, and “1S” or “2S” means there are one or two screws per row.

2.2. Test set-up and procedure

Fig. 6 shows the test set-up used in this investigation, where a single or BC channel specimen

7
was vertically loaded in compression under a stable and strong test frame fixed to a strong
reinforced concrete slab. The 100 mm long bottom end segment of the specimen was fixed
inside a specially designed steel connector, attached to a heavy beam located at the bottom.
Similarly, the 100 mm long top end segment of the specimen was fixed inside another con-
nector, located under a load cell. A 200 kN hydraulic jack placed above the load cell was used
to apply the compression load to the specimen. The top end of the hydraulic jack was fixed to
the heavy beam of the loading frame, which ensured that it was kept stable during the test. The
applied compression load and associated axial shortening of the specimen were recorded by
the load cell and a draw-wire displacement sensor located between the hydraulic jack and the
top connector, respectively.

Fig. 6. Test set-up.

The use of specially designed top and bottom connectors shown in Figs. 7 and 8 ensured that
end boundary conditions of each single channel or BC specimen are fixed. Each connector
included four 20 mm thick steel side plates welded together, and then welded to a 10 mm thick
steel end plate to form a box. The end plate was used to stop the axial displacement of the
specimen’s end-segment. Besides, there were four M12 bolts (restraining bolts) attached on
each steel side plate by nuts welded to the side plate. They supported steel plates F1 and F2,

8
and steel blocks B1 and B2 in preventing the lateral movements, bending and twisting of the
specimen’s end-segment. The thickness of these steel plates was designed as 10 mm while the
width of the steel blocks was 0.5 to 1 mm smaller than the inner depth of the specimen’s cross-
section to eliminate the effect of the gaps between the steel blocks and the flanges of specimens.
Since the stiffness of the flanges and the webs of the specimen’s end-segment were ignorable
compared with that of the steel plates, the steel blocks and the restraining bolts, the flange and
web elements were fully restrained against the lateral movements, bending and twisting. Based
on the same mechanism, the lips of the specimen’s end-segments were also restrained by steel
plates S1 to S4, attached to steel plates F1 and F2.

Fig. 7. Specimens fixed inside the bottom connector: (a) single channel and (b) BC.

Fig. 8. Sketches of specimens fixed inside the bottom and top connectors: (a) single channel
and (b) BC.

9
Before each test, the end plates of top and bottom connectors were levelled, and their central
points and the hydraulic jack axis were ensured to be on a vertical line. When the specimen
was clamped inside the top and bottom connectors, the length and the compression load of each
restraining bolt were adjusted carefully to ensure the specimen was vertical and placed at the
central points of the connectors’ end plates. The verticality of the test specimen was checked
by two laser levels located on the front and left sides of the test frame. To minimize the gaps
between the specimen and the connectors’ end plates, an axial compression load of about 3 kN
was applied to the specimen using the hydraulic jack, and was then released. The test then
commenced when the compression load was applied to the specimen using the displacement
control method at a rate of 1 mm/min. During the test, a specialised computer program, named
UDAQ, was used for collecting the data of the applied load and shortening of the specimen at
1 s intervals. The test was terminated following a reasonable unloading phase.

2.3. Test results

Fig. 9 shows the deformed shapes of specimens after the tests, and their failures are dominated
by distortional buckling as expected. However, the deformed shapes exhibiting flange rotations
along the flange-web junction and local buckling deformations at some positions of the web
indicate that SC87D specimens have failed by the interaction of local and distortional buckling
(LD) modes. BC87D specimens have also failed by LD interaction buckling mode, but distor-
tional buckling is more dominant since flange rotations could be clearly seen than local web
buckling deformations. Fig. 10 shows the compression load versus shortening curves for the
tested specimens, while Table 2 presents their ultimate loads (Nc,Test). These results show that
the compression capacities of BC87D-600-1S-150 (average 91.2 kN), BC87D-600-2S-150 (av-
erage 94.9 kN) and BC87D-600-2S-300 (average 90.7 kN) are nearly similar (the differences
are around 5%), and are almost equal to twice the capacity of SC87D-600 (average 47.6 kN).
This shows that the effects of using two screws instead of one screw or changing the screw
spacing on the compression capacity are marginal, and the compression capacity of BC mem-
bers can be taken as twice that of single channel members.

10
Fig. 9. Deformed shapes of SC87D and BC87D specimens from Tests and FE analyses.

Fig. 10. Load versus axial shortening curves for SC87D and BC87D specimens.

Table 2. Comparison of test and FE analysis results of SC87D and BC87D specimens.
Failure Nc,Test Nc,FEA Nc,FEA /
Specimen Test
mode (kN) (kN) Nc,Test
SC87D-600 1 LD 46.32 47.20 1.02
2 LD 48.89 47.20 0.97
BC87D-600-1S-150 1 LD 91.85 91.35 0.99
2 LD 87.87 91.35 1.04
3 LD 93.86 91.35 0.97
BC87D-600-2S-150 1 LD 95.71 91.39 0.95
2 LD 94.04 91.39 0.97
3 LD 95.08 91.39 0.96
BC87D-600-2S-300 1 LD 93.19 91.14 0.98
2 LD 88.21 91.14 1.03
Average 0.99
COV 0.03

11
3. Finite element modelling

3.1. General

The finite element (FE) program Abaqus/CAE version 2019 was utilized to develop the FE
models of tested specimens and to predict the behaviour and compression capacities of CFS
single channel and BC members. Following the guidelines in [20], the FE models included the
accurate section geometry (Fig. 11), material properties, initial geometric imperfections and
end boundary conditions of tested specimens. For the case of the BC members, the nonlinear
contact between elements and the nonlinear shear load versus slip displacement curve of screw
fasteners were also incorporated. The FE analyses included two steps. Eigenvalue buckling
analyses of single channel and BC members were performed first. Based on their first eigen-
value buckling modes, nonlinear analyses were conducted by incorporating the initial geomet-
ric imperfections to obtain the ultimate loads and deformed shapes. Finally, because of the
complexity of the section geometry and contacts in each BC member, the Static/General solver
was applied where the specific damping factor was 0.0005 and the maximum ratio of stabili-
zation was 0.005.

