CONTENTS

1. Introduction

2. Components required

3. Description

a) Resistors

b) Light dependent resistors

c) Transistor BC 547

d) Light emitting diode

4. Circuit diagram

5. Circuit diagram explanation

6. Working

7. Conclusion

8. Reference
 INTRODUCTION

The field of study we call electronics encompasses a broad range of specially areas including
audio system, digital computers, communication systems, instrumentation and automatic
controls. Each of these areas in turn has its own specialty areas. However, all electronic
specialties are the same in one respect: they all utilize electronic devices- transistors, diodes,
integrated circuits, and various special components. The electrical characteristics of these
devices make it possible to construct circuits that perform useful functions in many different
kinds of application. Regardless of one’s specialization, knowledge of device theory is a vital
prerequisite to understanding and applying developments in that area.

These days, the field of electronic has become the most important branch of engineering in
our society. As a matter of fact, it is a field, in which rapid developments are taking place
every day. The electronic devices and gadgets are being used in almost all industries for
quality control and automation. Great strides taken in the industrial application of electronics
during the recent years have demonstrated that this versatile tool can be of great importance
in increasing production, efficiency and control.

We all know that electronics is the branch of science which makes use of controlled motion
of electrons through different medium and vacuum. In earlier days, many of the applications
of electronics were done using vacuum tubes. With the invention of semiconductors the
significance of vacuum tubes got reduced. This marks the beginning of the age of the
semiconductor electronics.

In this day-to-day busy life, automatic electronic systems are having a major role than the
manual electronic systems. LDR DARKNESS SENSOR is a type of automatic night lamp
which is used for light a lamp in our absence in the evening when it gets dark. The use of
LDR for the timing function of streetlights enables greater reliability and reduces unwanted
wastage of electric power. As the surrounding light intensity goes low automatic streetlight
controller is activated and the light system turns ON, until the surrounding light intensity
increases to a certain value. This circuit can be used to light the staircase light, porch light etc.
Using domestic ac supply. It is a very inexpensive construction and we don’t have a employ
or depend anybody to put on the lights when we are out of station.

The dominant of streetlights, outside lights, a number of indoor home appliances and so on
are typically operated and maintained manually on many occasions. This is not only risky,
however additionally leads to wastage of power with the negligence of personal or
uncommon circumstances in controlling these electrical appliances ON and OFF. Hence we
can utilize the light sensor circuit for automatic switch off the loads based on daylight’s
intensity by employing a light sensor.
COMPONENTS REQUIRED

 Light Dependent Resistor(LDR)

 Resistor-330ohm, 1 mega ohm

 Transistor BC547

 LED- any color

 Battery(9v)

 Battery pin

 Bread board

 Connecting Wires
DESCRIPTION

1. RESISTORS

Resistor is an electrical component, which has been manufactured with a specified amount of
resistance. The resistors can conduct current in both the directions. Thus the resistors may be
connected in an electric circuit without concern for lead polarization. The resistors are used
mainly for two purposes, namely controlling the flow of electric current and providing
desired amounts of voltage in electric or electronic circuits. Resistance of a material is
measured in ohms. Its circuit symbol ‘R’. It is the component used in circuit for introducing
resistance.

Schematic symbol of resistor:

Unit of resistance: ohm(Ω)

Resistor specification:

The resistors are specified in terms of their resistance values, tolerance, power rating and
thermal stability. By tolerance, we mean the allowed variation permitted in the normal or
marked value of the resistor. It means that the actual value of the resistor may be either
greater or smaller than that of the indicated value, by a factor given by the specified
tolerance. Thus resistors are manufactured with specified tolerance.

The power rating of a resistor is given by the maximum wattage it can dissipate, without
excessive heating. Since the power rating is proportional to the square of a current, therefore
current must not be higher than its safe value. If the current exceeds the safe value, the
resistance will burn out. In order to increase the life of resistors, these must be used at much
less power than their rated values. A standard practice is to use a power dissipation of about
half of the rating of the resistor.

