Grade 8 – Computer

Unit 9.2 – Design your own network

A computer network is a group of interconnected nodes or computing devices that

exchange data and resources with each other. A network connection between these
devices can be established using cable or wireless media. Once a connection is
established, communication protocols.

A wired network is a network that uses cables to connect the different devices such as
laptops, computers, and printers. Wireless network does not use wires or cables to
connect computers or other devices. In a wireless network devices are connected
through radio waves. Bluetooth and Wi-Fi are two wireless technologies that use radio
waves for connecting various devices.

Types of Network

Based on the geographical area and transmission medium used, computer networks
can be categorized into following types;

Personal Area Network (PAN)

PAN is a network of connected devices around an individual

person. It can connect a computer, phone, printer, smartphone, or
tablet. It covers a small area within the range of 10 meters or 5 feet.
The devices can be connected through wire or wireless.

Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN is a network connect two or more nodes and

peripheral devices are connected within a small area such
as a building, school lab, hospital or a small office. LAN
interconnect endpoints
in a single domain.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

A WAN is a computer network that covers a large geographical area such as a city, a
country, or many countries. It connects LANs in different cities and countries used in a
WAN to extend the signal over a distance.

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Network Architecture

Network architecture is a logistical and structural layout that shows how network
devices are connected and the rules that regulate data transfer between them. Since
the computer network architecture governs the structure of the network, its
performance relates directly to the quality of the architecture. Understanding network
architecture requires knowledge of its components.

 Hardware
 Network protocols
 Transmission media
 Network topologies

Network Components

For network to function properly you need a number of different components of

network. Each components its own role to play in ensuring that the network function
properly. Below are some network components.

 Network Interface Controller (NIC)

NIC stands for network interface card. NIC is a hardware component used to connect a
computer with another computer onto a network. There are two types of NIC. There
are;

 Wired NIC: The Wired NIC is present inside the motherboard. Cables and
connectors are used with wired NIC to transfer data.
 Wireless NIC: The wireless NIC contains the antenna to obtain the connection over
the wireless network. For example, laptop computer contains the wireless NIC.

 Switch

A switch is a hardware device that connects multiple devices on a computer network. A

Switch contains more advanced features than Hub. The Switch contains the updated
table that decides where the data is transmitted or not. Switch delivers the message to
the correct destination based on the physical address present in the incoming message.
A Switch does not broadcast the message to the entire network like the Hub.

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 Router

A router is a hardware device which is used to connect a LAN with an internet

connection. It is used to receive, analyze and forward the incoming packets to another
network. A router works in a Layer 3 (Network layer) of the OSI Reference model. A
router forwards the packet based on the information available in the routing table. It
determines the best path from the available paths for the transmission of the packet.

 Modem

A modem is a hardware device that allows the computer to connect to the internet over
the existing telephone line. A modem is not integrated with the motherboard rather
than it is installed on the PCI slot found on the motherboard. It converts the digital
data into an analog signal over the telephone lines.

 Hub

A Hub is a hardware device that divides the network connection among multiple
devices. When computer requests for some information from a network, it first sends
the request to the Hub through cable. Hub will broadcast this request to the entire
network.

 Network Cables
Cable is a transmission media used for transmitting a signal. There are three types of
cables used in transmission:

 Coaxial (Copper) Cable

 Twisted Cable
 Fiber Optical Cable

Network Operating Systems

A network operating system (NOS) is software that connects multiple devices and
computers on the network and allows them to share resources on the network. The
basic definition of an operating system is that the operating system is the interface
between the computer hardware and the user.

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Network Topologies

In Computer Network, there are various ways through which different components are
connected to one another. Network Topology is the way that defines the structure, and
how these components are connected to each other. There are various network
topologies are:

 Point to Point Topology

 Mesh Topology
 Star Topology
 Bus Topology
 Ring Topology
 Tree Topology
 Hybrid Topology

Bus Topology

Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer

and network device is connected to a single cable. It is
bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection and a non-
robust topology because if the backbone fails the
topology crashes.

Advantages of Bus Topology

 If node devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of
cables required to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and node drop lines
are required.
 Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support
up to 10 Mbps.
 The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build
small networks.
 Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting techniques
are well known.

Drawbacks of Bus Topology

 A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.

 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network.
 Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
 Security is very low.

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Ring Topology

In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighboring
devices. A number of repeaters are used for
Ring topology with a large number of nodes,
because if someone wants to send some data
to the last node in the ring topology with 100
nodes, then the data will have to pass through
99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to
prevent data loss repeaters are used in the
network.

Advantages of Ring Topology

 The data transmission is high-speed.

 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 Cheap to install and expand.
 It is less costly than a star topology.

Drawbacks of Ring Topology

 The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
 The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the whole
topology.
 Less secure.