Fig. 11. FE models of test specimens: (a) single channel, (b) BC.

3.2. Element type and mesh size

The S4R element was used to model the elements of each member. This is a four-node (with
six degrees of freedom at each node), quadrilateral, stress/displacement shell element with re-
duced integration and a large-strain formulation. The S4R element is suitable for a wide range
12
of applications including thin-walled structures and is computationally efficient. Using a con-
vergence study, a mesh of 5 mm x 5 mm was selected (Fig. 12).

Fig. 12. FE mesh of single channel and BC members.

Fig. 13. Stress-strain curves of 0.95 mm thick G550 steel [21].

3.3. Material properties

The material properties were obtained from the tensile coupon tests of 0.95 mm thick G550
steel, conducted by Rokilan and Mahendran [21]. The measured yield and ultimate strengths
were 615 MPa and 625 MPa, respectively, while the elastic modulus was 205,000 MPa. The
Poisson's ratio was taken as 0.3. Fig. 13 shows the stress versus strain curve of 0.95 mm G550
steel obtained from the tensile coupon tests and the corresponding true stress versus strain curve
used in the FE models. Using the recommendations of Schafer and Peköz [22], the higher yield

13
stress in the corner regions was ignored as the effect of residual stresses was excluded in this
study (Section 3.6).

3.4. Boundary conditions and loading method

According to the test set-up used, fixed end support boundary conditions were used in all FE
models of single channel and BC members considered in this study (Fig. 14). Firstly, each end
cross section was constrained by using MPC type TIE to a reference point (RP-1 or RP-2)
located at its centroid. Then, all displacements (Ux, Uy and Uz) and rotations (URx, URy and
URz) of the bottom reference point (RP-1) were restrained. The top reference point (RP-2) was
set similarly except releasing the axial displacement (Uz). Displacement control was used to
apply the axial compression loading via RP-2.

Fig. 14. Boundary conditions and loading in FE models of specimens: (a) SC87D, (b)
BC87D-1S-150, (c) BC87D-2S-150.

3.5. Interaction and constraint in BC members

Due to the complex shape of the BC87D section, the interactions between elements in each
member were complicated. Hence, the “general contact” with “hard contact” normal behaviour
(ensuring no surface overlapping) was used in the FE models of BC members. The friction
coefficient between individual members was taken as 0.19 [15]. Besides, the Abaqus “point-
based” fasteners, as shown in Fig. 14, were used to model screw connections in BC specimens.
The property of the “point-based” fasteners was defined as using “basic” connector section

14
type “Cartesian” translational. This connector section can include the shear behaviour of each
screw connection in FE models of BC members by incorporating the shear load versus slip
displacement curves of the screw connection along the transverse and longitudinal directions
of the webs of BC members. These shear load versus slip displacement curves can be deter-
mined by using tests or FE analyses. Recently, Phan and Rasmussen [23] proposed equations
to determine these curves, which are based on the elastic modulus (E) and thickness (t) of steel
plates, and the screw diameter (d). Using their proposal, the required shear load versus slip
displacement curves were derived as shown in Fig. 15, where the screw sizes vary from 6g to
14g for 0.95 mm thick steel plates with elasticity modulus of 205,000 MPa.

Fig. 15. Shear load versus slip displacement curves for screw fasteners and 0.95 mm steel
plates.

3.6. Initial geometric imperfections and residual stresses

The single channel and BC members considered in this study are subjected to distortional or
local buckling failure. Hence, their FE models included the initial geometric imperfections
based on these modes, with their magnitudes as  = 0.3𝑡 𝑓 /𝑓 or  = 0.3𝑡 𝑓 /𝑓 for
distortional or local buckling mode, respectively, where t is the section thickness, fy is the yield
stress, foD and foL are the distortional and local buckling stresses of single channels, respectively
[2]. CFS members can also be subjected to residual stresses caused by cold-forming process.
However, the residual stresses were not included in FE models, because some research studies
[24-26] have shown that residual stresses only have a small effect on the ultimate loads of CFS
members.

15
3.7. Validation of the developed finite element models

The developed FE models were validated based on failure modes, load-displacement curves
and ultimate loads. Fig. 9 exhibits good similarity between the deformed shapes of specimens
observed in tests and FE analyses. It also shows that the failure mode of specimens predicted
by FE analyses is local-distortional interaction buckling as observed in the tests. As shown in
Fig. 10 and Table 2, the ultimate loads predicted by FE analyses agree well with those from
the tests. In Fig. 10, the patterns of the load versus shortening curves from the tests and FE
analyses are similar. However, the slopes of the load versus shortening curves from FE analyses
were higher than those from test results. The reasons for this difference are considered to be
(1) modelling only the clear length of 600 mm, (2) additional local bearing deformation of the
clamped segments and (3) localized imperfections and variations along the specimen length.
Overall, the developed FE models are considered reliable for predicting the compression ca-
pacity and failure mode of single channel and BC members.

