International Journal of Advertising

The Review of Marketing Communications

ISSN: 0265-0487 (Print) 1759-3948 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rina20

Lose like a man: body image and celebrity

endorsement effects of weight loss product
purchase intentions

Andrew C. Pickett & Natasha T. Brison

To cite this article: Andrew C. Pickett & Natasha T. Brison (2019): Lose like a man: body image
and celebrity endorsement effects of weight loss product purchase intentions, International Journal
of Advertising, DOI: 10.1080/02650487.2019.1586208

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/02650487.2019.1586208

Published online: 26 Mar 2019.

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING
https://doi.org/10.1080/02650487.2019.1586208

Lose like a man: body image and celebrity endorsement

effects of weight loss product purchase intentions
Andrew C. Picketta and Natasha T. Brisonb
a
University of South Dakota, Vermillion, South Dakota, USA; bTexas A&M University, College Station,
Texas, USA

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Recent research suggests men are increasingly concerned with Received 6 August 2017
their body size, which has led to a corresponding increase in mar- Accepted 19 February 2019
keting efforts for weight loss products geared toward them. In
many cases, these ads include athlete endorsers of the product. KEYWORDS
Drawing from the match-up hypothesis and social comparison Body image; social
comparison; weight loss;
theory, this study employed structural equation modeling to advertising; ath-
explore relationships between men’s body image, endorser cred- lete; endorser
ibility, advertisement believability, and purchase intentions for
weight loss products using two advertisements featuring former
professional athlete endorsers. Results indicate an inverse relation-
ship between consumer body image and athlete endorser cred-
ibility, such that individuals with lower body image perceived the
endorsers as more credible. Further, athlete endorser credibility
was positively associated with advertisement believability, which
itself was associated with purchase intentions. These findings sug-
gest that athlete endorsers are an effective tool in marketing
weight loss products to men, particularly those with negative
body image. Further implications and directions for future
research are discussed.

Introduction
Historically, weight-loss advertising has primarily focused on women as a target mar-
ket. Accordingly, advertising research in the area of weight loss has primarily focused
on women as well (Bissell and Rask 2010; Borau and Bonnefon 2017). However, recent
trends indicate men, too, are increasingly concerned with their own bodies and experi-
ence pressures to conform to societal body idealizations of leanness and muscularity
(De Jesus et al. 2015). As examples, research suggests that men are more and more
concerned with their bodies and, accordingly, are resorting to maladaptive eating and
exercise behaviors to improve muscularity (Lavender, Brown, and Murray 2017).
Further, research reveals that exposure to images featuring muscular, attractive men is
related to increased body dissatisfaction in men (Blond 2008). Perhaps unsurprisingly,
disordered eating behaviors, while traditionally primarily associated with women, are

CONTACT Drew Pickett Drew.Pickett@usd.edu University of South Dakota, Vermillion, South Dakota, USA
ß 2019 Advertising Association
2 A. C. PICKETT AND N. T. BRISON