The thermal stability of a resistor is indicated by the temperature coefficient specification,

which is usually expressed in parts per million per degree centigrade. The smaller value of
temperature coefficient will have less variation in the resistance value. Therefore, smaller
value of temperature coefficient means a higher thermal stability of a resistor.
There are two types of resistors:

1. Linear resistors and

2. Non linear resistor

The resistors through which the current is directly proportional to the applied voltage are
called resistors. They are of two types: Fixed resistors and variable resistors. The resistors
through which the current is not directly proportional to the applied voltage are called non
linear resistors. Their resistance values changes with the variation in applied voltage,
temperature or light intensity. They are of three types namely thermistor, photo-resistor and
varistor.

a) Linear resistors :

FIXED RESISTORS :

A fixed resistor is one whose value does not change at al. They do not change with the
variation in applied voltage, temperature and light intensity. Most common fixed resistors are
modulated carbon composition resistors. In this resistor the resistive material is made of
carbon clay composition. The leads are made of tinned copper. Its value range from 5% to
20%. A color coding system is used to find out the resistance value.
Color code and Resistance Designation :

The resistance and tolerance specification for fixed resistors are, usually printed on the body
of a resistor. Most wire-wound resistor specification are also printed on the resistor.
However, carbon composition, carbon film and metal film resistors are designated by a color
code system. In this system the bands of different colors are used to identity the resistance
value and tolerance ratings of the resistor. The power rating is determined from the physical
size of a resistor.

Color Digit Decimal Percentage

Represented Multiplier Tolerance

Black 0 10^0 -
Brown 1 10^1 ± 1%
Red 2 10^2 ± 2%
Orange 3 10^3 -
Yellow 4 10^4 -
Green 5 10^5 -
Blue 6 10^6 -
Violet 7 10^7 -
Grey 8 10^8 -
White 9 10^9 -
Golden - 10^-1 ± 5%
Silver - 10^-2 ± 10%
No color - - ± 20%
The below figure shows the color code representation of a resistor.
VARIABLE RESISTORS

These resistors, like fixed resistors are used to control current flow and provide desired
amounts of a voltage in electric circuits. But unlike fixed resistors, the resistance values of
variable linear resistors can ne varied from 0 to a specified value. Volume controls, preset are
different types of variable resistors.

All variable resistors are usually functioning as rheostat in other applications. The smaller
variable resistors commonly used in electronic circuit are potentiometer. The basic
construction of a wire wound resistor is a resistance wire wounded over a dough shaped core
of Bakelite or ceramic. There is s rotating shaft at the center of the core. The shaft forms an
arm and a contract point forms the end to end of the resistor element. There are three
terminals coming out of the potentiometer. The outer two are the end points of the resistance
elements and the middle leads to the rotating contacts.

b. Non-linear Resistors :

2. LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTORS :

A light dependent resistor is also called a photo resistor or a cadmium sulfide(CdS)cell. It is

also called a photoconductor. It is basically a photocell that works on the principle of
photoconductivity. The passive component is basically a resistor whose resistance value
decreases when the intensity of light decreases. This optoelectronic device is mostly used in
light varying sensor circuit, and light and dark activated switching circuits. Some of its
applications include camera light meters, streetlights, light beam alarms, reflective smoke
alarms, and outdoor clocks

Light Dependent Resistor Symbol :

Types of LDR

There are two types of Photocells

1. Intrinsic

These are pure semiconductor materials such as silicon or germanium. Electrons get excited
from valance band to conduction band when photons of enough energy falls on it and number
of charge carriers increases.