4. Parametric study

4.1. General

Based on the validated FE models, parametric studies were conducted to investigate the effects
of important parameters, such as the screw size, screw spacing and number of screws along
each row, on the compression behaviour and capacity of short BC members. Twelve CFS sec-
tions shown in Figs. 16-17 were used, which are made of single channel sections subject to
either distortional buckling (Group 1 except SC87D sections used in the experimental study,
which fail by local-distortional interaction buckling) or local buckling (Group 2). These sec-
tions had three different depths of 75, 87 and 120 mm and thicknesses of 0.75, 0.95, 1.00 and
2.20 mm. The member lengths (L) were selected in the range of 600 to 800 mm. The selected
SC75D, SC87D and SC120D sections are based on the channel sections used commonly in
LSF walls in Australia, while the selected plain channel sections have similar ratios of section
height to flange width and flange width to lip width as the commonly used commercial prod-
ucts. The thicknesses were chosen so that the sections failed in either distortional or local buck-
ling modes. The elastic local and distortional buckling loads (Nol and Nod), half-wavelengths,
dominant failure modes and compression capacities (Nc,FEA-i) of the single channel sections

16
were determined by using the finite strip program CUFSM [27] and FE analyses, and are sum-
marized in Table 3. The shear load versus slip displacement curves of the screw fasteners
shown in Fig. 15 were modified for varying channel section thicknesses using the proposal
given in [23]. The material properties of all investigated members were assumed to be the same
as those of the tested specimens (Fig. 13). To investigate the effects of screw size, FE analyses
of BC75D-600-2S-150, BC87D-600-2S-150 and BC87L-600-2S-150 members were con-
ducted with screw sizes in the range of 6g to 14g, as well as with simplified rigid or flexible
connectors. The shear behaviour of the flexible connector was assumed to follow that of 6g
screws, however, its stiffness was reduced by 95% (Fig. 15). To investigate the effects of the
remaining parameters, the screw spacing of investigated BC members was varied from L/20 to
L/2 while the number of screws per row was either one or two.

Fig. 16. Sections used in Group 1 parametric study.

17
 Fig. 17. Sections used in Group 2 parametric study.

Table 3. Additional information of single channel sections used in parametric study.

Elastic buckling loads Half-wavelengths (mm) FE analyses
Section Local Distortional Failure Nc,FEA-i
Nol (kN) Nod (kN)
buckling buckling mode (kN)
SC75D-600 50.95 39.76 83.90 287.70 D 50.68
SC75D-800 50.95 39.76 83.90 287.70 D 49.44
SC87D-600 25.02 32.48 69.10 283.70 LD 47.20
SC87D-800 25.02 32.48 69.10 283.70 LD 43.78
SC120D-600 341.71 245.82 167.70 435.80 D 243.61
SC120D-800 341.71 245.82 167.70 435.80 D 234.22
SC75L-600 13.78 33.98 58.50 536.40 L 37.81
SC75L-800 13.78 33.98 58.50 536.40 L 37.79
SC87L-600 25.45 53.67 70.10 669.40 L 59.44
SC87L-800 25.45 53.67 70.10 669.40 L 59.97
SC120L-600 19.60 51.54 93.70 790.30 L 68.59
SC120L-800 19.60 51.54 93.70 790.30 L 67.71

18
4.2. Results and discussion

Fig. 18 shows the typical deformed shapes of investigated BC members at their ultimate com-
pression loads. This confirms that failures of BC75D and BC120D members are dominated by
distortional (D) buckling while members in Group 2 and BC87D members fail by local (L) and
local-distortional (LD) interaction buckling, respectively.

Fig. 18. Deformed shapes of BC members at their ultimate compression loads: (a) BC75D,
(b) BC87D, (c) BC120D, (d) BC75L, (e) BC87L and (f) BC120L (Note that the deformation
magnitudes are scaled by a factor of three).

Table 4. Effect of screw size on the compression capacity.

Screw
Speci- Screw Nc,FEA Speci- Screw Nc,FEA Speci- Screw Nc,FEA
diameter
men size (kN) men size (kN) men size (kN)
(mm)
Flexi- Flexi- Flexi-
- 105.19 91.07 115.29
ble ble ble
6g 3.5 107.67 6g 91.38 6g 115.23
BC75D 8g 4.2 107.84 BC87D 8g 91.46 BC87L 8g 115.26
-600- 10g 4.7 107.97 -600- 10g 91.39 -600- 10g 115.28
2S-150 2S-150 2S-150
12g 5.4 108.21 12g 91.48 12g 115.29
14g 6.3 108.32 14g 91.19 14g 115.18
Rigid - 108.64 Rigid 93.36 Rigid 115.28

As shown in Table 4, when the screw size was varied from 6g to 14g, or the screw fasteners
were modelled by rigid or flexible connectors, the compression capacities of BC75D-600-2S-

19
150, BC87D-600-2S-150 and BC87L-600-2S-150 members remained almost unchanged, de-
spite the varying shear load-slip displacement characteristics (Fig. 15). Hence it is concluded
that screw fastener characteristics do not affect the compression capacities of BC members if
their failures are dominated by distortional and/or local buckling.

As shown in Fig. 19, when the screw spacing was reduced, the level of the web buckling com-
patibility in BC87D members increased. For BC87D members with a screw spacing of 60 mm,
which is less than the local and distortional buckling half-wavelengths (69.1 and 283.7 mm,
respectively) of SC87D section, the full web buckling compatibility was not achieved since
two webs of the individual members still buckled separately between two rows of screws. The
web of BC87D-600-2S-30 member, using very small screw spacing, achieved the full buckling
compatibility, where both webs of the individual members exhibited the same buckling de-
formed shape. The same observations were also noted for most of the other BC members.

Fig. 19. Web buckling compatibility in BC87D members with varying screw spacing (Note:
the longitudinal cut plane is located at mid-height of the cross section).

Table 5 summarizes the failure modes and compression capacities (Nc,FEA) of the investigated

20
BC members, and the ratios of their capacities to the sum of their individual member capacities
(Nc,FEA/ Nc,FEA-i). Despite being connected by screw fasteners, these BC members failed by
local or distortional buckling if the behaviour of individual members was dominated by local
or distortional buckling mode, respectively. Further, when the screw spacing was reduced from
L/2 to L/20, the compression capacity of BC members increased slightly, while the highest and
lowest value differed by 1 to 8%. Similarly, when the number of screws along each row was
increased from one to two, the compression capacity of BC members remained almost the
same.

