Collapse-Resistant Performance of Long-Span

Single-Layer Spatial Grid Structures Subjected to

Equivalent Sudden Joint Loads
Li-min Tian 1; Jian-peng Wei 2; Qun-xian Huang 3; and J. Woody Ju, F.ASCE 4
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Abstract: A dynamic experiment of progressive collapse constitutes the basis of a collapse-resistant analysis. To achieve broad appli-
cability and avoid superfluous influencing factors, two representative substructures extracted from long-span single-layer spatial grid
structures were tested using a quick-loading system. The strain and displacement results of the specimens were analyzed, as well as
the collapse-resistant mechanisms. The dynamic performance of a full-scale Kiewitt dome was investigated using the hybrid finite-element
(FE) model. Finally, a novel cable-reinforced Kiewitt dome is proposed to improve the collapse resistance of Kiewitt domes. The results
show that the tests and associated analyses contribute to establishing a database of benchmark models for collapse-resisting simulation of
long-span single-layer spatial grid structures. The FE results are well-validated by the test results. The time history of the loading with a
suddenly applied load of 1,000 kg for S-10 is similar to the time history of the resistance in a compression mechanism. Owing to the
geometric nonlinearity, the time history of the resistance for the catenary mechanism is asymmetrically distributed based on the final
equilibrium state. The dynamic performance of long-span single-layer spatial grid structures is significantly affected by the duration
of the suddenly applied load. The maximum displacement of the novel cable-reinforced Kiewitt dome is substantially reduced, and
the maximum stress is smaller than the yield stress of steel. The superiority of the cable-reinforced Kiewitt dome is therefore demonstrated.
DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0002904. © 2020 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Long-span single-layer spatial grid structure; Progressive collapse; Collapse-resistant performance; Suddenly applied
load; Cable-reinforced Kiewitt dome.

Introduction basis of a collapse-resistant study. Zhao et al. (2017) compared the

The accumulation and extension of member failures are the main
reasons for structural progressive collapse (Piroglu and Ozakgul
2016; Tian et al. 2016). Owing to a large number of catastrophic
collapse accidents for long-span single-layer spatial grid structures
with irreparable loss of life, research is focused more than ever on
the structural progressive collapse (Kamari et al. 2015; Biegus and
Rykaluk 2009; Caglayan and Yuksel 2008).
In terms of long-span single-layer spatial grid structures, field
tests are difficult to implement due to their large-scale character-
istics. To reveal dynamic responses of structures and validate
numerical analyses, many scaled model experiments have been per-
formed for typical single-layer spatial grid structures, forming the
1 et al. 2018). Xu and Ye (2019) modified the member discrete-
Associate Professor, Shaanxi Key Lab of Structure and Earthquake
Resistance, School of Civil Engineering, Xi’an Univ. of Architecture
and Technology, Xi’an 710055, China; Visiting Scholar, Dept. of
Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of California, Los Angeles,
Los Angeles, CA 90095. Email: tianlimin@xauat.edu.cn
2 static loads, Shekastehband and Ayoubi (2019) discussed the dy-
Ph.D. Candidate, School of Civil Engineering, Xi’an Univ. of Archi-
tecture and Technology, Xi’an 710055, China. Email: weijianpeng36@163
.com
3 analysis for single-layer lattice domes. The method accounted for
Professor, School of Civil Engineering, Huaqiao Univ., Xiamen
361021, China. Email: huangqx@hqu.edu.cn
4
Professor, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of
California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095 (corresponding author).
Email: juj@ucla.edu
Note. This manuscript was submitted on January 13, 2020; approved on
September 2, 2020; published online on October 26, 2020. Discussion per-
iod open until March 26, 2021; separate discussions must be submitted for
individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Structural Engineer-
ing, © ASCE, ISSN 0733-9445.
progressive collapse resistance of two identical Kiewitt-6 domes
with different loading. One meridian member was suddenly invali-
dated in the tests, indicating that the progressive collapse could be
induced merely by local failure. Xu et al. (2017) tested the Kiewitt
Lamella and geodesic latticed domes and provided three effective
evaluation methods. The mechanism of internal force redistribution
and reasons for the collapse were presented. Tian et al. (2019a, b)
designed three single-layer latticed domes with different forms and
rise-to-span ratios. The test results indicated that the Kiewitt-6
single-layer latticed dome exhibited better behavior of progressive
collapse resistance than the three-way diagonal grid dome.
With advanced computational techniques, it is feasible to esti-
mate the collapse-resistant performance of long-span single-layer
spatial grid structures by a finite-element (FE) analysis (Zhou
element method and compiled the computational programs to
simulate the progressive collapse of long-span single-layer spatial
structures. In order to compare critical dynamic loads with critical
namic instability of tensegrity systems under impulsive loads. Zhang
et al. (2020) introduced uncertainties into the nonlinear dynamic
uncertainties in material properties, structural imperfections, loads,
and damping with bounds. Wang et al. (2017) elucidated the energy-
based failure mechanism of reticulated domes subjected to an impact
load. Tian et al. (2017) proposed an evaluation method to identify
the critical members in long-span single-layer spatial grid structures,
and a novel dynamic analysis method was put forward to simulate
the progressive collapse for this type of structures accurately.
From the collapse outcome point of view, different quantitative