2. Extrinsic

These are pure semiconductor materials doped with impurities which are called as dopants.
These dopants create new energy bands above the valance bands which are filled with
electrons. Hence this reduces the band gap and less energy is required in exciting them.
Extrinsic photo resistors are generally used for long wave lengths.
LDR based light intensity control for streetlights :

In the proposed system, generally the lighting up of highways is done through HID lamps.
Because, the energy consumption of these lamps in high. This project demonstrates the usage
of light emitting diodes as a light source. These lights consume low power and its life is more
as compared to HID lamps. A light depending resistor is used to detect the light. The
resistance of the LDR drastically reduces according to the daylight.

A bunch of LEDs are used to make a streetlight. The microcontroller comprises

programmable instructions that controls the light intensity based on the pulse width
modulation signals generated. The light intensity is kept high during the peak hours, and as
the traffic on the highways tend to decrease in late nights ; and light intensity also decreases
till morning. Finally the streetlight completely shuts down at morning and continues again at
evening 6 pm. In future, this project can be developed by connecting it with a solar panel,
which converts the intensity of the solar into corresponding voltage, and this energy is used
to feed the streetlight o highways.

Light-Dependent Resistor Application :

Light dependent resistors have a low cost and simple structure. These resistors are frequently
used as light sensors. These resistors are mainly used when there is a need to sense the
absence and presence of light such as burglar alarm circuits, alarm clock, light intensity
meters, etc. LDR. resistors mainly involves in various electrical and electronic projects.

1. The Light Dependent Resistor is used for automatic contrast and brightness control in
television receivers.

2. The LDR is used in the infrared astronomy.

3. The LDR is used in the optical coding.

4. Used in light activated control circuits.

5. Used in light failure alarm circuits and used in light meter.

6. The LDR is used in smoke detectors.

7. Used in the security alarm.

8. The LDR is also used in the streetlight control circuits.

9. It is used in camera meters.

10. 10.Used in photosensitive relay.

11. It is also used as a proximity switch.

LDR STRUCTURE AND WORKING

The basic structure of an LDR is shown below.

The snake like track shown above in the cadmium sulfide film which also passes through the
sides. On the top and bottom are metal films which are connected to the terminal leads. It is
designed in such a way as to provide maximum possible contact area with the two metal
films. The structure is housed in a clear plastic or resin case, to provide free access to
external light. As explained above, the main component for the construction of LDR is
cadmium sulfide (CdS), which is used as the Photoconductor and contains no or very few
electrons which not illuminated. In the absence of light it is designed to have high resistance
in the range of mega ohms. As soon as the light falls on the sensor, the electrons are liberated
and the conductivity of the material increases . When the light intensity exceeds-a certain
frequency, the photons absorbed by the semiconductor give band electrons the energy
required to jump into the conduction band. This causes the free electrons or holes to conduct
electricity and thus dropping the resistance dramatically.(<1 kilo ohm)

The equation to show the relation between resistance and illumination can be written as
R=A.E^ a
Where E - Illumination(lux)
R- Resistance
A, a – Constants
The value of ‘a’ depends on the CdS used and on the manufacturing process.
Values usually range between 0.7 and 0.9
The spectral response curve of cadmium sulfide matches that of the human eye. The peak
sensitivity wavelength is about 560-600 nm which is in the visible par of the spectrum.

Advantages:
LDRs are cheap and readily available in many sizes and shapes. Practical LDRs are available
in a variety of sizes and package styles, the most popular size having a face diameter of
roughly 10nm. They need very small power and voltage for its operation.

Disadvantages:
Highly inaccurate with a response time of about tens or hundreds of milliseconds.

Construction of LDR:
The structure of a light dependent resistor of a light sensitive material which is deposited on
an insulating substrate such as ceramic. The material deposited in zigzag pattern in order to
obtain the desired resistance and power rating. This zigzag area separates the metal deposited
areas into two regions. Then the ohmic contacts are made on either sides of the area. The
resistance of these contacts should be less as possible to make sure that the resistance mainly
changes due to the effect of light only. Materials commonly used as cadmium sulfide,
cadmium selenide, indium antimonide and cadmium sulphonide. The use of lead and
cadmium is avoided as they are harmful to the environment.
Characteristics of LDR:

LDRs are light dependent devices whose resistance is decreased when light falls on them and
that is increased in the dark. When a light dependent resistor is kept in dark, its resistance is
very high. This resistance is called as dark resistance. It can be as high as 1012 ohm and if
the device is allowed to absorb light its resistance will be decreased drastically. If a constant
voltage is applied to it and intensity of light is increased the current start increasing..
Figure below shows resistance vs. Illumination curve for a particular LDR.