Table 5 also shows that the compression capacities of BC members subject to local buckling,
such as BC75L, BC87L and BC120L members, are equal to about the sum of their individual
member capacities, despite the presence of screw fasteners. The same observation is also made
for BC87D members, which fail by local-distortional interaction buckling. According to
Fratamico and Schafer [28], the composite action in a BC member can increase the compres-
sion capacity to be more than twice the capacity of its individual members, but the full compo-
site action happens in a BC member only when its web elements are fully connected along the
member length. Thus, the composite action was not achieved in BC75L, BC87L, BC120L and
BC87D members. However, the compression capacities of BC75D and BC120D members sub-
ject to distortional buckling are higher than the sum of their individual member capacities by
up to 16%. Hence, in these members, a partial composite action must have been achieved.
Besides, the relationship between their capacities and screw spacing is not evident. This study
assumes that the combined effects of screw fasteners and interaction between the webs of in-
dividual members can increase the distortional buckling stress of BC members since they can
partly restrain the minor web deformation in the distortional buckling mode with longer half-
wavelength.

The current design standards [1, 2] state that the ratio of the screw spacing to the minimum
radius of gyration of an individual member (s/ri) in a built-up member should not exceed one-
half of the governing slenderness ratio of the built-up member. Using this, the screw spacing
of the investigated BC members in Table 4 should not be greater than L/3 to L/5. As the above
discussions on the effects of screw spacing indicate, this design rule is conservative for short
BC members.

21
 Table 5. Effects of screw fastener arrangement on the compression capacities of short BC members.
by Zhang and
FE Analysis by Lu et al. [8] by DSM in design standards [1, 2]
Young [7]
Specimen
Nc,FEA Failure Nc,FEA / Nc,[7] / Failure Nc,[8] / Failure Nc,prop-1 Nc,prop-2 Nc,prop-3 Failure
(kN) mode-FEA Nc,FEA-i Nc,FEA mode [7] Nc,FEA mode [8] / Nc,FEA / Nc,FEA / Nc,FEA mode-p
BC75D-600-1S-300 106.08 D 1.05 0.92 D 0.93 D 0.93 0.93 0.93 D
BC75D-600-1S-150 106.78 D 1.05 0.91 D 0.92 D 0.92 0.92 0.92 D
BC75D-600-1S-100 107.90 D 1.06 0.90 D 0.91 D 0.91 0.91 0.91 D
BC75D-600-1S-60 108.62 D 1.07 0.90 D 0.91 D 0.91 0.91 0.91 D
BC75D-600-1S-30 109.47 D 1.08 0.89 D 0.90 D 0.90 0.90 0.90 D
BC87D-600-1S-300 91.14 LD 0.97 0.95 D 0.78 LDG 0.97 0.97 0.97 D
BC87D-600-1S-150 91.35 LD 0.97 0.94 D 0.78 LDG 0.97 0.97 0.97 D
BC87D-600-1S-100 91.53 LD 0.97 0.94 D 0.78 LDG 0.97 0.97 0.97 D
BC87D-600-1S-60 91.36 LD 0.97 0.94 D 0.78 LDG 0.97 0.97 0.97 D
BC87D-600-1S-30 92.04 LD 0.98 0.94 D 0.77 LDG 0.96 0.96 0.96 D
BC120D-600-1S-300 530.35 D 1.09 0.84 D 0.85 D 0.85 0.85 0.85 D
BC120D-600-1S-150 524.90 D 1.08 0.85 D 0.86 D 0.86 0.86 0.86 D
BC120D-600-1S-100 533.64 D 1.10 0.83 D 0.85 D 0.85 0.85 0.85 D
BC120D-600-1S-60 546.76 D 1.12 0.81 D 0.83 D 0.83 0.83 0.83 D
BC120D-600-1S-30 562.01 D 1.15 0.79 D 0.80 D 0.80 0.80 0.80 D
BC75L-600-1S-300 75.74 L 1.00 1.04 D 0.71 LDG 0.94 0.93 0.95 L
BC75L-600-1S-150 75.83 L 1.00 1.04 D 0.71 LDG 0.94 0.95 0.95 L
BC75L-600-1S-100 75.39 L 1.00 1.04 D 0.72 LDG 0.95 0.96 0.95 L
BC75L-600-1S-60 75.94 L 1.00 1.03 D 0.71 LDG 0.94 0.96 0.94 L
BC75L-600-1S-30 76.05 L 1.01 1.03 D 0.71 LDG 0.94 0.96 0.94 L
BC87L-600-1S-300 115.24 L 0.97 1.11 D 0.73 LDG 1.05 1.05 1.06 L
BC87L-600-1S-150 115.39 L 0.97 1.11 D 0.73 LDG 1.05 1.06 1.06 L
BC87L-600-1S-100 115.09 L 0.97 1.11 D 0.73 LDG 1.05 1.07 1.06 L

