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Full Download Book Polysaccharide Based Nanocomposites For Gene Delivery and Tissue Engineering PDF
Full Download Book Polysaccharide Based Nanocomposites For Gene Delivery and Tissue Engineering PDF
Polysaccharide-Based
Nanocomposites for Gene
Delivery and Tissue
Engineering
Edited by
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Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden
our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may
become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating
and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such
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A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978-0-12-821230-1
ISBN: 978-0-12-823218-7
The editors are honored to dedicate this book to Dr. Kishwar Usmani
(Aunty of Dr. Mohammad Jawaid), who left this worldly life on January
14, 2021.
Allah SWT forgive her small and big mistakes and Give her a Higher
Place in Jannatul Firdous. Ameen.
Contributors
Asrar Ahmad Center for Sickle Cell Diseases, College of Medicine, Howard
University, Washington, DC, United States
Anant Narayan Bhatt Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Allied Sciences, Defence
Research and Development Organization, New Delhi, India
Iqbal I.M. Ismail Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, King Abdul Aziz
University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Laishram Rajendra Kumar Singh Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Center for Biomedical
Research, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
Asim Ali Yaqoob School of Chemical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang,
Malaysia
This book provides solid, quantitative descriptions and reliable guidelines, reflecting
the maturation and demand of the field and the development of new polysaccharide
nanocomposites. It focuses on the different types of polysaccharide nanocomposites
of cellulose, chitosan, alginate, etc. for gene delivery and tissue engineering. The book
also covers polysaccharide hydrogels for tissue engineering and polysaccharide mag-
netic nanocomposites for gene delivery and highlights the most exciting applications
in the field of gene delivery and tissue engineering. This book will be of interest to
researchers working in the fields of material science, biomaterials, regenerative med-
icines, drug delivery, tissue engineering, polymer science/chemistry, and chemical
engineering, and in the polymer industry. It will be useful for scientists working on
polysaccharide nanocomposites for gene delivery and tissue engineering. The book
will be very helpful for students in the development of new polysaccharide
nanocomposites as well as graduates in polymer technology, biomedical science,
and biotechnology.
The two introductory chapters cover basic information about polysaccharides and
nanocomposites, to provide a foundational understanding. The second section of this
book covers chitosan and its derivatives-based dimensional frameworks as carriers for
gene delivery, alginate- and hyaluronic-based hydrogels for tissue engineering,
heparin- and cellulose-based nanocomposites for and dextran, pullulan, gellan,
xanthan, and xanthun gum-based nanocomposites for tissue engineering applications.
The last section describes polysaccharide-based 3D bioprinter inks for tissue
engineering, polysaccharide-based nanocomposites for gene delivery, chitosan- and
starch-based nanocomposites for gene delivery, and hyaluronic acid magnetic
nanocomposites for gene delivery.
Finally, we assure the readers that the information provided in this book can serve
as a very important tool for anyone wishing to select/design polysaccharide-based
nanocomposites to fulfil the requirements of gene delivery and tissue engineering
applications. We are grateful to all the authors who contributed chapters to this book
and who helped to turn our thoughts into reality. Lastly, we are grateful to the Elsevier
team for their continuous support at every stage to make it possible to publish on time.
Showkat Ahmad Bhawani
Zoheb Karim
Mohammad Jawaid
Polysaccharides
Sadaf Afrina and Zoheb Karimb
a
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University,
1
Aligarh, India, bMoRe Research AB, Sweden
1.1 Introduction
Natural polysaccharides are generally constituted of simple carbohydrates with long
chain molecules attached via glycosidic linkages. Carbohydrates are made up of alde-
hydes or ketones, and have multiples hydroxyl groups. They make up the majority of
organic matter and play a crucial role in human life. Carbohydrates serve as energy
stores, fuel, and various metabolic intermediates. In parallel, various sugars like ribose
and deoxyribose form part of the structural framework of RNA and DNA. Polysac-
charides are also present in the cell walls of bacteria and plants, and cellulose is
the main constituent of plant cell walls [1, 2].