Star topology

In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to

a single hub through a cable. This hub is the
central node and all other nodes are connected to
the central node.

Advantages of Star Topology

 If node devices are connected to each other in a

star topology, then the number of cables required to connect nodes. So, it is easy to
set up.
 Each device requires only 1 port
 It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and no other than that.
 Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
 Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.

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Disadvantages of Star Topology

 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system
will crash down.
 The cost of installation is high.
 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.

Network Protocols

A network protocol is an accepted set of rules that govern data communication between
different devices in the network. It determines what is being communicated, how it is
being communicated, and when it is being communicated. It permits connected devices
to communicate with each other, irrespective of internal and structural differences.
HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol. Tim Berner invents it. HyperText is the
type of text that is specially coded with the help of some standard coding language
called HyperText Markup Language (HTML). HTTPS stands for HyperText Transfer
Protocol Secure.

Innovation in Network

Cloud Computing

Cloud computing is a network of servers, hosted on the internet, used for storing and
retrieving data. Cloud computing is defined as virtual platform that allows you to store
and access your data over the internet. There are different cloud computing service
providers such as Google drive, iCloud, OneDrive, and so on.

Advantages of Cloud Computing

 Global Access
 Storage
 Easy set up
 Automatic Updates
 Low Cost

Disadvantages of Cloud Computing

 Security
 Privacy
 Loss of Control
 Reliability

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Network System Software

Network Operating Systems (NOS), play an important role in keeping a network

running quickly, reliably and safely. NOS work in the same way as a normal operating
system. Network utilities software on NOS works in a similar way to utilities software
on a personal device. Utilities software that helps maintain the smooth functioning of a
digital device by helping the operating system manage tasks and resources. Network
still need to have virus scanning, backup and encryption software installed, instead of
performing this on individual devices.

Secure in Network

Network security is defined as the activity created to protect the integrity of your
network and data. Every company or organization that handles a large amount of data,
has a degree of solutions against many cyber threats. Network Security has become the
central topic of cyber security with many organizations inviting applications from
people who have skills in this area. The network security solutions protect various
vulnerabilities of the computer systems such as:

 Users
 Locations
 Data
 Devices
 Applications

There are several types of network security through which we can make our network
more secure, your network and data are shielded from breaches, invasions, and other
dangers by network security. Following are some of it;

 Email security
 Firewalls
 Network segmentation
 Access control
 Web security
 Password policies
 Biometric security
 Two-factor authentication

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Benefits of network security

 Network Security helps in protecting clients’ information and data which ensures
reliable access and helps in protecting the data from cyber threats.
 Network Security protects the organization from heavy losses that may have
occurred from data loss or any security incident.
 It overall protects the reputation of the organization as it protects the data and
confidential items.

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Unit 9.4 – Drilling down

Computer Software

Software is a collection of instructions, commands, data, or computer programs that are

used to run machines and carry out particular activities. Software used to control a
computer. There are two main types of software.

 System Software
System software is a software that directly operates the computer hardware and
provides the basic functionality to the users as well as to the other software to operate
smoothly. There are three types of system software. There are;

Operating system

It is the main program of a computer system. When the computer system turns ON this
is the first software that loads into computer’s memory. Basically, it manages all the
resources such as resources such as computer memory, CPU, hard disk, printer, and
etc… and provides an interface to the user, which helps the user to interact with the
computer system.

Functions of Operating System

o Device management
o Memory management
o Processor management
o File management
o Security
Role of Operating System
o Allows the user to save files
o Manages errors in processing
o Manages security on a digital device
o Organizes processor time
o Transfers programs and data into and out of computer memory
o Controls hardware devices
o Provides an interface between the user and the computer

Language processor

A computer understands instructions only when it is given in machine language, in the

form of 0 and 1. However, it is very difficult for humans to understand and write
programs in such a language. Therefore program for a computer are written in a high-
level programming language such as Java, C++, Python, Math lab, and etc... These

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programs need to be converted to machine language for a computer to understand and

execute them.

Utility programs

Utility programs are software used to maintain and efficiently run the computer, its
devices, or its programs such as operating system, word processors or spreadsheets.
Some of the commonly used utility programs given below.

o Antivirus utility
o Backup utility
o File compression utility
o Disk defragmenters

 Application Software
Application software is a set of one or more programs used to accomplish a specific task
such as creating and formatting documents, performing calculations, drawing and
editing images etc.

 Software
Application software is a set of one or more programs used to accomplish a specific task
such as creating and formatting documents, performing calculations, drawing and
editing images etc.