steadily common in men as well (Murray, Griffiths, and Mond 2016). This is particularly
troubling, as rates for treatment of eating disorders in men lag behind estimated inci-
dence rates, suggesting that either men do not seek treatment or that healthcare pro-
viders do not adequately address these issues in male populations (Mitchison et al.
2014; R€ais€anen and Hunt 2014). Together, increased levels of body dissatisfaction and
societal stigma, which characterizes body image concerns as inherently feminine, may
intensify the susceptibility of men to weight-loss advertising messages.
Men’s growing concerns about their body type have not gone unnoticed by the
weight-loss industry, as several companies have created products and advertisements
geared towards men. For example, to avoid the stigma men typically associate with
dieting, Pepsi removed the word diet from its diet soft drinks, creating Pepsi One and
Pepsi Max (White, White, and Pettifer 2007). Weight-loss program industry leader
Weight Watchers created a webpage specifically for men, and even aired commercials
during the National Basketball Association (NBA) Playoffs to target male consumers
(Denos 2013).
One prominent feature in many of these advertisements is the presence of a celeb-
rity athlete endorser for the product. Nutrisytem, a weight-loss management program,
partnered with former National Football League (NFL) player Lawrence Taylor to show
the benefits of its program (Hill 2015), and AdvoCare, a provider of nutrition, weight
management, and sports performance products, is the primary sponsor for profes-
sional NASCAR driver and 2011 Daytona 500 winner Trevor Bayne until 2019 (Pockrass
2016). The use of athlete and celebrity endorsers in advertising is a common practice,
and many studies have examined the effects of endorsers on consumer attitudes and
beliefs (Amos, Holmes, and Strutton 2008; Cunningham and Bright 2012; Shuart 2007;
Silvera and Austad 2004). Actually, research indicates male athletes are optimal
endorsers for targeting the male consumer (Boyd and Shank 2004; Pikas, Schied, and
Pikas 2012). Essentially, athletes are the epitome of an ideal body image for men, and
in reality, most men strive to have their favorite athlete’s prime career physique
(Gowen 2012).
Previous research has suggested social comparisons to idealized body images in
advertisements can negatively affect men’s self-esteem and their evaluations of their
own body image (Gulas and McKeage 2000). Yet, Roozen (2014) found that although
idealized body images are effective in advertising, respondents’ gender and self-evalu-
ations (i.e. body image) can impact the advertising effectiveness of endorsers.
Unfortunately, to date, research on men’s body image and endorser effectiveness
remains relatively understudied. Also, due to the rise in the use of athlete endorsers
by weight-loss management programs and products, research regarding the influences
of these advertisements is needed. Finally, DeLorme and colleagues (2012) noted the
need for increased research into the advertising of weight loss products and dietary
supplements, with particular regard to consumer reaction to various forms of advertis-
ing content. This is particularly important, given the prevalence of false and mislead-
ing statements in weight loss advertisements (Avery et al. 2013) and documented
health risks associated with using various weight loss products (Austin et al. 2017;
Pomeranz et al. 2015). Therefore, the purpose of this study is: (1) to explore the rela-
tionship between men’s body image, endorser credibility, and advertisement
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING 3

believability regarding weight-loss management programs and (2) to determine the

effectiveness of advertising for weight-loss management programs targeting men in
promoting purchase intentions.

Theoretical framework
Body image in men
Much of the early literature surrounding weight-loss and body image focused on con-
cerns of women; however, more recently, growing attention is being dedicated to the
body image concerns of men as well (Parent, Schwartz, and Bradstreet 2016). In par-
ticular, adult men are increasingly troubled with weight-loss, with a strong focus on
the development of lean, muscular, and generally athletic physiques (McCabe and
Ricciardelli 2004). Pervasive media and cultural messaging creates constant drive for
muscularity, which is linked to negative body image. This is particularly dangerous, as
poor body image is associated with a number of negative behavioral outcomes,
including poor psychological health, disordered eating, and use of anabolic steroids
(Bucchianeri et al. 2013; Murray et al. 2016).
Given that societal messages surrounding masculinity suggest men should be
strong and athletic, fatness, by definition, is associated with nonconformity (Griffiths,
Murray, and Touyz 2015). The notion of the athletic body as a symbol of masculinity
dates back to the Ancient Greek cultures (Dutton 1995). Several authors contend the
prized status of athletic, powerful bodies is a marker of hegemonic masculinity still
present in modern culture (e.g. Connell 1998; Oates and Durham 2004). It is not sur-
prising, then, that weight-loss companies have recently released programming and
campaigns directed at men (e.g. Weight Watchers, Nutrisystem) and employed athlete
endorsers in their advertising. These campaigns largely attempt to re-write the narra-
tive of weight-loss as only a women’s concern into a men’s concern, and well-known
athlete endorsers serve to legitimize the body image trepidations and weight-loss
goals of other men.
Social comparison theory states that individuals are innately prone to compare
themselves to others (Bessenoff 2006; Festinger 1954). These comparisons may be
downward (measure themselves with people who are inferior), lateral (measure them-
selves with people who are similar), or upward (measure themselves with people who
are superior) (Dens, Pelsmacker, and Janssens 2009). In advertisements, the celebrities
and athletes are often portrayed possessing idealized body images, resulting in an
upward social comparison. Although upward social comparisons should motivate posi-
tive behaviors related to self-improvement, research indicates the result is often
increased body dissatisfaction, negative moods, and reduced self-esteem (Bessenoff
2006). Conversely, if the individual identifies with the celebrity or athlete endorser or
sees them as similar to themselves, the upward social comparison will yield a more
positive affect (Dens, Pelsmacker, and Janssens 2009). Accordingly, D’Alessandro and
Chitty (2011) noted that endorser effectiveness varies based on the body shape of the
consumer, the body shape of the endorser, and the type of product or service pro-
moted. Hence, the success (or failure) of the endorsement is influenced by the con-
sumer’s self-evaluations of his own body image.
4 A. C. PICKETT AND N. T. BRISON