Photocells or LDRs are non linear device.

Their sensitivity varies with the wavelength of the light incident on them. Some photocells
might not all response to a certain range of wavelengths. Based on the material used different
cells have different spectral response curves.
When the light incident on a photocell it usually takes about 8 to 12 ms for the change in
resistance to take place, while it takes one or more seconds for the resistance to rise back
again to its initial value after removal of light. This phenomenon is called as resistance
recovery rate. This property is used in audio compressors.
Also, LDRs are less sensitive than photodiodes and phototransistor. A photo diode and a
photocell (LDR) are not the same, a photodiode is a p-n junction semiconductor device that
converts light to electricity, whereas a photocell is a passive device, there is no p-n junction
in this nor it “converts” lights to electricity).

a. Types of photo resistors and working mechanisms

Based on the materials used, photo resistors can be divided into two types; intrinsic and
extrinsic. Intrinsic photo resistors use undoped material such as silicon or germanium.
Photons that fall on the device excite electrons from the valence band to the conduction band,
and the result of this process are more free electrons in the material, which carry current, and
therefore less resistance. Extrinsic photo resistors are made of materials doped with
impurities, also called dopants. The dopants create a new energy band above the existing
valence band, populated by electrons. These electrons need less energy to make the transition
to the conduction band. The result is a device sensitive to different wavelengths of light.
Regardless, both types will exhibit a decrease in resistance when illuminated. The higher the
light intensity, the larger the resistance drop is. Therefore, the resistance of LDR is an
inverse, nonlinear function of light intensity.

b. Wavelength dependency
The sensitivity of a photo resistor varies with the light wavelength. If the wavelength is
outside to a certain range, it will not affect the resistance of the device at all. It can be said
that the LDR is not sensitive in that light wavelength range. Different materials have
different unique spectral response curves of wavelength versus sensitivity. Extrinsic light
dependent resistors are generally designed for longer wavelengths of light, with a tendency
towards the infrared. When working in the IR range, care must be taken to avoid heat
buildup, which could affect measurements by changing the resistance of the device due to
thermal effects. The figure shown here represents the spectral response of photoconductive
detectors made of different materials, with the operating temperature expressed in K and
written in the parenthesis.
 c. Latency:

Another important property of photo resistor is that there is time latency between changes in
illumination and changes in resistance. This phenomenon is called is resistance recovery rate.
It takes usually about 10ms for the resistance to drop completely when light is applied after
total darkness, while it can take up to1 second for the resistance to rise back to the starting
value after the complete removal of light. For this reason the LDR cannot be used where
rapid fluctuations of light are to be recorded or used to actuate control equipment, but this
same property is exploited in some other devices such as audio compressors, where the
function of light dependent resistor is to smooth the response.
3. TRANSISTOR BC547

BC547 is an NPN bipolar junction transistor.

A transistor stands for transfer of resistance, is commonly used to amplify current. A

small current at its base controls a larger current at collector and emitter terminals.BC547 is
mainly used for amplification and switching purposes. It has maximum current gain of
800.its equivalent transistors are BC548 and BC549.

The transistor terminals require a fixed DC voltage to operate in the desired region of
its characteristic curves. This is known as the baising. For amplification applications, the
transistor is baised such that it is partly on for all input conditions. The input signal at base is
amplified and taken at the emitter.BC547 is used in common emitter configuration for
amplifiers. The voltage divider is the commonly used baising mode. For switiching
applications, transistor is baised so that it remains fully on if there is a signal at its base. In
the absence of base signal, it gets completely off.