Computer Languages

A program is written in a specific computer language called programming language. The

process of writing a program is called programming. A person who writes computer
programs is called a computer programmer. Computer languages can be classified into
the following categories.

o Machine level language

A machine language is the first generation language or binary language developed for
communicating with a computer. It is also called a low-level language. It uses a pattern
of the binary digits ‘0’ and ‘1’ to write instructions in a program.

Advantages of Machine Language

 Machine languages are faster in execution because they are in binary form.
 Machine language does not need to be translated, because it is already present in
simple binary form.
 The CPU directly executes the machine language.
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 The evolution of the computer system and operating system over the time period
is due to machine language.
 Machine languages are used in developing a high-grade computer system.

Disadvantages of Machine Language

 Machine language are complex to understand and memorize.

 Writing codes in machine language is time-consuming.
 It is very difficult to resolve bugs and errors present in the codes and programs.
 Codes written in machine languages are more prone to error.
 Machine languages are not easy to modify.
 Machine language are platform Independent.

Features of Machine Language

i. "Low-Level Language" is another name for machine language.

ii. In machine language, binary digits such as 0s and 1s are used.
iii. There's no need for interpretations since computers can understand binary codes.
iv. They were heavily utilized in the very earliest computers.
v. Both learning and using them are complex.
vi. A program's writing and compilation took a decent amount of time to create.

o High-level languages
A computer program written using short English phrases is called high-level language
program. However the computer cannot understand a high-level language. Therefore it
has to be converted to machine language using translator.

o Assembly language
Assembly language uses English keywords or symbols or mnemonics to represent the
different instructions in machine language. Mnemonics refer to an abbreviation for an
operation.

Advantages of Assembly language

 It provides precise control over hardware and hence increased code optimization.
 It allows direct access to hardware components like registers, so it enables
tailored solutions for hardware issues.
 Efficient resource utilization because of low level control, optimized code,
resource awareness, customization etc.

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 It is ideal for programming microcontrollers, sensors and other hardware

components.
 It is used in security researches for finding security vulnerabilities, reverse
engineering software for system security.
 It is very essential for the making the operating systems, kernel and device
controllers that requires hardware interaction for its functionality.

Disadvantages of Assembly language

 Complex and very hard to learn the language especially for beginners.
 It is highly machine dependent. So, it limits portability.
 It is really hard to maintain the code, especially for large scale projects.
 It is very time consuming since it is really hard to understand and very length of
code.
 Debugging is very challenging to programmers.

Components of Assembly Language

 Registers
 Command
 Instructions
 Labels
 Mnemonic
 Marco
 Operands
 Opcode

o Fourth-generation languages
Fourth-generation languages consist of statements similar to statements in a human
language. They are more visual and do not require a considerable amount of
programming knowledge.

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Storage devices

Most users of digital devices are aware that they need some kind of storage device to
allow them to use their data at a later time. Storage devices that are used to store data
for long periods of time are called secondary storage devices. Digital devices also need
to be able to store computer programs and data when the devices are currently in use.
Memory used in this way is called primary memory. Primary memory is built into the
main internal components of a digital device. There are two types of primary memory.

 Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM is a type of computer memory that is used to temporarily store data that the
computer is currently using or processing. RAM is volatile memory, which means that
the data stored in it is lost when the power is turned off. RAM is typically used to store
the operating system, application programs, and data that the computer is currently
using.

 Read-only memory (ROM)

ROM s a type of computer memory that is used to permanently store data that does not
need to be modified. ROM is non-volatile memory, which means that the data stored in
it is retained even when the power is turned off. ROM is typically used to store the
computer’s BIOS (basic input/output system), which contains the instructions for
booting the computer, as well as firmware for other hardware devices.

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Number System

In a computer when you type words or numbers, the computer translates them into
numbers. Even colors, outlines of drawing, audios or videos are translated and store as
large numbers. A computer can understand these combinations of numbers and
respond accordingly. There are four types of number systems as following;

o Binary (base 2)
o Decimal (base 10)
o Octal (base 8)
o Hexadecimal (base 16)

Decimal Number System (denary number system)

The decimal number system is the most widely used number system. It consists of ten
digits from 0 to 9. These digits can be used to represent any numeric value. The base of
decimal number system is 10.

Binary Number System (machine language)

The binary or base 2 number system uses only two digits: 0 and 1. It is the most
fundamental numbering system in digital computers.

Conversion of Decimal numbers to Binary numbers

To convert a decimal to binary, use devide-by-2 method.

1310 = _______2

*MSB = Most Significant Bit

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3210 = __________2

Conversion of Binary numbers to Decimal numbers

To convert a binary to decimal, use repeated multiplication-by-2 method.