Endorser credibility
Much of the literature surrounding product endorsement suggests successful cam-
paigns are developed through a strong fit between the product and endorser (e.g.
McCormick 2016; Till and Busler 2000). This congruence is explained by the match-up
hypothesis, in which an endorser is only effective when they are perceived to have
the proper image or some amount of experience to make their opinion of a product
worth noting. Ohanian (1991) articulated three primary dimensions important to a
strong endorsement relationship: attractiveness, expertise, and trustworthiness.
Attractiveness encompasses the physical and non-physical characteristics of the endor-
ser, which can include the similarity and likeability of the endorser (Kim and Na 2007).
Expertise is the perceived knowledge of the endorser, and trustworthiness is the con-
sumer’s certainty in the endorser’s ability to provide reliable information (Ohanian
1991). Through these characteristics, an endorser provides a message that is appeal-
ing, informative, and believable to consumers. A later quantitative meta-analysis sup-
ported these three dimensions as the most influential components of an effective
celebrity endorsement (Amos, Holmes, and Strutton 2008).
Athletes are often used as endorsers for a wide range of products, which can be
within their specific realm of expertise (e.g. LeBron James promoting athletic shoes) or
in their role as a generically idealized male (e.g. Brett Favre endorsing razor blades).
Athlete endorsements, similar to other types of celebrity endorsements, are largely
based on the likeability of the athlete and the extent to which consumers believe the
athlete truly uses and likes the product in question (Silvera and Austad 2004). Even in
non-sport related promotions, athletes remain effective endorsers when they are per-
ceived to have good fit to the product (Braunstein-Minkove, Zhang, and Trail 2011).
Further, athletes who are highly successful and generally reaffirm societal values are
afforded a higher level of credibility, termed ‘Hero Status’ (Shuart 2007), which
increases the effectiveness of endorsement advertising.
Given the inherent contradiction between the idealized, athletic male body and the
target market of weight-loss products (i.e. those in larger bodies), it follows that ath-
letes may make a poor fit for such endorsement relationships. However, in attempting
to reach men, it is also key for weight-loss advertisements to demonstrate that being
concerned about one’s weight is, in fact, acceptable for men, while also retaining per-
ceived authenticity in the advertisement. A natural solution, therefore, has been to
employ the use of former athletes, who at one time had idealized bodies, lost them
(i.e. gained weight), and are seeking to regain their previous body type. By providing
this story of redemption, weight-loss advertisers can specifically reach out to those
with a more negative body image (i.e. their target market), using an endorser that
otherwise may have been seen as inauthentic and less credible. That is, the authors
argue those with negative body image would give more credence to the endorsers
than those who have a more positive body image and who may be resistant to the
idea of weight-loss products and advertising. Therefore, the authors hypothesized
the following:
H1(a–c): Men’s body image will be inversely related to their perceptions of athlete
endorsers’ credibility (across all three dimensions: attractiveness, expertise,
trustworthiness, respectively).
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING 5

Advertisement believability
Credibility is crucial in advertisements featuring endorsers due to its influence on the
believability of advertisement claims made by the endorser (Mishra, Roy, and Bailey
2015). Prior research suggests advertisement believability is vital in understanding con-
sumer responses to advertisements (Chang 2008). There is a distinct difference in
advertisement believability when there is high and low congruence between the
endorser and a product or service (Mishra 2015). Consumers may be suspicious of
advertisements featuring endorsers with no apparent expertise related to the product
(low congruence). For example, consumers may assume the endorser is only promot-
ing the product for a financial benefit. Yet, if there is a logical fit/match with the
endorser’s characteristics (high congruence), consumers are more likely to attribute
the endorsement to the endorser’s honest opinions. This, in turn, improves advertise-
ment believability.
Thus, the relationship is hypothesized as follows:
H2 (a–c): Each dimension of endorser credibility (attractiveness, expertise, and
trustworthiness, respectively) will be positively related to ad believability.