When this transistor is fully biased then it can allow a maximum of 100Ma to flow
across the collector and emitter. This stage is called saturation region and the typical voltage
allowed across the collector emitter (VCE) or base – emitter (VBE)could be 200 and 900
millivolt respectively. When the base current is removed the transistor becomes fully off, this
stage is called as the Cut –off region and the base emitter voltage could be around
660millivolt.
BC 547 as switch in LDR darkness sensor:

When a transistor is used as a switch it is operated in the saturation and cut off region
as explained above. As discussed a transistor will act as an open switch during forward bias
and as a closed switch during reverse bias, this biasing can be achieved by supplying the
required amount of current to the base pin. As mentioned the biasing current should be
maxima of 5 milli ampere.

Anything more than 5milli amperes will kill the transistor; hence a resistor is always added in
series with base pin.

4. LIGHT EMMITING DIODE

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source that emits light when current
flows through it. Electrons in the semiconductor recombine with electron holes, releasing
energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence. The color of the
light (corresponding to the energy of the photons ) is determined by the energy required for
electrons to cross the band gap of the semiconductor. White light is obtained by using
multiple semiconductors or a layer of light-emitting phosphor on the semiconductor device.

Electronic circuit:

Anode Cathode
 Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962,the earliest LEDs emitted low
intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are used in remote control circuits ,such as those used
with a wide variety of consumer electronics. The first visible-light LEDs were of low
intensity and limited to red. Modern LEDs are available across the visible ,ultraviolet and
infrared wavelength ,with highlight input.

Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps, replacing small incandescent
bulbs ,and seven segment display. Recent developments have produced white light LEDs
suitable for room lighting. LEDs have led to new displays and sensors, while their high
switching rates are useful in advanced communication technology.

LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources, including lower energy
consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size and faster
switching. Light-emittimg diodes are used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting,
automotive head lamps, advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes, lighted
wallpaper and medical devices.

Unlike laser, the color of light emitted from an LED is neither coherent nor
monochromatic, but the spectrum is narrow with respect to human vision, and functionally
monochromatic.

Physics of light production and emission:

In a light emitting diode, the recombination of electrons and electron holes in a

semiconductor light, a process called “electro luminescence”. The wavelength of light
produced depends on the energy band gap of the semiconductor used. Since these materials
have a high index of refraction ,design features of the devices such as special optical coatings
abd die shape ar required to efficiently emit light.

TYPES:

LEDs are made in different packages for different applications. A single or few LED
junctions may be packed in one miniature device for use as an indicator or pilot lamp. An
LED array may include controlling circuits within the same package, which may range from
a simple resistor, blinking or color changing control, or an addressable controller for RGB
devices. Higher-powered white emitting devices will be mounted on heat sinks and will be
used for illumination. Alpha numeric displays in dot matrix or bar formats are widely
available.

ADVANTAGES:

1. Efficiency: LEDs emit more lumens per watt than incandescent light bulbs.
2. Color: LEDs can emit light of an intended color without using any color filters as
traditional lighting methods need.
3. Size: LEDs can be very small and are easily attached to printed circuit boards.
4. Warm up time: LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED achieves full
brightness in under a microseconds.
5. Cycling: LEDs are ideal for users subject to frequent on-off cycling, unlike
incandescent and fluorescent lamps that fail faster when cycled often.
6. Dimming: LEDs can be mainly easily be dimmed either by pulse width modulation or
lowering the forward current.
7. Slow failure: LEDs mainly failed by dimming overtime, rather than the abrupt
failure of incandescent bulbs.
8. Lifetime: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life.
9. Shock resistance: the are difficult to damage with external shock.
10. Focus: The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light.