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 evaluation indexes were developed to evaluate single-layer spatial
grid structures, respectively, by Tian et al. (2019d) and Talaslioglu
(2019). Additionally, some achievements in other fields can provide
references for single-layer spatial grid structures to improve the
collapse-resistant performance of structures (Guo et al. 2016; Wei
et al. 2019; Zhang et al. 2019). For safety purposes, two optimiza-
tion methods modified in strength and stability failure mechanisms
were discussed in detail by Tian et al. (2019c) and Wei et al. (2018),
which were favorable for energy dissipation.
To summarize, the previous studies on the progressive collapse
of long-span single-layer spatial grid structures (whether by experi-
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ments or an FE analysis) exhibited the following problems.
• The forms of single-layer spatial grid structures varied, and
the objects lacked representativeness and universality, mean-
ing that the specific analysis was conducted for the specific
structures.
• Due to the complexity of the tested models, an experimental
process was easily influenced by many factors (e.g., the scale
of the tested model, the discreteness of numerous members,
and the realization of the instantaneous failure), which cast
doubt on the accuracy of the numerical analysis.
The instant removal of a member can be considered as a sudden
elimination of its internal forces, which can be equivalent to a re-
verse sudden loading process (Liu et al. 2016). As mentioned pre-
viously, to achieve broad applicability and avoid superfluous
influencing factors, two representative substructures extracted from
long-span single-layer spatial grid structures were tested using a
quick-loading system in this study. The dynamic responses of
the substructures were investigated. According to the test results,
Fig. 1. Details of the tested models (mm): (a) S-10; and (b) S-0.
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an FE analysis was validated, and the dynamic performance of a
full-scale Kiewitt dome was presented. On this basis, a novel
cable-reinforced Kiewitt dome is proposed to improve the dynamic
performance of Kiewitt domes.
Test Program
Specimen Design
Fig. 1 displays the details of two specimens, which were the sub-
structures of a long-span single-layer spatial grid structure (Tian
et al. 2018). According to Tian et al. (2019c), the bending moment
or axial force of some members exhibited a significant increase
after the removal of a single member in the Kiewitt-6 latticed dome.
Furthermore, the failure patterns of the dome included stability and
strength failures. The internal forces and the failure patterns in an
actual single-layer spatial grid structure were consistent with those
in the substructures. Therefore, the specimens could represent the
performance of a single-layer spatial grid structure.
The span of the specimens was 2.4 m. The inclination angles of
each member for the two specimens were 10° and 0°. Thus, the two
specimens were denoted as S-10 and S-0, respectively. Specimen
S-10 was adopted to investigate the compression mechanism,
whereas Specimen S-0 was used to investigate the beam and cat-
enary mechanisms. The cross-sections of the members were
Φ20 × 2 mm. Six members were connected by a welded hollow
spherical joint with dimensions of Φ80 × 8 mm. A steel plate of
8 × 160 × 160 mm was welded to the top of the joint, where it
J. Struct. Eng.
 Table 1. Material properties of the steel pipes