Purchase intentions
The overall goal of marketing efforts, including advertisements using endorsers, is the
generation of product sales. As such, it is important to explore the relationship
between believable, credible advertising and consumer reactions, particularly the
intention to purchase the product. Purchase intention is the willingness of a consumer
to buy a product (the greater the purchase intention, the greater the consumer’s likeli-
hood to buy the product) (Chi, Yeh, and Huang 2009). Consumers seek out goods and
services they trust (Till and Busler 2000), and they are not likely to believe an adver-
tisement’s claims if they do not trust the person making those claims.
Interestingly, given the constant bombardment of advertisements found in modern
culture, consumers have become acutely aware of deceptive claims and practices. In
fact, consumers who perceive a manipulative intent in advertisements are unlikely to
react positively to that advertisement or to purchase the product (Cotte, Coulter, and
Moore 2005). In ads featuring an endorser, there are, by default, more potential areas
of distrust to be developed by consumers. Namely, a consumer could perceive a lack of
credibility in the claims themselves, the endorser, or both. Consequently, the authors
stress the importance of believability in advertisements featuring endorsers, given the
overarching purpose of advertising is to generate sales. As a result, it is hypothesized:
H3: Ad believability will be positively related to purchase intentions.

Methods
Advertisement, brand, and endorser selection
To determine the appropriate advertisements for the study, the authors conducted a
search of weight-loss program advertisements featuring athlete endorsers from
6 A. C. PICKETT AND N. T. BRISON

Advertolog and Coloribus (digital advertising databases and archive) as well as Google
Images and YouTube. Forty-one print, internet, and television advertisements were col-
lected featuring weight-loss management programs. Only advertisements from
Nutrisystem, Jenny Craig, and Weight Watchers were available.
In order to control for potential variation among the different advertising mediums,
the authors chose to focus on print and internet advertisements for the study, result-
ing in 16 advertisements from Weight Watchers and Nutrisystem. Since the study aim
was to examine the effects of the consumer’s body image on the endorser’s credibility,
an additional four advertisements were eliminated from the study. These four adver-
tisements utilized multiple endorsers, yielding ten advertisements for study consider-
ation (4 from Weight Watchers and 6 from Nutrisystem). Rather than pick one brand
for the study, the researchers chose to investigate the advertisement effectiveness of
both brands. The advertisements were then inspected for text and graphic consist-
ency. Two advertisements were selected for the study; one from Weight Watchers fea-
turing retired NBA player Charles Barkley and one from Nutrisystem featuring retired
NFL player Dan Marino.

Data collection
For the current study, the authors solicited participation from adult men (n ¼ 505),
who were recruited using Amazon’s Mechanical Turk (MTurk), an online service which
allows researchers access to participants. Several studies have shown MTurk samples
are reliable and more representative of United States national demographics than
traditional student or convenience samples (e.g. Buhrmester, Kwang, and Gosling
2011; Casler, Bickel, and Hackett 2013). As such, MTurk has been widely used in gen-
eral consumer behavior and marketing research (e.g. Fan, Mattila, and Zhao 2015), as
well as in sport contexts (e.g. Larkin and Fink 2016). After providing informed consent
and responding to screening items for study inclusion, participants were asked to
complete the survey items outlined below. Participants were compensated through
the MTurk service, thereby allowing responses to remain anonymous.

Measures
Participants were asked to respond to a series of demographic items, followed by sev-
eral scale measures of the various hypothesized constructs. Participants were further
exposed to one of two weight-loss ads, featuring one of the athlete endorsers (Charles
Barkley and Dan Marino). Items related to endorser credibility, advertisement believ-
ability, and purchase intentions were then based on the specific advertisement a par-
ticipant viewed.

Body image
Participants were further asked to complete a measure of body image (Evans and
Dolan 1993), which was adapted to reflect only the last four weeks. A sample item
from this scale was, ‘Have you been worried about your shape and felt you should
diet?’ This measure has been used widely in the literature and translated to a number
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING 7

of different languages. Within the current sample, scores reflected acceptable internal
consistency (a = .93).

Athlete endorser credibility

To measure endorser credibility, the researchers adopted the fifteen item, 9-point
semantic differential scale proposed by Ohanian (1991). The measure defines credibil-
ity in terms of endorser attractiveness, trustworthiness, and expertise, with each
dimension represented by five survey items. One example, related to attractiveness,
would include the stem ‘Charles Barkley is … ’ and be anchored from 1 (Unattractive)
to 7 (Attractive). For each of the dimensions (attractiveness, trustworthiness, and
expertise), internal reliability was acceptable (a = .90, .94, and .94, respectively).