The most authentic classification performed for polysaccharides is based on degree
of polymerization (DP). Polysaccharides may reach a DP of 105, whereas, by defini-
tion, the maximum DP for oligosaccharides is 10. Hence, by convention, compounds
having a DP of 11 or more are designated polysaccharides. A monosaccharide is a
monomer of saccharides, and a disaccharide is two conjugated monomers [1, 3].
Many studies are available related to the general introduction of polysaccharides,
their chemical structures, chemical compositions, methods of isolation, types, etc.
[4–7]. Hence, in this chapter, a very interesting aspect is explained: the nano-form of
these polysaccharides, which is an area of emerging interest in scientific studies. Very
few studies in the literature have been summarized related to nano-polysaccharides
characterization, the isolation process, and their properties and applications. Conse-
quently, this chapter explains the collective efforts and provides a summary of
nano-polysaccharide understanding and their utilization in various applications.
Origin Polysaccharide
Reproduced with permission from Torres FG, Troncoso OP, Anissa P, Francesca G, Giuseppe B. Natural polysaccharide
nanomaterials: an overview of their immunological properties. Int J Mol Sci 2019;20:5092–9.
magnesium (i.e., alginate in the brown algae). Some of them, such as cellulose, starch,
chitin, and polysaccharides from seaweeds, are commercially important in several
markets, ranging from paper production to food industry products. We will restrict
our description to those polysaccharides and their interactions with the immune sys-
tem. In this chapter, we shall discuss some of them in detail.
1.4 Nano-starch
Starch is a polymer of carbohydrates consisting of numerous glucose units joined by
glycoside bonds. Starch nanoparticles (St-NPs) have attracted much attention due to
their unique properties that are different significantly their bulk material [26]. In a
study, St-NPs were extracted from starch granules by means of physical or chemical
treatments. Utilization of chemical treatments for preparation of St-NPs has received
more attention than physical treatments [25]. Isolation of St-NPs has been reported in
various scientific studies [27–29] and the fabricated nanoparticles are in the shape of
5–7 nm thick, 20–40 nm long, and 15–30 nm. In a study, St-NPs were synthesized
Polysaccharides 3
with native starch using a solvent displacement method modified with an aqueous
alkaline medium as a solvent and ethanol as the organic phase [30], as shown in
Fig. 1.1.
Surface modifications of St-NPs have also been performed using various chemis-
tries, in a study, surface of waxy maize starch isolated using H2SO4 hydrolysis was
performed using two different reagents, namely, alkenyl succinic anhydride and phe-
nyl isocyanate and various sophisticated techniques are employed for the character-
ization of modified St-NPs [31]. Furthermore, St-NPs with high specific area and
surface hydroxyl groups have good potential for surface chemical modification to
introduce any desired surface functionality. The accessible hydroxyl group content
on the surface of St-NPs was reported to be around 14% of the total hydroxyl group
in polymer structure, which is around 0.0025 mol/g of St-NPs [31, 32]. The main
reported surface modification is grafting different reagents on the surface of the par-
ticles [33, 34] to prepare new material for different applications, especially in blends
with polymers.
1.5 Nanocelluloses
Our group has been working with various kinds of functionalized nanocelluloses for
many years. As discussed and reported in various scientific studies, the nano-form of
cellulose exists mainly as crystalline cellulose (CNC) and cellulose nanofibers (CNFs)
[22–24]. In our study, we have also used an integrated route of bioethanol for the iso-
lation of crystalline cellulose having highly negative surface ζ-potential compared to
sludge-based crystalline cellulose in acidic pH (pH 5.0) (Fig. 1.2) [14].
Surface modification of nanocellulose is performed using various chemistries, and
very detailed report is published early [35]. In our lab, a green approach using enzyme
hexokinase was studied for the introduction of phosphate (PO4 2 + ) groups on the sur-
face of cellulosic fibers [21, 22]. Furthermore, in situ TEMPO functionalization of
Fig. 1.1 Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) of fabricated St-NPs: (A) the histogram
represents the size distribution of fabricated nanoparticles; (B) using dynamic light
scattering (DLS).