22
BC87L-600-1S-60 115.46 L 0.97 1.11 D 0.73 LDG 1.05 1.07 1.06 L
BC87L-600-1S-30 116.27 L 0.98 1.10 D 0.73 LDG 1.04 1.06 1.05 L
BC120L-600-1S-300 137.19 L 1.00 1.03 D 0.65 LDG 0.96 0.95 0.96 L
BC120L-600-1S-150 137.52 L 1.00 1.02 D 0.65 LDG 0.95 0.96 0.96 L
BC120L-600-1S-100 137.11 L 1.00 1.03 D 0.65 LDG 0.96 0.96 0.96 L
BC120L-600-1S-60 137.54 L 1.00 1.02 D 0.65 LDG 0.95 0.96 0.96 L
BC120L-600-1S-30 137.59 L 1.00 1.02 D 0.65 LDG 0.95 0.96 0.96 L
BC75D-600-2S-300 106.37 D 1.05 1.04 D 0.93 D 0.93 0.93 0.93 D
BC75D-600-2S-150 107.97 D 1.07 1.02 D 0.91 D 0.91 0.91 0.91 D
BC75D-600-2S-100 109.85 D 1.08 1.00 D 0.90 D 0.90 0.90 0.90 D
BC75D-600-2S-60 111.36 D 1.10 0.99 D 0.89 D 0.89 0.89 0.89 D
BC75D-600-2S-30 113.82 D 1.12 0.97 D 0.87 D 0.87 0.87 0.87 D
BC87D-600-2S-300 91.14 LD 0.97 1.12 D 0.78 LDG 0.97 0.97 0.97 D
BC87D-600-2S-150 91.39 LD 0.97 1.12 D 0.78 LDG 0.97 0.97 0.97 D
BC87D-600-2S-100 91.20 LD 0.97 1.12 D 0.78 LDG 0.97 0.97 0.97 D
BC87D-600-2S-60 91.05 LD 0.96 1.12 D 0.78 LDG 0.97 0.97 0.97 D
BC87D-600-2S-30 91.91 LD 0.97 1.11 D 0.78 LDG 0.96 0.96 0.96 D
BC120D-600-2S-300 536.69 D 1.10 1.05 D 0.84 D 0.84 0.84 0.84 D
BC120D-600-2S-150 546.31 D 1.12 1.03 D 0.83 D 0.83 0.83 0.83 D
BC120D-600-2S-100 535.79 D 1.10 1.05 D 0.84 D 0.84 0.84 0.84 D
BC120D-600-2S-60 541.59 D 1.11 1.04 D 0.83 D 0.83 0.83 0.83 D
BC120D-600-2S-30 566.44 D 1.16 0.99 D 0.80 D 0.80 0.80 0.80 D
BC75L-600-2S-300 76.01 L 1.01 1.16 D 0.71 LDG 0.94 0.93 0.94 L
BC75L-600-2S-150 75.75 L 1.00 1.16 D 0.71 LDG 0.94 0.95 0.95 L
BC75L-600-2S-100 75.43 L 1.00 1.17 D 0.72 LDG 0.95 0.96 0.95 L
BC75L-600-2S-60 75.87 L 1.00 1.16 D 0.71 LDG 0.94 0.96 0.95 L
BC75L-600-2S-30 76.27 L 1.01 1.15 D 0.71 LDG 0.94 0.95 0.94 L
BC87L-600-2S-300 115.42 L 0.97 1.23 D 0.73 LDG 1.05 1.05 1.06 L

23
BC87L-600-2S-150 115.28 L 0.97 1.23 D 0.73 LDG 1.05 1.06 1.06 L
BC87L-600-2S-100 115.31 L 0.97 1.23 D 0.73 LDG 1.05 1.07 1.06 L
BC87L-600-2S-60 115.52 L 0.97 1.23 D 0.73 LDG 1.05 1.07 1.06 L
BC87L-600-2S-30 116.64 L 0.98 1.22 D 0.72 LDG 1.04 1.06 1.05 L
BC120L-600-2S-300 137.01 L 1.00 1.23 D 0.65 LDG 0.96 0.95 0.96 L
BC120L-600-2S-150 137.49 L 1.00 1.22 D 0.65 LDG 0.95 0.96 0.96 L
BC120L-600-2S-100 137.29 L 1.00 1.23 D 0.65 LDG 0.96 0.96 0.96 L
BC120L-600-2S-60 137.68 L 1.00 1.22 D 0.65 LDG 0.95 0.96 0.96 L
BC120L-600-2S-30 137.55 L 1.00 1.22 D 0.65 LDG 0.95 0.96 0.96 L
BC75D-800-1S-400 103.41 D 1.05 0.94 D 0.95 D 0.95 0.95 0.95 D
BC75D-800-1S-200 103.54 D 1.05 0.94 D 0.95 D 0.95 0.95 0.95 D
BC75D-800-1S-160 104.94 D 1.06 0.93 D 0.94 D 0.94 0.94 0.94 D
BC75D-800-1S-100 105.00 D 1.06 0.93 D 0.94 D 0.94 0.94 0.94 D
BC75D-800-1S-40 105.74 D 1.07 0.92 D 0.93 D 0.93 0.93 0.93 D
BC87D-800-1S-400 89.28 LD 1.02 0.97 D 0.79 LDG 0.99 0.99 0.99 D
BC87D-800-1S-200 89.04 LD 1.02 0.97 D 0.79 LDG 1.00 1.00 1.00 D
BC87D-800-1S-160 89.33 LD 1.02 0.97 D 0.79 LDG 0.99 0.99 0.99 D
BC87D-800-1S-100 89.91 LD 1.03 0.96 D 0.78 LDG 0.99 0.99 0.99 D
BC87D-800-1S-40 89.69 LD 1.02 0.96 D 0.79 LDG 0.99 0.99 0.99 D
BC120D-800-1S-400 485.81 D 1.04 0.91 D 0.93 D 0.93 0.93 0.93 D
BC120D-800-1S-200 491.69 D 1.05 0.90 D 0.92 D 0.92 0.92 0.92 D
BC120D-800-1S-160 484.99 D 1.04 0.92 D 0.93 D 0.93 0.93 0.93 D
BC120D-800-1S-100 495.41 D 1.06 0.90 D 0.91 D 0.91 0.91 0.91 D
BC120D-800-1S-40 490.68 D 1.05 0.91 D 0.92 D 0.92 0.92 0.92 D
BC75L-800-1S-400 75.39 L 1.00 1.04 D 0.71 LDG 0.92 0.90 0.93 L
BC75L-800-1S-200 75.45 L 1.00 1.04 D 0.71 LDG 0.92 0.94 0.93 L
BC75L-800-1S-160 75.47 L 1.00 1.04 D 0.71 LDG 0.92 0.94 0.93 L
BC75L-800-1S-100 75.47 L 1.00 1.04 D 0.71 LDG 0.92 0.95 0.93 L