Advertisement believability
Next, advertisement believability was measured using the ten-item scale developed by
Beltramini and Evans (1985). Items were adapted to reflect the study context; for
example, one item was ‘Overall, this weight-loss advertisement … ’ and was anchored
from 1 (Unbelievable) to 7 (Believable). For this scale measure, internal consistency was
also acceptable (a = .96).

Purchase intentions
Additionally, participant purchase intentions were measured using the three item scale
put forth by Spears and Singh (2004). One sample item for this measure was ‘Select
what best describes your intentions regarding the product,’ which had anchors of 1
(Definitely will NOT buy) to 7 (Definitely WILL buy). For scores on this measure, reliability
was acceptable as well (a = .98).

Attitude toward the endorser

Finally, a measure for attitude toward the athlete endorser was used to control for
personal feelings about the specific endorsers. Here, the researchers adapted the
three-item scale from Nan and Heo (2007). These items asked participants to rate their
attitudes toward the endorser, for example from 1 (Dislike) to 7 (Like). The measure
demonstrated acceptable reliability in the current data (a = .96).

Results
Descriptive statistics
The sample consisted only of men, with an average age of 33.60 years (SD ¼ 9.89). The
participants predominately identified themselves as white (n ¼ 366, 72.48%), followed
by Asian (n ¼ 64, 12.67%), Black or African American (n ¼ 40, 7.92%), Hispanic or Latino
(n ¼ 30, 5.94%), Native American (n ¼ 2, 0.40%) and those who chose ‘Other’ (n ¼ 3,
0.59%). The sample was diverse with respect to education, and included 58 (11.49%)
individuals having a high school diploma or lower, 186 (36.83%) individuals with some
post high-school education credits, 198 (39.21%) individuals with a four-year college
degree and 63 (12.48%) individuals with advanced degrees. Similarly, the sample was
widely distributed, but skewed somewhat low, across income levels, with 253 (50.10%)
8 A. C. PICKETT AND N. T. BRISON

Table 1. Descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations.

Correlations
Name M SD a 1 2 3 4 5 6
1.Body image 4.33 1.23 .93 –
2.Endorser attractiveness 4.48 1.44 .90 .09 –
3.Endorser trustworthiness 4.83 1.15 .94 .12 .56 –
4.Endorser expertise 4.57 1.39 .94 .07 NS .52 .64 –
5.Attitude toward Ad 4.07 1.38 .96 .11 .34 .59 .52 –
6.Purchase intentions 2.74 1.81 .98 .33 .33 .32 .37 .59 –
Note: p < .001; p< .01; p< .05; NSNot statistically significant.

men earning less than $39,999 per year, 170 (33.66%) individuals earning between
$40,000 and $69,999, and the remaining 82 (16.24%) individuals earning more than
$70,000 annually. Finally, the mean Body Mass Index (BMI) was 27.35 (SD ¼ 6.43). BMI
is a calculated value, which is simply a function of an individual’s height and weight.
As a measure of an individual’s overall health, BMI is very limited. Rather, it is generally
used to describe very broad body weight categories, which themselves contain a wide
range of internal body diversity. The BMI range of responses in the current sample
indicates a wide variety of body types among the sample, as the mean BMI is consid-
ered “Overweight” by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), with values one standard
deviation from the mean falling into the “Normal or Healthy Weight” or “Obese” cate-
gories (CDC 2017).

Preliminary analyses
Prior to further analysis, data were inspected for non-normality and collinearity issues.
Descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations are provided in Table 1. While no two
variables had extremely high bivariate correlations, the researchers explored two
dimensions of endorser credibility (expertise and trustworthiness) further to ensure
that collinearity was not an issue. As such, the researchers calculated the squared mul-
tiple correlation (R2) of each in terms of the model, which were .66 and .49, respect-
ively, both well below the problematic level of .90 suggested for structural equation
modeling (SEM) by Kline (2015). Thus, tolerance for each factor (.34 and .51, respect-
ively), were greater than .10 and deemed acceptable. Finally, the variance inflation fac-
tor (VIF) was computed for both variables (2.96 and 1.98, respectively), which were
well below the cutoff of 10 (Kline 2015). Therefore, collinearity was determined as not
an issue and the researchers continued with further analyses.

