Excretion: What are the di0erent parts of the kidneys and how do they work?

Kidney - Bladder - Urethra Subsystem: The renal artery, with the capillaries in the pelvis (a large area
that is near and connects with renal artery and vein) go into nephrons, the filtering units in the
kidney, located between the cortex (the outer part of kidney) and medulla (stubs that come from the
pelvis). They first go into the glomerulus, whcih consists of tiny blood vessels surrounded by
bowman's capsule (together forming renal corpuscle) ultrafiltrates small molecules out to the
capsule. The filtrate goes through the proximal convoluted tube, the loop of henle and the distal
convoluted tube, where selective reabsorption (absorption of important small molecules, like
water) and tubular secretion (waste products or compounds to maintain ph are added in which will
be excreted) whcih goes to collecting duct, which can reabsorb water (more reabsorption if
antidiuretic hormone says absorb more, increasing urine concentration) if necessary. it goes
throught the kidney pelvis to the ureters, goes to bladder, when its full, it goes into unrethra and
sphincter's muscle controls when you pee.
Additional Systems: Lungs excrete co2 from respiration. Skin also allows small amounts of water
and salts to be excreted. Liver breakes down extra proteins and amino acids into a compound
named urea which the kidney will later filter and excrete.

Density: What is density and how do you calculate it?

Density is the total amount of mass in a given volume. Calculated by mass/volume. Units = g/cm
cubed or g/ml.

Conductors and Insulators: What properties do these materials have and how can these be
used?

Conductors: Conductors are materials that eMiciently conduct heat and electricity. Typically,
metals are excellent conductors due to the presence of free electrons that facilitate the transfer of
heat and electric charge. Common characteristics of conductors include ductility, malleability, and
a shiny appearance. These materials are often used in applications where eMicient heat transfer or
electrical conductivity is desired. Examples include copper wires for electrical conductivity and
aluminum pans for eMicient heat conduction during cooking.

Insulators: Insulators, on the other hand, are materials that resist the flow of heat or electricity.
Non-metals, ceramics, and certain polymers are commonly used as insulators. Insulators are
characterized by properties such as brittleness, lack of malleability, and a dull appearance. These
materials find applications in situations where heat transfer or electrical conductivity needs to be
minimized. Examples include the rubber insulation on electrical wires to prevent electrical leakage
and the use of insulating materials in fire-resistant suits to protect individuals from heat.

Conduction,Convection & Radiation: Identify and explain each of these heat transfer
methods.
Conduction: Transfer of heat (in solids) due to direct contact. Goes through the entire solid. Some
conduct better than others.
Convection: Heat transfer in liquids and gases through currents (which is due to hotter liquids and
gases having lower densities, floating up and less hot liquid particles and gas particles sink, forming
a current).
Radiation: Transfer of heat due to emission of electromagnetic radiation (known as thermal or
infrared radiation). Does not require a medium for transfer and does not always heat transfer from
hot object to cold object, it can go anyway the radiation goes to, unlike the two above.

Evaporation; Explain how evaporation can cool an object.

Evaporation cools objects by allowing particles near the surface, with the most kinetic energy (heat
energy also in this case) to gain enough energy to become a gas, taking the heat energy with them,
leaving behind the cooler liquid, resulting in a overall loss of temperature.

DNA, Chromosomes & Genes:

DNA: DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is a lengthy molecular structure encoding the genetic
instructions required for the development and functioning of living organisms. It consists of a
phosphate backbone connected to deoxyribose sugar, with four nucleotide bases—adenine (A),
cytosine (C), thymine (T), and guanine (G). The pairing of bases follows specific rules: A pairs with T,
held together by two hydrogen bonds, while C pairs with G, joined by three hydrogen bonds. DNA's
characteristic shape is a double helix, which can unravel when information is needed.

Genes: Genes are distinct segments of DNA that carry the code for a particular trait, such as eye
color or the production of a specific protein. Each gene is responsible for encoding a specific
function or characteristic, contributing to the overall diversity within an organism.

Chromosomes: Chromosomes are structures formed by the coiling and binding of DNA with
proteins. These proteins play a crucial role in determining the overall shape of the chromosome.
Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes in each cell nucleus, except for gametes (sperm and egg
cells), which carry half the number of chromosomes found in other cells. The arrangement of genes
on chromosomes contributes to the inheritance and expression of traits.

Natural Selection & Evolution:

Natural Selection:

Variation: Fertile individuals produce genetically diverse oMspring

Adaptation/Advantage: Some traits have an advantage in the organisms environment.

Competition: Individuals compete for food, water and mates (individuals who can reproduce with
them)

Survival: The organisms with the best adaptations survive more, while the organisms with bad
adaptations reproduce less or die.

Reproduction: The organisms that survive reproduce more.

Evolution:

Basically natural selection but it goes on for a long time, ending up in large changes which form
another species (speciazation).