4 Polysaccharide-Based Nanocomposites for Gene Delivery and Tissue Engineering
Fig. 1.2 Isolation routes of cellulose in nano-forms, crystalline cellulose (CNC), cellulose
nanofibers (CNFs), and highly functional crystalline cellulose called bioethanol CNC (CNCBE)
are reported in this chapter. Available functional groups on the surface of isolated celluloses are
denoted on the right-hand side.
Reproduced with permission from Mathew AP, Oksman K, Karim Z, Liu P, Khan SA, Naseri
N. Process scale up and characterization of wood cellulose nanocrystals hydrolysed using
bioethanol pilot plant. Ind Crop Prod 2014;58:212–19.
Fig. 1.3 In situ TEMPO functionalization of crystalline cellulose isolated using a bioethanol
integrated route. High surface charge density and more negative ζ-potential indicate highly
effective reactions.
CNCBE-based dimensional structures was also reported, where mild acid-based intro-
duction of carboxylic groups (COO) was performed to produce highly active and
effective dimensional frameworks [11]. Fig. 1.3 represents the possible catalytic
reaction for the in situ TEMPO oxidation of cellulose-based dimensional structures.
Polysaccharides 5
1.6 Nano-alginate
Alginate is a naturally occurring anionic polymer typically obtained from brown sea-
weed. It has been extensively investigated and used for many biomedical applications
due to its biocompatibility, low toxicity, relatively low cost, and mild gelation by addi-
tion of divalent cations such as Ca2+ [36]. Alginate gels are also promising for cell
transplantation in tissue engineering, which aims to provide man-made tissue and
organ replacements to patients who suffer the loss or failure of an organ or tissue
[37]. In this approach, hydrogels are used to deliver cells to the desired site, provide
a space for new tissue formation, and control the structure and function of the
engineered tissue [38].
Alginate-based nanoparticles have been widely used in various applications [39,
40]. Two promising applications discussed in the literature are targeted drug delivery
and tissue engineering, and due to their nontoxic nature, high surface area of
nanoparticles (high loads of drugs and other active molecules), and effective biocom-
patibility, alginates in nano-forms are an effective candidate in these research fields
[41–44]. In a study, a novel procedure for the fabrication of alginate nanoparticles in
the aqueous phase of water-in-oil (w/o) nanoemulsion was developed and
reported [45].
Moreover, the hybrid of alginate nanoparticles with metals nanoparticles/metals is
also reported in the literature. In a study, stable nanoparticles of alginate were fabri-
cated in mild acid conditions, and stability was further increased after crosslinking
with zinc [46]. Fig. 1.4 provides a complete step-by-step production of alginate-zinc
nanoparticles.
1.7 Nano-pectin
Pectin is a natural polysaccharide structurally composed of large amounts of poly-D-
galacturonic acid bonded via α-1,4-glycosidic linkage. According to its degree of
methyl esterification, pectin can be classified as high methoxyl pectin or low methoxyl
pectin, which yields some differences in its properties [47, 48]. Pectin has commonly
been used as a gelling agent, a thickening agent, and a colloidal stabilizer in the food
industry [49]. Its applications in the pharmaceutical industry have been increased in
the last decade [50–52].
Nanoparticles of pectin are prepared using mechanical homogenization for disso-
lution enhancement of itraconazole [53] and further used for drug loading. It has been
concluded that nanoemulsions were achieved when chloroform was used as an
internal phase. The obtained emulsion was freeze-dried to obtain solid porous
Fig. 1.4 Step-by-step fabrication of alginate-zinc nanoparticles. Highly stable alginate nanoparticles were prepared using zinc-based cross-linking.
Reproduced with permission from Pistone S, Qoragllu G, Smistad M, Hiorth. Formulation an preparation of stable cross-linked alginate-zinc
nanoparticles in the presence of a monovalent salt. Soft Matter 2015;11:5765–74.