Measurement model
First, a maximum likelihood estimation was used, and resulting goodness of fit meas-
ures were assessed for the measurement model. Aside from the hypothesized latent
structure previously outlined, the model included a measure of attitude toward the
endorser as a control variable – given that an individuals’ personal feelings about a
particular athlete may influence their evaluation of them as a spokesperson. Several
alternative models were tested, including models of partial mediation, which did not
demonstrate adequate model fit to the data. However, the full mediation model
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING 9

Table 2. Goodness-of-fit statistics for individual group CFA analyses.

Group v2 v2 / df RMSEA CFI SRMR
Barkley 1640.88 2.37 .07 .92 .10
Marino 1578.63 2.28 .07 .91 .08
Note: p < .001.

previously outlined did show acceptable fit to the data (v2 = 1914.33, p < .001;
RMSEA = .06, 95% CI: [.05, .06]; CFI = .94; SRMR = .04) (Hu and Bentler 1999).
Therefore, this structure was accepted and used for further analyses.

Invariance testing
Since participants were exposed to one of two test conditions, it was necessary to
demonstrate structural invariance between these groups (Vandenberg and Lance
2000). First, researchers conducted individual confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) for
both groups, with each demonstrating acceptable fit (Table 2).
After demonstrating acceptable fit in both groups, researchers then proceeded to
test various levels of structural invariance. The first level, configural invariance, was
met due to the fact the models had the same factor specification. Next, researchers
tested for metric invariance (commonly referred to as ‘weak invariance’), which indi-
cates that factor loadings do not vary between conditions. Metric invariance was met,
as global fit did not significantly change when only factor loadings were allowed to
vary (v2 = 21.31, df ¼ 29, p = .8475NS). The next level of invariance tested, scalar invari-
ance (also often referred to as ‘strong invariance’), tests whether the conditions vary
when factor loadings and intercepts are freed to vary. Again, the models did not vary
significantly (v2 = 19.19, df ¼ 29, p = .9162NS). The final level of invariance testing, strict
invariance, compares the model fit when all loadings, intercepts, and residuals are
freed to vary; in this case, the models did vary significantly (v2 = 83.50, df ¼ 34, p <
.001). However, previous work has suggested that strict invariance is impractical in
empirical work, particularly when large numbers of variables are tested (e.g. Meredith
1993; Meredith and Teresi 2006; Vandenberg and Lance 2000; Wu, Zhen, and Zumbo
2007). These authors note that in situations where strong (scalar) invariance is met,
but strict invariance is not, much of the variation between models may be related to
imperfect reliability of scores on measured scales. Therefore, despite not meeting true
strict invariance, the authors felt comfortable continuing with hypothesis testing as
the models were invariant at the scalar (strong) level.

Structural model
SEM was then used to test each of the outlined hypotheses. Global fit indices for the
structural model demonstrated strong fit to the data (v2 = 2120.15, p < .001; RMSEA
= .06, 95% CI: [.06, .07]; CFI = .93; SRMR = .08) (Hu and Bentler 1999). Following the
recommendations of Thompson (2000), several alternative models were tested, includ-
ing a model of partial mediation, which also demonstrated strong fit to the data (v2 =
2118.04, p < .001; RMSEA = .06, 95% CI: [.06, .07]; CFI = .93; SRMR = .08), but was not
a significantly better model (Dv2 = 2.11, df ¼ 2, p > .05). Therefore, the first, more par-
simonious, full-mediation structure was accepted.
10 A. C. PICKETT AND N. T. BRISON

.57***
Attitude toward
the Endorser
Endorser
Attractiveness .61***
NS
.01
NS
.75*** .00

NS
-.10** -.07

-.10** .27*** .59***

Body Endorser Ad Purchase
Image Expertise Believability Intentions

-.15*** .50***

Endorser
Trustworthiness

Figure 1. Structural model results.

Hypothesis testing
After accepting the model structure, the researchers evaluated each of the previously
outlined hypotheses using SEM (Figure 1). The first set of hypotheses (H1a–c) posited
participant body image would be inversely related to each dimension of endorser
credibility: attractiveness, expertise, and trustworthiness. Each of these hypotheses was
supported by the model, having positive and statistically significant beta coefficients
(b = .10, .10, and .15, respectively). The authors further hypothesized endorser
credibility would be positively related to consumers’ belief in the ad (H2a–c). The
model supported two of the three dimensions of credibility as predictive of advertise-
ment believability. The first of these hypotheses (H2a) was not supported as endorser
attractiveness was not significantly related to attitudes (b = .07NS). However, support
was found for the remaining dimensions, endorser expertise and trustworthiness (b =
.27 and .50, respectively). Finally, the authors hypothesized advertisement believ-
ability would be positively related to purchase intentions (H3), which was supported
(b = .59) by the model.