Properties Values
Cross-section Φ20 × 2 mm
Elastic modulus (MPa) 2.06 × 105
Yield strength (MPa) 387
Ultimate strength (MPa) 535
Ultimate strain 0.143
was used for the instrumentation setting. Two perforated steel
plates were also welded to the joint for loading. The surrounding
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joints were supposed to be set as elastic boundaries, but the stiff-
ness of the boundaries was difficult to determine. For this reason,
six surrounding joints were simplified as fixed supports, and four-
bolt holes were designed for connection. Because the vertical de-
formation of the central joint was negligible in Specimen S-10, the
bending moment of the members could be ignored, and the mem-
bers mainly sustained axial forces.
Table 1 presents the mean values of material properties for the
steel pipes (dimensions of Φ20 × 2 mm). Six steel pipes were
tested using a material testing machine (Fig. 2), and the length
of the pipes was 200 mm. To avoid the flattening of the ends,
two short steel rods (Φ16 mm) were inserted into the ends. The
length of the steel rods was 50 mm. The material properties of
the hollow spherical joint (Φ80 × 8 mm) and the steel plates were
not measured because the deformation in this area was restricted.
All of the components in the tested models were made of Grade
Q235 steel. (Actually, numerous measured values of the yield stress
for Grade Q235 steel were over 300 MPa in previous literature.
Fig. 2. Material-property tests of six steel pipes.
Fig. 3. Illustration of the loading method.
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Owing to the thinner thickness, the strength of the steel pipes
was greater than that of common Grade Q235 steel.)
Test Setup
In taking a full-scale Kiewitt dome as an example, Fig. 3 explains
the loading method in the test. The relevance between the suddenly
applied loads and the failed member was illustrated as follows.
Firstly, a member of long-span single-layer spatial grid structures
always sustains the axial force in the ideal situation. The failed
member can be substituted by two concentrated forces. Secondly,
the sudden failure of the member can be considered as two
suddenly-applied loads at its ends. The directions of the two loads
are opposite to the concentrated forces, respectively, and the values
of the loads are equal to those of the concentrated forces.
The direction of the suddenly applied loads varies in reality.
Each load can be divided into two parts—i.e., the horizontal
and vertical loads, as shown in Fig. 4. Owing to the small inclina-
tion of members in long-span single-layer spatial grid structures,
the axial force caused by the vertical load is greater than that caused
by the horizontal load. Therefore, a vertical load was quickly ap-
plied at the central joint of the specimens to facilitate dynamic per-
formance analysis. Owing to structural symmetry, the vibration of
the central joint under sudden vertical loads can be equivalent to the
free vibration of a single-degree-of-freedom system. The internal
forces of six members were identical, and the displacement of
the central joint was mainly in the vertical direction.
Fig. 5 shows the test setup. The rigid base provided fixed sup-
port and sufficient loading space, and it was bolted to the ground.
The rapid loading system included five parts: a releasing device, a
04020309-3 J. Struct. Eng.
 Fig. 4. Mechanical diagram of a suddenly applied load.
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Fig. 5. Test setup.