10112 = _______10

111112 = __
_____10

1011102 = ______10 32 + 8 + 4 + 2 = 4610

1 0 1 1 1 0
25 24 23 22 21 20
32 16 8 4 2 1
32 - 8 4 2 -

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Logic Circuits
A logic gate is an electronic circuit designed by using electronic components like diodes,
transistors, resistors, and more. Logic gates are the fundamental components of all
digital circuits and systems. In digital electronics, there are seven main types of logic
gates used to perform various logical operations. A logic gate is basically an electronic
circuit designed by using components like diodes, transistors, resistors, capacitors, etc.,
and capable of performing logical operations. The logic gates can be classified into the
following major types:

i. Basic Logic Gates – There are three basic logic gates:

 AND Gate
 OR Gate
 NOT Gate

ii. Universal Logic Gates – In digital electronics, the following two logic gates are
considered as universal logic gates:
 NOR Gate
 NAND Gate

iii. Derived Logic Gates – The following two are the derived logic gates used in
digital systems:
 XOR Gate
 XNOR Gate

AND gate

The AND gate is one of the basic logic gate that performs the logical multiplication of inputs applied
to it. It generates a high or logic 1 output, only when all the inputs applied to it are high or logic 1.
Otherwise, the output of the AND gate is low or logic 0. The following are two main properties of
the AND gate:
 AND gate can accept two or more than two input values at a time.
 When all of the inputs are logic 1, the output of this gate is logic 1.

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OR gate

OR gate can be designed to have two or more inputs but only one output. The primary
function of the OR gate is to perform the logical sum operation.

OR gate have the following two properties:

 It can have two or more input lines at a time.

 When all of the inputs to the OR gate are low or logic 0, the output of it is low or
logic 0.

NOT gate

The NOT gate is another basic logic gate used to perform compliment of an input signal
applied to it. It takes only one input and one output. The output of the NOT gate is
complement of the input applied to it. Therefore, if we apply a low or logic 0 output to
the NOT gate is gives a high or logic 1 output and vice-versa. The NOT gate is also
known as inverter, as it performs the inversion operation.

Properties of NOT Gate:

 The output of a NOT gate is complement or inverse of the input applied to it.
 NOT gate takes only one output.

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Machine Learning

Machine learning refers to the process of teaching computers to learn from data,
without being explicitly programmed to do so. This involves using algorithms and
statistical models to find patterns in data, and the using these patterns to make
predictions or decisions.

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Unit 9.5 – Big Data modelling and analysis

In computing, data is information that has been translated into a form that is efficient
for movement or processing. Data can be measured, collected, reported, and analyzed,
whereupon it is often visualized using graphs, images, or other analysis tools. Raw data
(“unprocessed data”) may be a collection of numbers or characters before it’s been
“cleaned” and corrected by researchers. It must be corrected so that we can remove
outliers, instruments, or data entry errors. Data that has been processed is known as
information.

Big Data

Big data is defined as a complex and voluminous set of information comprising

structured, unstructured, and semi-structured datasets, which is challenging to
manage using traditional data processing tools. It requires additional infrastructure to
govern, analyze, and convert into insights.

Characteristics of Big Data

Data that cannot easily be processed using traditional applications is known as Big
Data. Big data can be describe as 5Vs. following are the 5Vs;

 Volume
This refer to the “Huge Amount of data” that is generated at a rapid rate every day,
including sources such as Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, IoT, and others. The size of the
data generally determines if a data set can be termed Big Data or not. Usually, data
sets greater than terabytes and petabytes are called Big Data.
 Velocity
This refers to the speed at which different sources are generating data on daily basis.
The data flow is getting high and in continuous form.
 Variety
Big data sets are generally collected from a wide range of sources including
transactional databases, sensor data, end etc…. a data set can be of any type such as
images, text, audio, or video.
 Veracity
This refers to the consistency, quality, accuracy, and reliability of Big data. In other
words, veracity is the process to sort out and manage Big Data.
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 Value
Data in itself is of no use or importance but it needs to be converted into something
valuable to extract information. Hence, you can state that value is the most important
V of all the 5Vs.

Internet of Things (IoT)

The Internet of Things is a network off physical objects which sense and transfer data
over the internet without human intervention. Internet of Things refers to the network
of physical devices, vehicles, home appliances, and other items embedded with
electronics, software, sensors, and network connectivity, allowing them to collect and
exchange data. The IoT enables these devices to interact with each other and with the
environment and enables the creation of smart systems and services.

Characteristics of the Internet of Things

 Connectivity  Interoperability
 Intelligence and Identity  Embedded Sensors and Actuators
 Scalability  Autonomous operation
 Dynamic and Self-Adapting  Data-driven
(Complexity)  Security
 Architecture  Ubiquity
 Safety  Context Awareness
 Self Configuring

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Applications of IoT

 Smart Agriculture
 Smart Home
 Smart Pollution Control
 Smart Healthcare
 Smart Cities
 Smart Retail
 Wearables

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