Discussion
Results from the current study offered support for several stated hypotheses and
revealed interesting points for discussion regarding the role of body image and endor-
ser credibility in men’s weight-loss advertising. Prior to discussing study hypotheses, it
is imperative to note that models for both endorsers showed strong invariance, indi-
cating in both cases, the relationships between variables were similar. In this study,
the authors hoped to minimize effects related to the attitudes toward the endorser or
relative exposure of a single endorser and, therefore, controlled for such.
With regard to specific study related hypotheses, the authors first observed an
inverse relationship between participants’ body image and their perceptions of endor-
ser credibility across all three dimensions. Thus, the data suggest that men with a
negative body image may be more susceptible to weight-loss advertising using an
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING 11

athlete endorser, as these men were more likely to perceive the celebrity endorser as
credible. This is similar to the findings of Lewallen and Behm-Morawitz (2016), who
found that women who were regularly exposed to fitness related endorsements on
social media had greater intention to engage in weight-loss programs, particularly
when coupled with a user’s endorsement of cultural body ideals.
In the current study, men with negative body image were more likely to trust the
advertising messages of an athlete endorser who was claiming to have lost weight
using the product for sale. Participants with higher body image, however, perceived
less credibility for the endorsers. This supports previous work, which found that a con-
sumer’s body type influences endorser effectiveness of advertisements (D’Alessandro
and Chitty 2011). This finding was similarly consistent with work employing social
comparison theory, particularly with regard to upward comparison to idealized endors-
ers, which suggests that in aspirational contexts this type of comparison can produce
positive results (e.g. Dens, Pelsmacker, and Janssens 2009). That is, in the context of
weight-loss, those with similar goals see retired athlete endorsers, who have lost, and
are working to regain the idealized athletic male body, as more credible. Thus, those
with negative body image, who represent a primary target market for weight-loss
products, are likely to identify with and (rightly or wrongly) trust these athletes.
In the next set of hypotheses, the authors found that credible athlete endorsers did
have a positive impact on advertisement believability. Specifically, endorsers’ trust-
worthiness and expertise were related to improved believability. As such, participants
who perceived the endorser to be more credible in these ways also had more trust in
claims made regarding the weight-loss product. Notably, the relationship between
endorser attractiveness and believability was not statistically significant. This contra-
dicts previous research revealing endorser attractiveness as an effective tool for
attractiveness-related products (Kamins 1990). This contradiction may be related to
study logistics, given that our sample was entirely made up of (presumably mostly
heterosexual) men. Research has determined men are more likely to be influenced by
specific, attribute-oriented advertisements rather than relational, category-oriented
advertisements, which are more appealing to women (Putrevu 2004). As such, the
attractiveness of the male athlete endorser for a weight-loss management program
does not influence advertisement believability.
Finally, consistent with previous literature, advertisement believability was positively
related to purchase intentions (e.g. Wu et al. 2012). This finding is of great conse-
quence in light of our previous findings related to men’s body image and endorser
credibility. The results denote that the use of an athlete endorser for weight-loss prod-
ucts is particularly effective in reaching those with a negative body image, and this
can potentially lead to increased sales of a weight-loss product. While an ethical
assessment of these relationships is beyond the scope of the current treatment, the
authors believe these findings could be valuable for both consumers and advertisers.
That is, individuals with low body image may represent a target market for the
weight-loss industry, as they would be most likely to purchase weight-loss products
designed to facilitate change to the body. The findings suggest that athlete endorsers
represent an effective strategy in reaching this target group, as those with negative
body image assigned higher levels of credibility to the endorser.
12 A. C. PICKETT AND N. T. BRISON