Fig. 6. Working process of the releasing device.

loading regulator, two loading transducers, and a concentrated
mass. Fig. 6 illustrates the working process of the releasing device,
which could be remotely controlled. The fixed base was tied to a
beam, while two electromagnets were releasable. The loading
capacity of each electromagnet was only 240 kg and did not meet
the requirements. Thus, the loading capacity of the releasing device
was enlarged by two levers based on the leverage principle. Two
turnbuckles were connected to the releasing device and were
utilized as loading regulators. Moreover, two S-shaped loading
transducers were installed to measure the tension of the top and bot-
tom ropes. A steel basket was adopted to apply a concentrated mass.
The loading procedures were as follows.
1. The releasing device was locked by switching on an electromag-
netic power.
2. Then, the weights were placed into the steel basket; meanwhile,
the loading regulator adjusted the tension of the top rope. The
tension of the top rope was consistent with that of the bottom
rope to avoid prestressing the specimens.

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 Table 2. Loading programs patterns, the arrangements of the strain gauges in two specimens
Concentrated Number were distinct. The strain gauges were located at the midspan of
Specimen mass (kg) of tests the members for Specimen S-10. Therefore, the bending direction
of the members and the overall deformation mode could be moni-
S-10 200 3
400 3
tored. The members of Specimen S-0 were subjected to bending
1,000 1 moment and tension. The deformation was mainly concentrated
at the ends of the members. Eight strain gauges were placed in this
S-0 50 3 area to determine the maximum strain. The instrumentation con-
100 3 figurations for Specimen S-10 are shown in Fig. 8. The sampling
300 1
frequency of the instrumentations was selected to be 1,024 Hz for
recording the maximum dynamic responses. A Coinv DASP v11
dynamic signal test system was adopted to catch up on the dynamic
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3. When the predetermined mass was achieved, after a period of
stability, the device was quickly released to apply the load to
the specimens. The releasing process included three steps:
the electromagnetic power was switched off, two electromag-
nets dropped out, and the levers detached from the fixed base.
Table 2 presents the loading programs of the two specimens.
Each specimen was tested seven times with different concentrated
masses. The specimens could be restored to the initial state in the
first two loading conditions (200 and 400 kg for S-10 and 50 and
100 kg for S-0), whereas the specimens were damaged in the last
loading condition (1,000 kg for S-10 and 300 kg for S-0). As the
dynamic test was easily affected by external factors (e.g., the vi-
brations caused by cranes and vehicles), the tests were repeated
three times in the first two loading conditions to ensure data
accuracy.
Instrumentation Setting
Fig. 7 depicts the setting of the instrumentation. Two LVDTs were
employed to measure the vertical displacement of the central joint.
Because six members had the same stress distribution, eight strain
gauges adhered to parts of the members. Owing to different stress
responses (Tian et al. 2019b).
Test Results
Test Phenomena
Fig. 9 exhibits the dynamic processes of Specimen S-10 for the case
in which the suddenly applied load was 1,000 kg. An apparently
downward movement in the central joint was observed. The central
joint and midspan of the members vibrated significantly. Although
Specimen S-10 did not exhibit significant deformation after a
short period of oscillation, two members buckled in the maximum-
displacement state. When the suddenly applied loads were 200 and
400 kg, there was no visible test phenomenon during the entire dy-
namic processes.
Fig. 10 presents the test phenomena of Specimen S-0 with a
suddenly applied load of 300 kg. The amplitude and duration of
the vibration of Specimen S-0 were greater than those of Specimen
S-10. The bending deformation was concentrated at the ends of the
members, and the overall deformation mode of six members
was similar to a straight line. The vibration decreased when the

Fig. 7. Instrumentation configurations: (a) S-10; and (b) S-0.

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Fig. 8. Actual instrumentation configurations for Specimen S-10.

Fig. 9. Test phenomena of Specimen S-10.

Fig. 10. Test phenomena of Specimen S-0.

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Fig. 11. Results of the top-loading transducer: (a) S-10; and (b) S-0.

concentrated mass was reduced. There was no residual deformation
after unloading in the first two loading conditions, whereas the cen-
tral joint had a residual vertical displacement of 13 mm in the last
loading condition.
Results of Loading Transducers
Fig. 11 displays the results of the top-loading transducer, including
the duration of the suddenly applied load. The measured value of
the top-loading transducer was zero after the top rope was com-
pletely released. The time histories of the load obtained from
repeated tests were basically consistent in the first two loading con-
ditions. When the maximum concentrated masses were applied, the
duration of the suddenly applied loads were 0.1 and 0.15 s, respec-
tively, for Specimens S-10 and S-0.
Fig. 12 shows the results of the bottom loading transducer in
the last loading condition. The applied loads were amplified be-
cause of the dynamic effect. However, the tensions of the bottom
rope decreased during the quick-releasing processes (0.1 s for S-10
and 0.15 s for S-0). The tensions were equivalent to the restoring
forces of the specimens, which were smaller than the gravities
of the concentrated masses during the quick-releasing processes.

Fig. 12. Results of the bottom loading transducer: (a) 1,000 kg for S-10; and (b) 300 kg for S-0.

