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Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
CSUSB ScholarWorks
2002
Recommended Citation
Shibalovich, Paul, "Fundamental theorem of algebra" (2002). Theses Digitization Project. 2203.
https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/2203
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FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ALGEBRA
A Thesis
Presented to the
Faculty of
San Bernardino
Master of Arts
in
Mathematics
by
Paul Shibalovich
December 2002
FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ALGEBRA
A Thesis
Presented to the
Faculty of
San Bernardino
by
Paul Shibalovich
December 2002
Approved by
differences.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT S
his help and time dedication in helping and working with me.
Mathematics.
e#
iv
DEDICATION
To
Nadya Pavlov
Timothy Shibalovich
Olga Shibalovich
Lidia Pelepchuk
Anna Pavlenko
Lubov Rudenko
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT................................................ iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......................................... iv
1.5 Notations..................................... 2
2.5 Summary....................................... 7
3.3 Theorems........................................ 10
3.5 Summary.......................................... 15
v
CHAPTER FOUR: ALGEBRAIC PROOF OF THE FUNDAMENTAL
THEOREM OF ALGEBRA
4.1 Introduction.................................... 17
4.2 Definitions...................................... 17
4.3 Theorems........................................ 18
4.5 Summary.......................................... 33
5.1 Introduction....................................34
5.4 Lemma............................................ 37
5.6 Summary................................... .. . 40
6.1 Introduction................................... 41
REFERENCES................................................. 43
vi
CHAPTER ONE
BACKGROUND
1.1 Introduction
1
thesis is to educate the reader about different approaches
1.5 Notations
the following:
1.5.1 Definition
Algebra.
1.5.2 Definition
1.5.3 Definition
1.5.4 Definition
of the FTA and its proof. Chapter Three explores the proof
2
Chapter Six examines the similarities of the three proofs
3
CHAPTER TWO
THEOREM OF ALGEBRA
2.1 Introduction
will start with development of the FTA, and then lead the
4
than the real numbers"[1]. He worked with cubic equations,
5
realizing that x4 + y4 - 0 can be written as
FTA for the general case. At that time the FTA was
6
2.5 Summary
approach.
7
CHAPTER THREE
FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM
OF ALGEBRA
3.1 Introduction
3.2.1 Definition
the set G.
3.2.2 Definition
8
3.2.3 Definition
point in G .
3.2.4 Definition
stated below.
point, then
for n = 0, 1, 2, ...
2xi cJ(z-zor+1
9
i) ux(x0,y0) = vy(x0,y0)
3.3 Theorems
be constant throughout D .
10
where r is radius of the circle C and Mr is the maximum
n\ r f(z)dz
/w(z0) = —• f for n = 0,1, 2,... (1)
J V 07 2tui cJ (r-r ) +1
(z— ZqV
|/(z)| < M .
11
Theorem 3.3.3 (Lionville's Theorem) : If /(z) is
M
|/'(z) | < —- for an arbitrary zeC. In this theorem we are
r
also given that /(z) is bounded in the complex plane. Thi:
Thus, | f'(z) | M
< — where z is any fixed point and r is
r
12
an arbitrary large radius r can hold only if f'(z) = 0 .
P(z) an a. a,
get
-1
- --
n
= —n
b. + ... -|-- ’„LL + a" where a»
-I---M-l 0 . Now, let
ii I ai I I a„ I
enough K e N such that when z > K , -r—4 J—L
1 1 2n
13
a:
V z = 1, 2, ..., n , that is for each —in (2) . By the
a n-l
< 2—— for all values of z . So
w < + ,»-i + ... + IzI 2
ii i i fl, | | | | \a„ , ,
when z > K , w < J—1 . Thus, w - \an <---- a„ or
II 'll 2 I I I «l 2 1
iii i i i i K
w i - i a «i < -J—
2 1 , and hence i a«i - i w i > J—
2 L. Consequently,
we get that
w > (3)
a
inequality (3) then gives us | an + w| > ||an| GIG or
I 6Z I 1 2
implies that |P(z)| > or |/(z)| = -j--- r < ------
1 1 2 |p(z)| |a„|-;r
14
region exterior to the disk |z| > K. The function /(z) is
the closed disk |z| < K. This implies that /(z) is bounded
P(z0) = 0 .
3.5 Summary
15
contradiction to the assumption. Although the complex
16
CHAPTER FOUR
FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM
OF ALGEBRA
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Definitions
4.2.1 Definition
4.2.2 Definition
formally real.