24
BC75L-800-1S-40 75.74 L 1.00 1.04 D 0.71 LDG 0.92 0.95 0.92 L
BC87L-800-1S-400 115.54 L 0.96 1.10 D 0.73 LDG 1.03 1.03 1.04 L
BC87L-800-1S-200 115.36 L 0.96 1.11 D 0.73 LDG 1.03 1.05 1.05 L
BC87L-800-1S-160 115.66 L 0.96 1.10 D 0.73 LDG 1.03 1.05 1.04 L
BC87L-800-1S-100 115.27 L 0.96 1.11 D 0.73 LDG 1.03 1.06 1.05 L
BC87L-800-1S-40 116.46 L 0.97 1.10 D 0.72 LDG 1.02 1.05 1.04 L
BC120L-800-1S-400 136.44 L 1.01 1.03 D 0.65 LDG 0.95 0.94 0.96 L
BC120L-800-1S-200 136.37 L 1.01 1.03 D 0.65 LDG 0.95 0.96 0.96 L
BC120L-800-1S-160 136.67 L 1.01 1.03 D 0.65 LDG 0.95 0.96 0.95 L
BC120L-800-1S-100 136.29 L 1.01 1.03 D 0.65 LDG 0.95 0.97 0.96 L
BC120L-800-1S-40 136.41 L 1.01 1.03 D 0.65 LDG 0.95 0.97 0.96 L
BC75D-800-2S-400 105.15 D 1.06 1.05 D 0.94 D 0.94 0.94 0.94 D
BC75D-800-2S-200 105.31 D 1.07 1.05 D 0.94 D 0.94 0.94 0.94 D
BC75D-800-2S-160 105.97 D 1.07 1.04 D 0.93 D 0.93 0.93 0.93 D
BC75D-800-2S-100 107.72 D 1.09 1.02 D 0.92 D 0.92 0.92 0.92 D
BC75D-800-2S-40 107.55 D 1.09 1.02 D 0.92 D 0.92 0.92 0.92 D
BC87D-800-2S-400 88.72 LD 1.01 1.15 D 0.79 LDG 1.00 1.00 1.00 D
BC87D-800-2S-200 88.45 LD 1.01 1.16 D 0.80 LDG 1.00 1.00 1.00 D
BC87D-800-2S-160 89.04 LD 1.02 1.15 D 0.79 LDG 1.00 1.00 1.00 D
BC87D-800-2S-100 89.84 LD 1.03 1.14 D 0.78 LDG 0.99 0.99 0.99 D
BC87D-800-2S-40 89.44 LD 1.02 1.14 D 0.79 LDG 0.99 0.99 0.99 D
BC120D-800-2S-400 483.31 D 1.03 1.16 D 0.94 D 0.94 0.94 0.94 D
BC120D-800-2S-200 505.76 D 1.08 1.11 D 0.89 D 0.89 0.89 0.89 D
BC120D-800-2S-160 513.59 D 1.10 1.09 D 0.88 D 0.88 0.88 0.88 D
BC120D-800-2S-100 522.98 D 1.12 1.07 D 0.86 D 0.86 0.86 0.86 D
BC120D-800-2S-40 518.36 D 1.11 1.08 D 0.87 D 0.87 0.87 0.87 D
BC75L-800-2S-400 75.21 L 1.00 1.17 D 0.71 LDG 0.92 0.90 0.93 L
BC75L-800-2S-200 75.43 L 1.00 1.17 D 0.71 LDG 0.92 0.94 0.93 L

25
 BC75L-800-2S-160 75.35 L 1.00 1.17 D 0.71 LDG 0.92 0.95 0.93 L
BC75L-800-2S-100 75.47 L 1.00 1.17 D 0.71 LDG 0.92 0.95 0.93 L
BC75L-800-2S-40 75.89 L 1.00 1.16 D 0.71 LDG 0.91 0.95 0.92 L
BC87L-800-2S-400 115.71 L 0.96 1.23 D 0.73 LDG 1.03 1.03 1.04 L
BC87L-800-2S-200 115.65 L 0.96 1.23 D 0.73 LDG 1.03 1.05 1.04 L
BC87L-800-2S-160 115.45 L 0.96 1.23 D 0.73 LDG 1.03 1.06 1.04 L
BC87L-800-2S-100 115.63 L 0.96 1.23 D 0.73 LDG 1.03 1.06 1.04 L
BC87L-800-2S-40 116.45 L 0.97 1.22 D 0.72 LDG 1.02 1.05 1.04 L
BC120L-800-2S-400 136.05 L 1.00 1.24 D 0.65 LDG 0.95 0.95 0.96 L
BC120L-800-2S-200 136.46 L 1.01 1.23 D 0.65 LDG 0.95 0.96 0.96 L
BC120L-800-2S-160 136.61 L 1.01 1.23 D 0.65 LDG 0.95 0.96 0.95 L
BC120L-800-2S-100 136.29 L 1.01 1.24 D 0.65 LDG 0.95 0.97 0.96 L
BC120L-800-2S-40 136.69 L 1.01 1.23 D 0.65 LDG 0.95 0.96 0.95 L
Average 1.062 0.778 0.949 0.955 0.953
COV 0.107 0.123 0.060 0.064 0.062
Note: “Failure mode-FEA”, “Failure mode [7]” and “Failure mode [8]” mean the failure modes of BC members given by FE analyses, the design
methods of Zhang and Young [7] and Lu et al. [8], respectively, while “Failure mode-p” means those given by the three proposed design methods.