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 Fig. 13. Time histories of the mean strain for the S-10 with the suddenly applied loads of (a) 200 kg; (b) 400 kg; and (c) 1,000 kg.
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Fig. 14. Time histories of the mean strain for the S-0 with the suddenly applied loads of (a) 50 kg; (b) 100 kg; and (c) 300 kg.
The stiffness of Specimen S-10 was higher than that of Specimen
S-0; therefore, the duration of the vibration of S-10 was shorter than
that of Specimen S-0.
Strain and Displacement Results
Fig. 13 displays the mean strains of eight strain gauges for Speci-
men S-10. The mean values of the tensile and compressive strains at
the ends of the members for Specimen S-0 are rendered in Fig. 14.
The yield strain of the steel pipes was 1,879 × 10−6 . The mean
strains of two specimens in the first two loading conditions were
smaller than the yield strain, and the time histories of the strain
obtained from repeated tests were basically consistent, indicating
that the deformations were recoverable. When the members of
Specimen S-10 buckled with a suddenly applied load of 1,000 kg,
the maximum mean strain was smaller than the yield strain. Thus,
the elastic deformation occurred in the measured members. In con-
trast, the ends of the members for Specimen S-0 yielded with a
suddenly applied load of 300 kg. The compressive stress was still
present in Specimen S-0. Moreover, the absolute value of the tensile
strain was greater than that of the compressive strain, indicating
that the bending deformation was gradually converted into tensile
deformation.
Fig. 15 manifests the strain results of Specimen S-10 with a sud-
denly applied load of 1,000 kg. The bending directions of four mea-
sured members were different; however, the mean strain of each
member was approximately 400 × 10−6. Consequently, the overall
instability of Specimen S-10 did not happen, and the stresses of six
members were uniform.
Fig. 16 illustrates the results of eight strain gauges for Specimen
S-0 with a suddenly applied load of 300 kg. The discrepancies be-
tween Strains 2 and 6 on the tension side of different members were
observed, whereas the discrepancies could be negligible in the first
two loading conditions. The main reason for the discrepancies was
inconsistent plasticity development. In the plastic state, the stiffness
on the tension side was determined by the tangent stiffness of the
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steel in the hardening stage. However, the tangent stiffness had pro-
nounced randomness. In addition, due to symmetry, the ends of six
members near the central joint were ideal fixed ends. The maxi-
mum value of Strain 2 (6) was greater than that of Strain 4 (8).
Fig. 17 reveals the time histories of the displacement for
two specimens, which were obtained by the mean value of two
LVDTs. The curves obtained from the repeated tests were basically
consistent, and the dynamic performance of Specimen S-10 was
insignificant in the first two loading conditions. Although the maxi-
mum vertical displacement of Specimen S-10 was less than 8 mm
in the third loading condition, the bearing capacity was high.
Consequently, a structure similar to S-10 may still survive pro-
gressive collapse subjected to local failures of members.
Fig. 18 compares the results of two LVDTs in the case that the
maximum concentrated masses were applied. Whether in Specimen
S-10 or S-0, the results of two LVDTs were basically consistent,
indicating that the central joint hardly rotated. Because of different
bearing-capacity mechanisms, the deformation of Specimen S-10
could be overlooked compared with that of Specimen S-0.
Consequently, these two specimens are favorable for reflecting
the mechanical performance of progressive collapse for long-span
single-layer spatial grid structures. The tests and associated analy-
ses contribute to establishing a database of benchmark models for
collapse-resistant simulation of long-span single-layer spatial grid
structures.
FE Analysis
Modeling Strategy
The general FE software ABAQUS version 6.14 was adopted in
this study. Fig. 19 exhibits the FE model of Specimen S-10.
The rigid base was established to simulate practical supports.
The bottoms of six columns were fixed, and the tie connections
were employed to connect different components. The bolts between
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Fig. 15. Time histories of the strain for the S-10 with a suddenly applied load of 1,000 kg.

Fig. 16. Time histories of the strain for the S-0 with a suddenly applied load of 300 kg.

the specimen and the rigid base were simplified as a tie connection.
The solid element C3D8R with different mesh sizes was adopted.
The total number of elements was 129,620 for Specimen S-10 and
128,060 for Specimen S-0. Fig. 20 shows the details of the rigid
base. It was a symmetrical structure comprising six parts. The main
components were made of H-shaped steel, and the bolt holes
corresponded to that of the specimens. Four stiffening ribs for each
part were welded to the top ring beam for reinforcement.
The measured data for the material properties (Table 1) were
converted into the actual stress and strain, which were applied
to the steel pipes. The isotropic bilinear constitutive model was
used. Because the rest of the steel components, including the

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Fig. 17. Time histories of the displacement for the specimens: (a) S-10; and (b) S-0.

Fig. 18. Time histories of the displacement with the suddenly applied load: (a) 1,000 kg for S-10; and (b) 300 kg for S-0.

Fig. 19. FE model of Specimen S-10.

hollow spherical joint (Φ80 × 8 mm), were slightly deformed in the

test, they were set as elastic bodies in the FE model. An elastic
modulus of 206 GPa and Poisson’s ratio of 0.3 were imposed.
The effect of a strain rate was not considered because the strain
rate in the tests was not significant (Liu et al. 2016). The density
of the hollow spherical joint was increased to model the concen-
trated mass. This study focused on the dynamic performance of
structures before the collapse rather than the collapse process.
Therefore, the failure criteria, including the damage and fracture
simulation (Vaiana et al. 2018, 2019), were not considered in
the FE models. The duration of the suddenly applied load was con-
trolled by the amplitude curve and increased linearly. Ultimately, an
implicit time integration solver ABAQUS/Standard was adopted to
conduct the dynamic analysis in which the iteration algorithm
Fig. 20. Details of the rigid base (mm).
(Newton-Raphson) was applied.

