CHAPTER 6

THEORY OF POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT

COMPRESSORS
In this chapter we study the theoretical principles behind the design
and operation of positive displacement compressors. There are many
similarities between the theories of rotary and reciprocating pumps and
reciprocating pumps are the most dominating one, hence more emphasis
is given to reciprocating compressors.

6.1 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

Reciprocating compressors are the most common positive displacement compressors
used in the CPI. They are special preferred for small capacity and high compression ratio
tasks. Reciprocating compressors are used in single stage and multi stage compressions.
Single stage air cooled compressors are commonly used up to compression ratio of 3
while single stage water cooled compressors are used up to a compression ratio of 6;
above this mostly multi stage compressors are used.

6.1.1 Indicator Diagram of Reciprocating Compressors

The indicator diagram of a reciprocating compressor describes the variation of the
pressure inside the cylinder over the displaced volume (% stroke) for one complete
rotation of the crank

Theoretical Indicator Diagrams

The compression process for one complete rotation of the drive can be expressed as
follows.
Line 1-2: Both the suction and discharge valves are closed gas in the cylinder is
compressed up to the final pressure P2.

177
Chapter 6 Theories of Positive Displacement Compressors 178

Line 2-3: The discharge valve opens when the pressure reaches P2 and the
compressed gas is discharged at constant pressure. In the discharging process the
piston head is not allowed to hit the cylinder head. This causes some gas, with
volume Vcl in Figure 6.1, to be left over inside the cylinder at the end of the
discharge stroke.

Vdel
3 2

P (bar)
Vcl

Vexp 4 1
Vdis

V (cm3)
Figure 6.1 Theoretical Indicator Diagram of a Reciprocating Compressor

Line 3-4: The piston starts the return stroke and the left over gas in the clearance volume
expands until the suction pressure P4 is reached.

Line 4-5: When the pressure decreases and reaches P4, the discharge valve is closed and
the suction valve opens and gas is drawn into the cylinder.

Vdis and Vdel in Figure 6.1 represent the displaced volume and the delivered volume
respectively. The expanded volume of the gas in the clearance volume is represented by
Vexp.

Actual Indicator Diagrams

The actual indicator diagram deviates from the theoretical one due to
 Inertia of valves
 Valve plate sticking to the seat
 Pressure drop across the valve
 Inertia of the gas following through the suction and discharge valves
Chapter 6 Theories of Positive Displacement Compressors 179

Actual cylinder
discharge pressure

P (bar)

Actual cylinder
discharge pressure

V (cm3)
Figure 6.2 Theoretical Indicator Diagram of a Reciprocating Compressor

The above mentioned factors cause the actual suction pressure to be below the theoretical
and the actual discharge pressure to be above the theoretical as shown in Figure 6.2.

6.1.2 Capacity of Reciprocating Compressors

The discussion of capacity of reciprocating compressors is better explained through the
theoretical indicator diagram. Therefore the following discussion is based on Figure 6.1.

As explained previously compressors cylinders are built with a clearance in order to

prevent the piston head from striking against the cylinder when approaching the extreme
left position.

The relative clearance is defined as,

Vcl
a (6.1)
Vdis
In modern single stage compressors a=0.025 – 0.06 (2.5%-6%). In these designs valves
are located inside cylinder heads. In multistage compressors valves are located on the
cylinder side, therefore the clearance cannot be made so small. The common relative
clearance in such cases is 0.2,i.e a=20%.

Due to the expansion of the gas in the clearance the cylinder starts to take in gas at the
end of the expansion rather than at beginning of the piston return stroke. Consequently
the volume Vs actually drawn in by the piston is less than the displacement volume Vdis.
Chapter 6 Theories of Positive Displacement Compressors 180

The volumetric ratio characterizes the utilization of the displaced volume. For the
polytropic equation
P2 V cln  P1 V exp
n
(6.2)
n- polytropic exponent
Rearranging (6.2)
1/ n
P 
Vexp   2  Vcl (6.3)
 P1 
Using (6.1) in (6.3) and replacing =P2/P1
Vexp  aVdis 1 / n (6.4)

It can be noted from Figure 6.1 that

Vs  Vdis  Vcl  Vexp (6.5)

Using (6.1) and (6.4) in (6.5)

Vs  Vdis  aVdis  aVdis 1 / n

Rearranging the above equation the intake volume becomes
Vs  Vdis (1  a( 1 / n  1)) (6.6)
The actual volume of gas drawn however will be less than the one given by (6.6) due to
thermal effect of the hot surface of the cylinder and valves, and leakage through valves,
piston rings and stuffing boxes.