Implications
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between the consumer’s
body image, the endorser’s credibility, advertisement believability, and purchase
intentions for weight-loss management programs. The results showed that male
consumers with a negative body image thought athlete endorsers were more cred-
ible in the weight-loss management advertisement than those with a higher body
image. Further, the data showed a more positive effect on male consumers, sug-
gesting a positive outcome in the case of upward social comparison (Dens,
Pelsmacker, and Janssens 2009). Finally, men were more motivated to purchase the
weight-loss management program due to increased believability by the athlete
endorsement.
From an advertising effectiveness perspective, the results also supported the
importance of a match/fit between the endorser and the consumer as well as the
endorser and product. Men with a negative body image identified with the retired
athletes desire to lose weight after their post-professional sports careers. For market-
ers, it is important to select endorsers with similar characteristics to the target con-
sumer. This not only enhances the believability of the advertisement but also
influences consumer purchase intentions for the product (Wu et al. 2012).
However, implications of the current work extend to the role of advertising in form-
ing and reinforcing idealized body images. That is, repeated exposure to media idealiz-
ing thin bodies has been linked to negative body image, increased depressive
symptomology, increased body anxiety, negative mood, and other body-related con-
cerns for women (Grabe, Ward, and Shibley 2008; Harper and Tiggemann 2008; Myers
and Biocca 1992). Further, similar effects have been seen in men, such that those
exposed to idealized bodies in advertisements are more likely to exhibit depressive
symptoms and have higher levels of body dissatisfaction (Agliata and Tantleff-Dunn
2004). These body concerns, further, are related to a number of dangerous health
related behaviors, including disordered eating and physical overexertion (Bell,
Donovan, and Ramme 2016; Dakanalis et al. 2015).
The current study found that those with high levels of body dissatisfaction were
more susceptible to the ads presented, as they were more likely to trust the endorser
and, eventually, intend to purchase the product. In the context of previous work sug-
gesting that similar ads feed body dissatisfaction, it follows that such advertisements
exist in a feedback loop in which they first create ideal conditions for ad effectiveness
and capitalize on those conditions to sell the weight loss product. Therefore, while
largely beyond the scope of the present treatment, advertisers should consider the
effects of repeated exposure to such ads on individuals’ general wellbeing. Consumers
should similarly be aware of the body-image related effects of viewing such ads and
evaluate them with skepticism, particularly given that weight loss advertisements
often contain false or misleading claims (Avery et al. 2013). While the Federal Trade
Commission (FTC), has sought to rein in these claims, to date it has been largely inef-
fective. Given the negative effects of such advertising on individuals’ body image, fur-
ther regulatory action may be needed, including an increased emphasis on the use of
endorsers in weight loss advertising.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING 13

Limitations and future research

As with all research, the current study is not without limitations. First, consumers
were only exposed to one of two print/Internet ads. Future work may seek to
include additional endorsers, mediums, tactics (e.g. humor), as these may impact
advertisement effectiveness. Further, in the current study the authors only meas-
ured intentions to purchase, rather than actual behavior. Several authors have
called for increased use of more concrete measures of advertising effectiveness
(e.g. sales and purchase behaviors), given the gap between intentions and behav-
iors (e.g. Hassan, Shiu, and Shaw 2016; Lee et al. 2014). Future work, therefore,
may sample only individuals who purchased the product after viewing a particular
advertisement. Finally, consumers’ history with weight loss products may influence
their views on weight loss advertising. Therefore, future studies should also explore
the role, if any, of personal diet and weight loss history in evaluating similar
advertisements.

Conclusion
In the current study, the authors sought to explore relationships between men’s body
image, perceptions of endorser’s credibility in weight-loss advertising, advertisement
believability, and purchase intentions. The data support an inverse relationship
between body image and perceptions of athlete endorser credibility, showing that
those with more negative self-evaluations were more likely to give credence to the
endorser. Further, the authors found endorser credibility (particularly within the
domains of trustworthiness and expertise) was positively related to advertisement
believability. Finally, the data suggested a positive relationship between advertisement
believability and purchase intentions for weight-loss products. Taken together, the
results support the use of athlete endorsers in weight-loss advertising as an effective
strategy to reach men, particularly those with low body image.

Notes on contributors
Andrew C. Pickett is an assistant professor with the Kinesiology and Sport
Management Division at the University of South Dakota. His research focuses on
organizational behavior, diversity, and health-related outcomes in sport and phys-
ical activity.
Natasha T. Brison is an assistant professor with the Department of Health and
Kinesiology at Texas A&M University. Her research interests include sport brand man-
agement and protection, as well as legal aspects of sport marketing (e.g. athlete
media rights, consumer advertising deception).

ORCID
Andrew C. Pickett http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0454-0517
Natasha T. Brison http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6922-6169
14 A. C. PICKETT AND N. T. BRISON

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