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 Fig. 21. Mechanical diagrams of two specimens.
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Natural Frequency k1 ¼ 6EAðsinθÞ2 =l1 ð1Þ

The mechanical performance of a single member in two specimens
is analyzed, as shown in Fig. 21. The members in specimen S-10 k2 ¼ 72EI=l32 ð2Þ
are compressed when the vertical load is applied to the central joint. pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Their stiffness k1 is calculated using Eq. (1) according to a small- ω¼ k=m ð3Þ
deformation hypothesis. The compression is the dominant internal
force in Specimen S-10. The stiffness of the members in Specimen f ¼ ω=2π ð4Þ
S-0, k2 , is calculated using Eq. (2). The bending moment provides
the vertical resistance for Specimen S-0. Then, two specimens are where EA and EI = axial stiffness and flexural stiffness of the
equivalent to a single-degree-of-freedom system. Eqs. (3) and (4) member, respectively; θ = inclination angle of the member, which
provide the calculation method for the natural frequency f is equal to 10° for S-10; l1 and l2 = member lengths of Specimens
S-10 and S-0, respectively; and ω = circular frequency.
Table 3 compares the FE and calculated values of the natural
Table 3. Comparison of natural frequencies (f) frequencies f under different loading conditions. The stiffness of
S-10 is approximately 80 times higher than that of S-0. The FE
Concentrated Calculated FE Discrepancy results well match the values calculated by Eq. (4). The first-order
Specimen mass (kg) value (s−1 ) value (s−1 ) (%)
vibration mode is shown in Fig. 22. The model is an ideal single-
S-10 200 21.21 20.88 1.56 degree-of-freedom system that vibrated vertically.
400 15.00 14.83 1.13 According to the natural frequency f and logarithmic decrement
1,000 9.48 9.40 0.84 method, the damping ratios ξ of two specimens in the last loading
S-0 50 4.76 4.46 6.30 condition are obtained, as shown in Fig. 23. The damping ratio ξ for
100 3.36 3.21 4.46 Specimen S-10 improves by a factor of more than 2. The dynamic
300 1.94 1.87 3.61 processes of the two specimens are controlled by the first-order
frequencies, and the high-frequency vibrations can be neglected.
The low-frequency vibrations are weakened by mass-proportional
damping, while the high-frequency vibrations are weakened by
stiffness-proportional damping. Therefore, the mass-proportional
damping is adopted in the FE analysis. The mass damping coeffi-
cient α is obtained using Eq. (5)
α ¼ 2ωξ ð5Þ

FE Results and Discussion

Fig. 24 compares the displacement results between the test and FE
Fig. 22. First-order vibration modes for (a) S-10; and (b) S-0.
analysis. The results in the last loading condition represent the

Fig. 23. Damping ratios of two specimens in the last loading condition: (a) S-10; and (b) S-0.

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Fig. 24. Comparisons of the time histories of the displacement for the last loading condition: (a) S-10; and (b) S-0.

overall dynamic responses of the two specimens. The maximum
displacement of the simulation agrees well with that of the test.
Fig. 25 presents the deformation patterns and stress distributions
when the maximum displacement is reached. The simulation of
the buckling members is consistent with the test phenomena
(Fig. 9), and the deformation pattern of S-0 also exhibits good
agreement with the test phenomena (Fig. 10). Thus, the FE model
is proven to be reasonable and accurate. Additionally, the rigid base
is difficult to provide a solid boundary, and a tiny deformation has a
significant influence on the dynamic response of the structures. The
FE models of the specimens without considering the rigid base can-
not reflect the real situation. Therefore, the deformation of the rigid
base cannot be negligible. The stress results indicate that the mid-
span of the buckling members in S-10 and the ends of all the mem-
bers in S-0 have yielded.
mechanisms constitute the resistances of Specimen S-0, as rendered
in Eqs. (7) and (8). Under this loading condition, the catenary
mechanism is in a dominant position. Its resistance is twice that
of the beam mechanism. Moreover, the time histories of the resis-
tance of the two mechanisms are different. In the beam mechanism,
the curve is symmetrically based on the final equilibrium state,
whereas the symmetry does not exist in the catenary mechanism
because of geometric nonlinearity. The axial force N i in the cat-
enary mechanism is relevant to the elongation of the members,
which corresponds to the vertical displacement of the central joint.
Thus, the bearing capacity of the catenary mechanism R3 is a func-
tion of Δ2i
Xn
R1 ¼ N i sinθi ð6Þ
i¼1