Thus taking these factors into account, the actual volume drawn into the cylinder Vi
Vi  Vdis (1  a( 1 / n  1))lk th (6.7)

For modern compressors lk=0.95 to 0.98 and th=0.9 to 0.95.

The capacity of a simplex, single acting reciprocating compressor is therefore given by

Qi  Vi N  Vdis (1  a( 1 / n  1))lk th N (6.8)
N= Speed of rotation of the drive
Chapter 6 Theories of Positive Displacement Compressors 181

Note that for single acting single cylinder reciprocating compressor

D 2
Vdis  (6.9)
4
The ratio of the ideal intake volume Vs to the displaced volume is known as the
volumetric ratio vol.
Vs
vol  (6.10)
Vdis

The volumetric ratio vol characterizes the utilization of the displaced volume . For
modern compressors vol=0.7 to 0.9.

Example 6.1
Determine the capacity of a duplex single acting reciprocating compressor from the following
data.
D=300mm, S=300mm, N=400 rpm P1=100 kPa
P2=600 kPa a=4% , Assume lk=0.97, th=0.95, Polytropic coefficient n=1.2
Solution
For two cylinders working in parallel (Duplex)

 2
 0.3
2
Vdis  2 π D S   2( )( )(0.3)  0.04241 m 3
 4  4

Vi  Vdis (1  a( 1 / n  1))  0.04241(1  0.04(61 / 1.2  1))(0.97)(0.95)  0.03656 m 3

Q i  Vi N  0.03656(400)  14.62 m 3 /min

6.1.3 The Specific Work of Reciprocating Compressors

Consider the theoretical indicator diagram in Figure 6.3 for a unit mass of fluid. The
specific work done by the gas flowing into the cylinder (Y1), is given by:

Y1  P1v1 (6.11)
v1- specific volume of the gas
Chapter 6 Theories of Positive Displacement Compressors 182

3 2
P

4 1

v(specific volume)
Figure 6.3 Theoretical Indicator Diagram of a Reciprocating Compressor

The specific Work done to compress the gas in the cylinder (W2)
Y2  1 Pd v
2
(6.12)
Work done on the gas flowing out of the cylinder (W3)
Y3  P2 v2 (6.13)
The total specific work done by the shaft is the sum of Y1, Y2 and Y3
Y  Y1  Y2  Y3

Y   P1v1  1 Pd v  P2 v2
2
(6.14)

i. For adiabatic isentropic compression

Pv k  P1 v1k

P1 v1k
P (6.15)
vk
Using (6.15) in (6.14)
P1 v1k
Y  P2 v2  P1v1  1
2
dv
vk
1
 P2 v 2  P1 v1  P1 v1k 1
2
dv (6.16)
vk
Integrating and rearranging (6.16), for adiabatic compression, we get

k  p 2  
( k 1) / k

Yad  P1v1    1 (6.17)

k  1  p1  

Or using the ideal gas law

RT1 k  p 2  
( k 1) / k

Yad     1 (6.18)

M k  1  p1  

Chapter 6 Theories of Positive Displacement Compressors 183

Once the compression ratio, the suction condition and the property of the gas (k) are
known the adiabatic compression specific work can be calculated using either (6.17) or
(6.18).

ii. For isothermal Compression

For isothermal compression
Pv  P1 v1 (6.19)

Using (6.19) in (6.14)

P1 v1
Yiso  P2 v2  P1v1  1
2
dv (6.20)
v
Since P2 v2  P1 v1 for isothermal compression and with integration (6.20) becomes

v 
Yiso   P1v1 ln  2  (6.21)
 v1 
Modifying (6.19) and rearranging
v 2 P1
 (6.22)
v1 P2
Using (6.22) in (6.21)
P 
Yiso  P1v1 ln  2  (6.23)
 P1 
Using the ideal gas law
RT1  P2 
Yiso  ln   (6.24)
M  P1 

The formula for isothermal and adiabatic compression which is derived here for
reciprocating compressors is the same as that derived in Chapter 3. Hence we can see that
the specific work calculation for compressors does not depend on the type of machine.