26
5. Direct strength method based design guidelines

5.1. DSM based design guidelines in the current design standards [1, 2]

The compression capacity of a CFS member is the least of the global buckling capacity (Nce),
local buckling capacity (Ncl) and distortional buckling capacity (Ncd), where Nce is determined
by:

For c ≤ 1.5: 𝑁 = 0.658 𝑁 (2)

0.877
For c >1.5: 𝑁 = 𝑁 (3)


𝑁
 = (4)
𝑁

where Ny is the yield capacity, Noc is the least of the elastic compression member buckling load
in flexural, torsional and flexural-torsional buckling.

Ncl and Ncd are determined by:

If l ≤ 0.776: 𝑁 =𝑁 (5)
. .
𝑁 𝑁
If l > 0.776: 𝑁 = 1 − 0.15 𝑁 (6)
𝑁 𝑁

𝑁
 = (7)
𝑁

If d ≤ 0.561: 𝑁 =𝑁 (8)
. .
𝑁 𝑁
If d > 0.561: 𝑁 = 1 − 0.25 𝑁 (9)
𝑁 𝑁

𝑁
 = (10)
𝑁

where Nod and Nol are the elastic buckling loads in distortional and local buckling mode, re-
spectively.

For CFS built-up members, including BC members, the DSM design guidelines are not avail-
able in the CFS standards [1, 2]. In this study, three methods are proposed for predicting the
compression capacities of BC members failing in local or distortional buckling mode.

27
  Method 1: Nc,Prop-1 = min (2Ncd, 2Ncl) where Ncd and Ncl are determined using Eqs. 5 to
10, while Noc is the least of the elastic flexural, torsional and flexural-torsional buckling
loads. Note that the elastic flexural buckling load is determined by using the modified
slenderness ratio of the BC member (Eq. 1), Noc = Ag 2 E / [(le /r)m]2, where Ag is the
gross area of BC section, while the elastic torsional and flexural-torsional buckling
loads are calculated as twice those of its individual member. Section 4.2 showed that
the compression capacity of BC members subject to distortional buckling might be up
to 16% higher than that of its individual members. However, this is ignored and Ncd is
calculated by using the distortional buckling stress of the individual member.

 Method 2: Nc,Prop-2 is determined as for Method 1, but Noc is the elastic flexural buckling
load, determined by using the modified slenderness ratio of the BC member.

 Method 3: Nc,Prop-3 is determined as for Method 1, but Noc is twice the elastic flexural
buckling load of the individual member (single channel member).

5.2. DSM based design guidelines proposed by past research studies

Li et al. [5] proposed design guidelines to determine the compression capacity of BC mem-
bers as follows:

 The built-up member capacity is the sum of its individual member capacities. For built-
up members of length less than 400 mm, a strength reduction factor of 0.9 is recom-
mended to take into account the effect of installation error.
 To determine the elastic flexural buckling load of BC members, the second moment of
area about the weak axis (Iy) of an individual member shall be calculated as follows:
𝐼 = 𝐼 + 𝜂𝐴𝑑 (11)
= 0 if /(w/t) ≤ 1.4 (12)
= [/(w/t) - 1.4] /0.6 if 1.4 < /(w/t) ≤ 2.0 (13)
= 1 if /(w/t) > 2.0 (14)
Lyi /ryi (15)

28
 where Lyi, Iyi and ri are the effective length, second moment of area and radius of gyra-
tion about the weak axis of an individual member, respectively; A is the individual
member’s cross-sectional area; d is the distance between the individual section’s and
built-up section’s centroids; w and t are the flange width and thickness, respectively.
 For members buckling about the symmetry axis, the torsional or flexural-torsional
buckling does not have to be considered.
 The member distortional capacity shall be determined in accordance with the related
provisions in the current design standards [1, 2].

Fig. 20. Back-to-Back sections investigated by: (a) Zhang and Young [7], (b) Lu et al. [8].

Zhang and Young [7] proposed two design methods for BC members with longitudinal web
stiffeners (Fig. 20 (a)). The first method used Eqs. 5 to 10 in the current standards [1, 2] while
the second method used modified Eqs. 16 to 19 that consider the local instability in multiple
compression elements. Besides, the elastic local and distortional buckling loads are determined
by a rational buckling analysis of the sections as shown in Fig. 20 (a) while the flexural buck-
ling load is determined by using the modified slenderness ratio of the BC member, (le/r)m.

If l ≤ 0.673: 𝑁 =𝑁 (16)
. .
𝑁 𝑁
If l > 0.673: 𝑁 = 1 − 0.22 𝑁 (17)
𝑁 𝑁
If d ≤ 0.761: 𝑁 =𝑁 (18)
. .
𝑁 𝑁
If d > 0.761: 𝑁 = 1 − 0.2 𝑁 (19)
𝑁 𝑁

29
Lu et al.’s [8] design guidelines are based on determining the elastic local and distortional
buckling loads by the rational buckling analysis of the section shown in Fig. 20 (b), and the
elastic flexural buckling load by using the overall slenderness ratio of the entire BC section,
(le/r)o. The compression capacity (Nc) of BC members was determined by:

𝑁 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛(𝑁 , 𝑁 ∗ , 𝑁 ) if Nol > Nod or 𝑁 > 𝑁∗ (20)

𝑁 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛(𝑁 , 𝑁 ∗ , 𝑁 , 𝑁 ∗ ) if Nol < Nod and 𝑁 < 𝑁∗ (21)

where 𝑁 ∗ and 𝑁 ∗ are the member compression capacities for the local-global interaction
buckling and local-distortional-global interaction buckling modes, respectively. The equations
to determine 𝑁 ∗ and 𝑁 ∗ are based on the proposals of Kumar and Kalyanaraman [29], who
developed an improved local buckling capacity curve that considers the effect of web to flange
widths ratios, and Schafer [30], who suggested methods to determine the compression capaci-
ties of CFS members failing in local-distortional interaction mode. These equations are not
presented herein because of their complexity. The definitions of other parameters are as defined
in Section 5.1.