Three collapse-resistant mechanisms during the dynamic proc- X

n 
esses are analyzed, as shown in Fig. 26. The resistance of the com- R2 ¼ ðM 1 i þ M 2 i Þ li ð7Þ
pression mechanism R1 is equal to the vertical component of i¼1
compression [Eq. (6)]. The time history of the loading with a sud-
X
n 
denly applied load of 1,000 kg for S-10 [Fig. 12(a)] is similar to R3 ¼ N i Δ i li ð8Þ
the time history of the resistance R1 . The beam and catenary i¼1

Fig. 25. Deformation patterns and stress distributions in the maximum-displacement state: (a) S-10; and (b) S-0.

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J. Struct. Eng., 2021, 147(1): 04020309

 Fig. 26. Time histories of the resistance for the (a) compression mechanism; (b) beam mechanism; and (c) catenary mechanism.
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Fig. 27. Time histories of the energy during the dynamic processes: (a) S-10; and (b) S-0.
where R1 , R2 , and R3 = bearing capacities of the compression,
beam, and catenary mechanisms, respectively; n = number of mem-
bers in the joint; N i = axial force; M 1 i and M 2 i = bending moments
of the two ends; and Δi = displacement difference between the
two ends.
Fig. 27 presents the time histories of the energy for two spec-
imens during the dynamic processes. The external work Ew is in-
duced by the release of the gravitational potential energy and is
converted into the internal energy Ei, the kinetic energy Ek, and the
viscous dissipation Ev [Eq. (9)]
Ei þ Ek þ Ev − Ew ¼ 0 ð9Þ
The viscous dissipation Ev is related to the structural damping,
which is determined by the mass damping coefficient α. A small
part of the external work Ew is converted into the kinetic energy
Ek , whereas most of the external work Ew is converted into the
internal energy Ei. The internal energy Ei consists of the elastic
and irreversible inelastic strain energies, and the inelastic strain
energy is related to the material nonlinearity. The capacity for stor-
ing the internal energy Ei of the structures is restricted. If the ex-
ternal work Ew is too large to be converted, a collapse is triggered.
Therefore, two types of methods are proposed for improving the
structural performance: increasing the capacity for storing energy
and reducing the amount of the gravitational potential energy
released.
As mentioned previously, when the maximum concentrated
masses were applied, the duration of the suddenly applied loads
were 0.1 and 0.15 s for Specimens S-10 and S-0 in the tests. These
durations are equivalent to 0.94T 1 and 0.28T 2 , respectively. The
values of T 1 and T 2 represent the natural periods of Specimens
S-10 and S-0. Although the durations are not smaller than 0.1 times
of the natural period because of realistic limits, the maximum dis-
placements are significantly enlarged by the dynamic effect. There-
fore, the dynamic performances of the two specimens are still
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J. Struct. Eng., 2021, 147(1): 04020309
significant. Fig. 28 displays the time histories of the displacement
for two specimens under different durations. When the duration is
0 s, the maximum displacements of S-10 and S-0 increase by 69.9%
and 8.9%, respectively, compared with the test results.
Dynamic Performance of a Full-Scale Kiewitt Dome
Analysis of Progressive Collapse
Fig. 29 illustrates the hybrid FE model of a full-scale Kiewitt dome,
which is a typical long-span single-layer spatial grid structure. The
details of the Kiewitt dome were obtained from Tian et al. (2019c).
The yield stress was 235 MPa, and the size of the hollow spherical
joint was Φ300 × 8 mm. The beam and solid elements were em-
ployed to save computing resources. The members away from
the local-failure region were slightly affected and were modeled
using beam element B31. The radial rib member in the third ring
was defined as the important member (Tian et al. 2019b). As pre-
viously mentioned, the removed process was equivalent to sud-
denly applying two concentrated loads at the adjacent joints
(Figs. 3 and 4). Consequently, the simulation was divided into three
steps: applying the gravitational load, applying the equivalent sud-
den joint loads (within 0.0001 s), and calculating the subsequent
dynamic process.
Fig. 30 presents the deformation pattern and stress distribution
of the Kiewitt dome in the maximum-displacement state. The de-
formation is concentrated at the bottom joint, and the maximum
stress is greater than the yield stress of 235 MPa. The yield at
the ends of the member is caused by out-of-plane deformation.
Novel Cable-Reinforced Kiewitt Dome
Fig. 31 proposes a novel cable-reinforced Kiewitt dome with
an improved collapse-resistant performance. Six radial cables were
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Fig. 28. Time histories of the displacement under different durations: (a) S-10; and (b) S-0.