6.1.4 Power of Reciprocating Compressors

The brake power of reciprocating machine can be easily determined by using the formula
already developed in Chapter 3. The adiabatic and isothermal efficiencies are also
defined in Chapter 3, accordingly.
Chapter 6 Theories of Positive Displacement Compressors 184

m Yad
Nb  (6.25)
 ad
If the total pressure is known the power of reciprocating compressors can be calculated
from
QP
Nb  (6.26)
 ad
Where P  gH ad

m Yiso
Nb  (6.27)
 iso
The mass flow rate can be calculated from the volume flow rate using (6.8) and the
density at the inlet condition.

6.2 ROTARY COMPRESSORS

Most of the characteristics of rotary compressors are similar to reciprocating
compressors; therefore it would be redundant to repeat them here. The capacity of screw
compressors depends on the speed, length diameter and gear ratio. Equations 6.27 and
6.28 and 6.29 give the capacity, adiabatic head and brake power of screw compressors.
Q  D 3 ( L / D)(GR)n( v / C ) (6.28)

RTs k  PD 
( k 1) / k

H ad     1 (6.29)
M k  1  Ps  

QP
Nb  (6.30)
 ad
Where P  gH ad
Chapter 6 Theories of Positive Displacement Compressors 185

REVIEW EXCRECSE

1. A single acting single cylinder-reciprocating compressor having a bore diameter and stroke
length of 40cm and 45cm respectively is used to compress air from 1 bar to 2.5 bar. The speed
of the crank is 70 rpm. The relative clearance of the compressor is 4%. Assuming a polytropic
exponent of 1.2 and
i. Draw the theoretical indicator diagram. The volume and pressure at the beginning of
suction, beginning of compression, beginning of discharge and end of discharge should
be indicated.
ii. Determine the volume of air drawn into the cylinder during the suction stroke and the
volume of air delivered during the discharge stroke. Assume the thermal and leakage
factors of 0.95 and 0.97.
iii. Calculate the volume flow rate at the inlet with thermal an d leakage factors as given in
ii.
iv. Assuming an adiabatic efficiency of 62% and suction temperature of 200C, determine the
adiabatic head and brake power of the compressor.

2. It is required to compress air from 1atm to 50 atm using reciprocating compressors. Determine
the number of stages of compression with intercooling.

3. A 3 stage-reciprocating compressor, with inner and inter-coolers is used to compress Nitrogen

from 0.8 bar and 00C to 40 bar at a rate of 0.2 kmol/s. The compression ratio of each stage is
the same. The compression at each stage is nearly isothermal with an isothermal efficiency of
75%. Determine the power consumption assuming a motor efficiency of 95% at each stage.

4. What is the power saving of the compression in question 3 as compared to a process with a
single stage adiabatic compression of efficiency 75% (adiabatic efficiency).
Chapter 6 Theories of Positive Displacement Compressors 186

REFERENCES
[6.1] Matley,J., Fluid Movers: Pumps, Compressors, Fans and Blowers, 1979,McGraw-Hill
[6.2] Perry, H.R., Green,D., Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook , 6th editions,1984,
McGraw-Hill.
[6.3] Cherkassky: Pumps, Fans and Compressors, Mir Publisher,1977.
[6.4] Hanlon, P.C., Compressor Handbook, McGraw-Hill, 2001
[6.5] Banga,T.R., Sharma,S.C., Hydraulic Machines, Khanna, Publishers, 1972.
[6.6] Rao,N.S.G., Fluid Flow Machines, Tata McGraw-Hill, 9183.