Fig. 21. Buckling analyses used for design as proposed in: (a) this paper, Lu et al. [8] and Li
et al. [5], (b) and (c) Zhang and Young [7].

In this section, the results of investigations conducted based on the DSM design guidelines in
the current design standards [1, 2] and past research studies [5, 7, 8] are presented. The finite
strip program CUFSM was used to determine the elastic local and distortional buckling loads
required for each method (Fig. 21). To conduct the buckling analyses for the proposals of
Zhang and Young [7], the solid stiffeners were replaced by flat elements at the screw locations

30
with the thickness modified to t + 6(t)0.5. Meanwhile, the least of the capacity predictions, using
their two design methods, was considered as the BC member capacity. For the buckling anal-
yses of BC members in other design methods, individual channel member was modelled in
CUFSM.

Table 5 summarizes the ratios of the BC members’ compression capacities predicted by the
above design methods to those by FE analyses. Note that the effective length factor was 0.5
since the support conditions were chosen as fixed-ended. Table 5 also compares the dominant
failure modes of these members predicted by the design methods and FE analyses. Since the
design method proposed by Li et al. [5] provided the same predictions as the third method
proposed in this paper, Table 5 does not include Li el. al.’s [5] predictions. Eqs. 11 to 15 in Li
et al.’s [5] design method are likely to be more suitable for BC members subject to global
buckling failures. These equations are unnecessary and cumbersome for short BC members
failing by local or distortional buckling, and thus were not considered.

5.3. Discussion

As shown in Table 5, the design guidelines proposed by Zhang and Young [7] may not be
suitable for the investigated BC members in this study. The average ratio of their predictions
to FE analysis results is 1.062, however, the COV is 0.107. Especially, for the case of BC
members, which fail by local buckling (L), their design guidelines are unsafe by up to 24%,
and gives incorrect member failure mode (as distortional buckling, D). This is because their
buckling analysis method based on Fig. 20 (a) gives higher local buckling loads of BC members
than the real value as shown in Fig. 22. In contrast, the design guidelines proposed by Lu et al.
[8] are very conservative, by 22% on average (overall average of 0.778 with COV of 0.123).
For the BC members in Group 2, their design guidelines predict their failure mode as local-
distortional-buckling (LDG), which was not observed in the test and FE analyses.

The current design standards [1, 2] and Li et. al.’s [5] proposal (Method 3 in this paper) are
able to predict the compression capacities and failure modes of BC members, which can fail in
either local or distortional buckling mode. The ratios of their predictions to FE analysis results
vary in the range of 0.80 to 1.07 (average of 0.953 and COV of 0.064). Such variation can be
justified considering the tolerance of the DSM equations developed for different single channel
sections, the approximations in FE analysis results and the effect due to ignoring the higher
31
capacity of BC members subject to distortional buckling. The three proposed DSM design
methods based on the current design standards, provide nearly similar predictions. The second
design method is the most accurate (average of 0.955 and COV of 0.064), however, this paper
recommends the third method for practical use since it is the most simplified, but is still reliable
(average of 0.953 and COV of 0.062).

Although BC87D members exhibited local-distortional interaction buckling (Table 5), the pro-
posed design methods were able to predict their capacities reasonably well. Based on Martins
et al. [31], the individual channel section (SC87D) may fail by “true local-distortional interac-
tion” buckling since its ratio of distortional to local buckling loads is 1.298, which is in the
range of 0.8 to 1.3. However, SC87D section cannot represent all the channel sections subject
to “true local-distortional interaction” buckling. Therefore, further research studies on BC
members made of this type of channel sections are needed.

Fig. 22. Buckling analysis results of BC75L-1S and BC75L-2S sections.

6. Summary and conclusions

This paper has presented the details and results of an investigation of short CFS single channel
and BC members failing in distortional and local buckling mode. Compression tests were un-
dertaken first on short CFS single channel and BC members failing in local-distortional inter-
action buckling. FE models of the tested members were developed and validated using the test
results. Using the validated FE models, a parametric study was undertaken for 120 cases of BC
members with different sections, screw sizes, screw spacing and number of screws per rows.

32
The BC members in the parametric study failed mostly by local or distortional buckling but in
some cases by local-distortional interaction buckling.

This research has provided a good understanding of the compression behaviour of short BC
members. The results showed that the screw characteristics and arrangement have only a small
effect on the compression behaviour and capacities of BC members if their failures are domi-
nated by local or distortional buckling modes. Although the screw spacing can affect the level
of web buckling compatibility in these BC members, a screw spacing much less than the local
and distortional buckling half-wavelengths may be needed to achieve full web buckling com-
patibility. Further, a partial composite action is present in BC members subject to distortional
buckling, which may give slightly higher compression capacities than the sum of their individ-
ual member capacities. For BC members subject to local or local-distortional buckling, such
composite action may not be achieved and its capacity is about twice that of their individual
members.

Using the FE analysis results, the accuracy of the design guidelines in the current design stand-
ards and past research studies was investigated in terms of the predicted compression capacity
and the dominant failure modes of short BC members. It was found that the DSM design guide-
lines proposed by some past research studies are not suitable for these members, while those
in the current design standards are conservative. This paper has proposed a reliable and simpli-
fied method based on the current CFS design standards.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank QUT, Australian Research Council (Grant Number
LP170100951), National Association of Steel Framed Housing (NASH) and Stoddart Group
for providing financial support, research facilities and test materials, and Banyo Laboratory
Technical staff for their assistance during the tests. The first author appreciates the assistance
of Mr David Fratamico from Johns Hopkins University, Mr Ngoc Hieu Pham and Mr Dang
Khoa Phan from the University of Sydney, and Assoc. Prof Hung Cuong Bui from NUCE
Vietnam in relation to screw shear tests, DSM and CUFSM.

33
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