Fig. 29. Hybrid FE model of the Kiewitt dome.

Fig. 30. FE results in the maximum-displacement state: (a) deformation pattern; and (b) stress distribution.

installed below the radial rib members, and two circumferential ca-
bles were located at the second and fourth rings. Each supporting
point involved two struts. These cables and struts provided an addi-
tional loading path for the radial rib members. The prestress was
not applied to the cables in the normal state, and it was only used
as a reserve component. At this moment, the force-transferring
mechanism of the original Kiewitt dome was not changed.
The distance between the supporting points and radial rib mem-
bers was 2 m. The cross-sectional sizes of the struts were Φ121 ×
3.5 mm and were identical with those of the radial rib members.
The cross-sectional area of the cables was 600 mm2 . Thus, the
weight of the dome was not significantly increased for this reinforce-
ment. In the FE model, the truss element T3D2 was used for the
cables, whereas the beam element B31 was applied at the struts.

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Fig. 31. FE model of the cable-reinforced Kiewitt dome.

Fig. 32. FE results of the cable-reinforced Kiewitt dome: (a) deformation pattern; and (b) stress distribution.

Fig. 33. Comparisons between the Kiewitt dome and the cable-reinforced Kiewitt dome: (a) time histories of the displacement; and (b) time histories
of the energy.

The elastic modulus of the cables was set as 160 GPa (Li and Wu
2016). The compressive stiffness of the cables was not considered.
Each cable was composed of a single truss element (T3D2). The
material properties and mesh sizes of the struts were consistent with
those of the members in the Kiewitt dome.
Fig. 32 shows the FE results for the cable-reinforced Kiewitt
dome—i.e., the maximum responses during the dynamic process.
Owing to the catenary effect of the bottom cables, the maximum
displacement of the cable-reinforced Kiewitt dome is significantly
reduced. More importantly, the maximum stress is 232.71 MPa,
which is smaller than the yield stress of 235 MPa. Fig. 33 compares
the time histories of the displacement and energy for the Kiewitt
dome and cable-reinforced Kiewitt dome. Fig. 33(b) only shows
the changes of the external work and internal energy. The reduction

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J. Struct. Eng., 2021, 147(1): 04020309

 of the vertical displacements restricts the release of the gravitational
potential energy. Thus, the external work is minimized. The supe-
riority of the cable-reinforced Kiewitt dome for the resisting col-
lapse is demonstrated.
Conclusions
The dynamic performance of long-span single-layer spatial grid
structures subjected to a suddenly applied load has been investi-
gated in this work. Two substructures were tested using a quick-
loading system. Next, an FE analysis was performed after valida-
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tion. The dynamic performance of a full-scale Kiewitt dome and a
cable-reinforced Kiewitt dome were compared. The conclusions are
as follows:
• Two substructures proposed in this paper are favorable for re-
flecting the collapse-resistant performance of long-span single-
layer spatial grid structures. The tests and associated analyses
contribute to establishing a database of benchmark models for
collapse-resisting simulation of long-span single-layer spatial
grid structures.
• The FE results agree well with the experimental test results. The
FE model is proven to be reasonable and accurate.
• The time history of the loading with a suddenly applied load
of 1,000 kg for S-10 is similar to the time history of the resis-
tance in the compression mechanism. The geometric nonlinear-
ity has a significant influence on the catenary mechanism, such
that the time history of the resistance is asymmetrically distrib-
uted based on the final equilibrium state.
• The dynamic performance of long-span single-layer spatial grid
structures is significantly affected by the duration of the sud-
denly applied load. When the duration is 0 s, the maximum dis-
placements of S-10 and S-0 increase by 69.9% and 8.9%,
respectively, compared with the test results.
• A novel cable-reinforced Kiewitt dome with an improved
collapse-resistant performance is proposed. Owing to the cat-
enary effect of the bottom cables, the maximum displacement
of the cable-reinforced Kiewitt dome is significantly reduced.
More importantly, the maximum stress is smaller than the yield
stress of 235 MPa. The superiority of the cable-reinforced
Kiewitt dome is demonstrated.
Data Availability Statement
All data, models, and code generated or used during the study
appear in the published article.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the National Natural Science Foun-
dation of China (Grant No. 51608433) and the Shaanxi Province
Youth Science and Technology New Star Program (2019KJXX-
040). These financial supports are gratefully acknowledged.
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