Safety Precautions when conducting experiments :

Personal Protective Gear: Wear proper personal protective gear, including safety goggles, an apron,
closed-toe shoes, and latex gloves.

Emergency Areas: Familiarize yourself with emergency areas, such as fire extinguishers and water
sinks, for quick access during unforeseen situations.

Waste Disposal: Ensure proper harmful or biological waste disposal to maintain a clean and safe
laboratory environment.

Personal Hygiene: Maintain proper personal hygiene practices to prevent contamination and ensure
your safety.

Chemical Handling: Handle chemicals properly, understanding their hazards and dangers, and
follow storage precautions to minimize risks.

Documentation: Document all findings and observations, clearly stating the potential dangers of
chemicals used in the experiment.

Prohibited Actions: Avoid eating, sniMing chemicals, or drinking in the lab to prevent contamination
and minimize the risk of accidents.

Familiarity with Equipment: Familiarize yourself with and ensure the safety of all chemicals,
equipment, and materials used in the experiment.

Lab Environment: Ensure the lab environment is safe and well-ventilated, especially if the
experiment involves volatile substances.

Team Safety: Ensure the safety of your teammates, if you are working in a group, by promoting a
culture of awareness and collaboration.

Electronic structure of elements:

Elements have protons, neutrons, and electrons. The number of electrons equals the number of
protons in a neutral atom, while an unequal number of electrons and protons result in an ion.
Valence electrons, located in the outermost shell, determine chemical properties. The number of
valence electrons influences an element's reactivity and its ability to form chemical bonds. For
example, elements with one valence electron tend to be highly reactive, while those with a full
valence shell are generally unreactive.

Use atomic number to identify elements –

I remember elements from 1-20. Hydrogen, helium, lithium, beryllium, boron, carbon, nitrogen,
oxygen, flourine, neon, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine,
argon, potassium, calcium.

Properties of groups in the periodic table:

Group 1 and 2: Very reactive, are metals (except for hydrogen) and will ionically bond with atoms in
group 17 (eg. chlorine) or 16 (eg. oxygen).

Group 17 (Halogens): Very reactice, are non-metals and will ionically bond intensely to atoms in
group 1.
Group 18 (noble gases): Very inreactive (in some very extreme conditions it does react), is found as
monatomic, not diatomic forms. Other elements are found in ionic unions, covalent unions or other
diatomic forms.

Water movement and loss in plants:

Plants undergo a vital process of water movement known as transpiration, which is integral to
various physiological functions, including photosynthesis. This dynamic process involves root
uptake, xylem transport, and the release of water vapor through transpiration. Root Uptake: Water
absorption begins at the roots, where specialized structures, like root hairs, facilitate the extraction
of water from the soil through osmosis. This initial uptake establishes the foundation for water
movement within the plant. Xylem Transport: Water travels upward through the plant's xylem
vessels, driven by the cohesion and adhesion properties of water molecules. This continuous flow
from roots to leaves is essential for nutrient uptake and provides the necessary water supply for
photosynthesis. Transpiration: Transpiration, the release of water vapor through stomata on leaf
undersides, is a critical aspect of water movement. It creates a negative pressure that aids in
nutrient absorption from the soil and contributes to maintaining turgor pressure for cell rigidity,
supporting the overall photosynthetic process. Factors AMecting Transpiration: Various
environmental factors impact transpiration rates, including humidity, temperature, wind, and light
intensity. Stomatal regulation by guard cells becomes crucial in managing water loss and
preventing dehydration, ensuring an optimal environment for photosynthesis. Adaptations to
Minimize Water Loss: Plants have evolved adaptations to minimize water loss, a strategy closely
linked to optimizing photosynthetic eMiciency. Modifications in leaves or tissues reduce surface
area, limiting transpiration. Additionally, some plants store water in specialized structures, aiding
their survival in arid conditions, ultimately supporting sustained photosynthetic activity.

Waveforms: Amplitude, frequency, wavelength, constructive interference, destructive

interference.

Amplitude: Amplitude is the maximum displacement of wave particles from their equilibrium
position, representing the height or intensity of a wave. Larger amplitudes indicate more energy or a
greater disturbance in the medium.

Frequency: Frequency, measured in hertz (Hz), is the number of wave cycles passing a point in one
second. Higher frequencies signify more oscillations per unit of time, while lower frequencies imply
fewer oscillations. Frequency and wavelength are inversely proportional.

Wavelength: Wavelength is the distance between successive in-phase points in a wave, commonly
measured from crest to crest or trough to trough. It is inversely related to frequency—higher
frequencies correspond to shorter wavelengths.

Constructive Interference: Constructive interference occurs when waves align, reinforcing each
other's amplitudes. Peaks align with peaks, resulting in a combined wave with an amplitude equal
to the sum of individual amplitudes.

Destructive Interference: Destructive interference occurs when wave amplitudes oppose each
other, leading to cancellation. Peaks align with troughs, resulting in a combined wave with an
amplitude equal to the diMerence between individual amplitudes.