DISADVANTAGES:
1. Temperature dependence: LED performance largely depends on the ambient
temperature of the operating environment-or thermal management properties.
2. Voltage sensitivity: LEDs must be supplied with a voltage above their threshold
voltage and a current below their rating.
3. Area light source: single LEDs do not approximate a point source of light giving a
spherical light distribution ,but rather a lambertian distribution.
4. Light pollution: Because white LEDs emit shorter wavelength light than sources such
as high pressure sodium vapour lamps, the increased blue and green sensitivity of
scotopic vision means that white LEDs used in outdoor lighting cause substantially
more sky glow.
5. Efficiency droop: The efficiency of LEDs decreases as the electric current increases.
6. Thermal runaway: Parallel strings of LEDs will not share current evenly due to the
manufacturing tolerance in their forward voltage. Running two or more strings from a
single current source will likely result in LED failure as the devices warm up.
a. LED uses fall into four major categories:
7. Visual Signals where light goes more or less directly from the source to the human
eye, to convey a message or, meaning.
8. Illumination where light is reflected from objects to give visual response of these
objects.
9. Measuring and interacting with processes involving no human vision.
10. Narrow band light sensors where LEDs operate in a reverse bias mode and respond to
incident light instead of emitting light.
a. In LDR darkness sensor circuit LEDs are used to indicate the presence or
absence of light.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Circuit diagram explanation:

One end of 1M ohm is connected with positive terminal of battery and other end is connected
in series with LDR. The other end is connected in series with LDR .The other end of LDR is
connected with the negative terminal of the battery.

One end of 330ohm resistor is connected with positive of battery and other end is connected
with anode(positive) of LED.Cathode (negative) of LED is connected with C(collector) of
BC 547 transistor.

Emitter(E) of transistor is connected with negative terminal of battery.

Base(B) is connected at junction point of 1M ohm resistor and LDR.

Working:

The sensing component in this circuit ids LDR. The resistance of LDR depends on
the intensity or brightness of light incident on it and the relation is of inverse proportionality
which means that when the intensity of light increases, the LDR’s resistance reduces and
viceversa.

We can visually observe this effect by connecting the LDR in series with the LED
and power up the circuit. Now if you reduce the intensity if ambient light, the LDR’s
resistance increases, resulting in lesser current flowing through the circuit and so you will
observe that the LED’s brightness reduces. Exactly the opposite happens when you increase
the brightness of ambient light.

We used a resistor in series with the LDR (a voltage divider)to convert the change in
resistance of the LDR to change in voltage. This change in voltage at the common point
between LLDR and resistor is used to trigger the transistor by connecting it to base of the
transistor.

In the dark sensor circuit when the LDR’s resistance decreases when the intensity of
light increases. So the voltage at the base of transistor increases when the brightness of light
decreases, and once it gets past the minimum threshold voltage required at the base of
transistor, it turns on the LED.

Limitations:

We can’t control the brightness at which the LED exactly turns on or off. Also,
practically we would want the LED to turn on when it is dark and turn off when there is
enough light. The maximum load that the circuit can drive is also limited.

CONCLUSION

Designed LDR darkness sensor. After fitting of all components I checked this project.
Actually this project is a great success for me, because for me it is the first time that I am
undertaking this project and I could successfully complete the Work.

With the use of this electronic circuit during daytime, there is no need to turn the
switch OFF and at night there is no need to turn the switch ON, saving much energy and
work. Cost of making the circuit is very less. The main aim of this project is to saving system
with LDR .We want to save power automatically instead of doing manual. So it is easy to
cost effectiveness. This saved power can be used in some other cases. So in villages, towns
etc. We can design intelligent systems for the usage of light or we can reduce the electricity
bill of our home.

Through this project ,i got the courage and confidence to undertake this kind of work
in future also. It also causes to enrich my knowledge regarding the design, construction and
other aspects of any device.
 REFERENCE

 https://www.engineersgarage.com
 http://www.circuitstoday.com/ldr-lightdependentresistors
 http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/lighemitingdiode
 http://www.resistorguide.com
 A text book of applied electronics by R S Setha.