4.2.3 Definition
17
in F . That is, F is algebraically closed if any
4.2.4 Definition
4.2.5 Definition
4.2.6 Definition
i) X/ a e K, a = Q, a > Q, -a > 0
4.3 Theorems
18
Proof: Let x = c + di where c and d are real numbers.
a = c2-d2 (1)
b = 2cd (2)
or
2
a + ^a2 + b2
c (3)
2
9 — a + -Jci+ b
d = ----- ------- (4)
2
19
f®,
I a + V«2-+ b2
From (3!) we get c = ± , and from (4) we get
Ta + Ja2 + b2
a — ± ij----- ----- -— . This shows that for every choice of
a + yja2 + b2 • Cl +
yja2 + b2
we found that c = ± , d = ±
u + ^Ja2 + b2 — Cl + yja2 + b2
Choose c = and d = , then
^a2 + b2 I - a + ^a2 + b2 \2
Cl +
(c + di)2 = + I
20
that for every M > 0 there exists 0 < x0 such that for all
jP(x 1
xrU. < x,1 ', 0 < M < ---W-1b- and therefore P(xj) > 0 .
*1
P(x) ax + + ape + a0
Similarly, lim = lim n-1
x x
1 an-3 : a
= limx^_a}(anx +a^+-(an_2+^~+ . This implies
XXX
that for every M < 0 there exists x0 < 0 such that for
p(x )
all xr < x0 , -- < M < 0 and therefore P(z,) < 0 . Since
xi~
P(x1) > 0 and P(x2) < 0 , from the Intermediate Value Theorem
22
square. Second, we need to show that the ordering of real
2
■i = Z(«,VF + a)
Z=1
n n n
or -1 = /Za.2 + Z^^; A V/ + Z A-2 ■ Since by hypothesis
Z=1 Z=1 Z=1
n
f\jaif3i = 0 and therefore
Jy £P , we get 2y
(=i
I + ZA2 •
Z=1 Z=1
n n n
-1 - IP i=\
and Y (5)
IP
(=1
23
y cannot be expressed as a sum of squares in P ; for
obtain
i + IA2
/=1
-/
z
= --------
n
2«,2
1=1
— y = c2 ■ for some c e P .
24
must have a = b2 (b 0) . Hence, by the definition
implies that a = b2 (b 0) .
that a » 0 .
conclude that a » 0 .
an 0, and P be a r.c.f.
25
Case 1) Suppose f(x) is reducible in P[x] , then this
r
-i=TJ(hi^2 f°r some reN (6)
z=i
26
2
Z
Z=1
(*)) = f W • S (*) + r (x) (7)
an identity
deg/(x) = n is odd. This implies that deg g(x) < n-2 also
27
is odd. By induction on n there exists a&P such that
28
This implies that the equation a-t + xbk = ax + xt\ has at most
29
Suppose that gcd(/(c - pc), g(x)) has a factor other than
(x—b)2 does not divide g(x) since b = b3, b2, ..., bn are all
F(a, b) = F(c) .
closed[5].
30
Proof: Let K be an ordered field and every a > 0eK
31
Theorem 4.3.6. Choosing two a's out of n a's gives us
32
a1 eK(i) , -a, is also in K(i) . Thus, (ar + a2) + (- ar) — a2 ,
4.5 Summary
K{i) .
33
CHAPTER FIVE
FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM
OF ALGEBRA
5.1 Introduction
of the Theorem.
5.2.1 Definition
5.2.2 Definition
34
5.2.3 Definition
subgroup of order pm .
5.2.4 Definition
F.
5.2.5 Definition
completely.
5.2.6 Definition •
35
Gal(K/F), we let KH denote the elements of K fixed by
H.
5.2.8 Notation
5.3 Theorems
t(F) is normal in G.
iii) |G| = |F:F|.
Galois group[6].
36
Theorem 5.3.2 (Sylow Theorem): Let G be a finite
5.4 Lemma
p [6] .
37
For the K above, any finite extension of R with
extensions.
38
G = Gal (K/R) be the Galois group. This implies that
39
5.6 Summary
40
CHAPTER SIX
6.1 Introduction
41
analysis proof is done by contradiction. In this proof, we
42
REFERENCES
[1] http://www-groups.dcs.stand.ac.uk/-history/
HistTopics/Fund_theorem_of_algebra .html
[2] http://physics.rug.ac.be/fysica/Geschiedenis/
HistTopics/Fund_theorem_of_algebra .html
43