Dominic T.

Villalba General Botany (Lab)

BSES-1

ORDERS OF GYMNOSPERMS
1. Pinophyta also known as Coniferophyta or Coniferae, or commonly as conifers, are a division of vascular
land plants containing a single extant class, Pinopsida.
(orders Pinales, the most widespread; Araucariales; and Cupressales)

2. Cycadophyta a palmlike plant of tropical and subtropical regions, bearing large male or female cones.
(order Cycadales)
3. Ginkgophyta, any member of the division Ginkgophyta, a group of gymnospermous plants of particular
interest to paleobotanists. Two of the three genera of ginkgophytes, Ginkgoites and Baiera, are extinct. The
third genus, Ginkgo, has only one member, Ginkgo biloba, commonly called the ginkgo tree.
(Order Ginkgoales)

4. Gnetophyta is a division of plants, grouped within the gymnosperms, that consists of some 70 species
across the three relict genera: Gnetum, Welwitschia, and Ephedra. Fossilized pollen attributed to a close
relative of Ephedra has been dated as far back as the Early Cretaceous.
(Orders Ephedrales, Gnetales, and Welwitschiales).
Dominic T. Villalba General Botany (Lab)
BSES-1

In the cells of most plants, crystals consisting of calcium oxalate are found which are formed by a process called
biomineralisation. It is thought that these crystals act as a storage reservoir for calcium and also provide for the
storage of toxic waste (detoxification).

Examples of crystals in plant cell

Calcium oxalate crystals are found in several shapes in plants, including needle-shaped 'raphides', pencil-
shaped 'styloids', block-shaped 'crystal sand' and rosette-shaped 'druses'.

Needle-Shaped 'Raphides' Pencil-Shaped 'Styloids'

Block-Shaped 'Crystal Sand’ Rosette-Shaped 'Druses'