Polysaccharides 7
nanoparticles, and further various sophisticated analytical techniques were applied for
characterizations. Scanning electron microscopy and optical images of produced
nanoparticles are shown in Fig. 1.5. Furthermore, in a study, citrus-derived pectin
nanoparticles were produced via the ionotropic gelation method, using magnesium
(Mg2+) as the divalent cross-linker [54].
Fig. 1.5 Optical images (left-hand column and middle column) and SEM images
(right-hand column) of particles prepared from caprylic/capric triglyceride (CCT)-based and
chloroform-based nanoemulsion using (A) high methoxy pectin, (B) amidated LM pectin
with degree of esterification 29, and (C) low methoxy pectin (degree of esterification 38).
Reproduced with permission from Burapapadh K, Takeuchi H, Sriamornsak, P. Development
of pectin nanoparticles through mechanical homogenization for dissolution enhancement
of itraconazole. Asian J Pharm Sci 2016;11:365–75.
8 Polysaccharide-Based Nanocomposites for Gene Delivery and Tissue Engineering
the chitin by alkali treatment [55]. However, deacetylation of chitin is almost never
complete, and chitosan or deacetylated chitin still contains acetamide groups to some
extent. Unlike cellulose, chitin and chitosan contain 5%–8% N2, which in chitin is in
the form of acetylated amine groups and in chitosan is in the form of primary aliphatic
amine groups; this makes chitin and chitosan suitable for typical reaction of amines
[56]. However, chitosan is chemically more active than chitin due to the presence of
primary and secondary hydroxyl groups on each deacetylated unit (Fig. 1.6). These
reactive groups are readily subject to chemical modification to alter the mechanical
and physical properties of chitosan.
The synthesis of chitosan nanoparticles in the presence of sodium tripolyphosphate
(TPP) as a reducing agent was discussed [57]. In another study, eco-friendly spherical
chitin nanoparticles were synthesized using oxidative Oxone. This versatile-triple salt
was effective in the cleavage of glycosidic bonds and etching out individualization of
elementary fibrils to form chitin nanoparticles and selective oxidation occur at C6
hydroxyl of glucose molecule submit to form carboxylic acid [58]. In a very interest-
ing study, the size of chitosan-TPP nano and microparticles has been controlled using
various molar ratios of chitosan and TPP. Furthermore, the degree of acetylation (DA)
is reported to be the second most influential parameter of tuning the size of produced
nano/micro particles [59]. The sizes of produced nanoparticles are shown in Fig. 1.7.
In the same study, in which very interesting results were discussed, the authors
explored the influence of chitosan concentrations on the hydrodynamic radii of fab-
ricated nanoparticles, as shown in Fig. 1.8. A high concentration of chitosan is respon-
sible for the greater size of produced chitosan nanoparticles.
Zoo, als één adem van dierlijksten gloei, als één wolk
boven ’t kermisland drijvend, koortste de ziedende
passie van de zingende meiden en kerels òp, schroei
van hun zinnen, brand van hun lijven.
—Nou waif, nou goan ikke d’r tug effe uit! had ie
gezegd tot vrouw Hassel. Vrouw Hassel, op d’r stoel
ingezonken, bang, vol van ’t kermisgewoel om ’r heen,
waarvan ze niets begreep, had ’m aangestaard. Pal
voor hun avondraampje bleef ’n orgel staan,
beschetterde ’t huisje in dreun van klanken;
Tegen twaalf uur, bij z’n thuiskomst, zat z’n wijf nog
roerloos in den hoek, ingeslonken op ’r stoel, voor ’t
raampje te suf-staren, opschrikkend even toen ze ouë
Gerrit’s scherpe stem hoorde.—Toch had ze geen
vraag gedaan: of ie wegging of terugkwam. Ze kòn
ook niet, omdat ze niets begreep.—
Maar als z’n wijf nou maar in bed lag, zou hij, achter
d’r rug zich kunnen verschuilen, zoo heelemaal gedekt
door háár.—En sidderen kon ie van zich zelf als ie ’r
aan dacht, dat ie ’r straks nog had willen ranselen,
ranselen van lol en jubel, dat suffe stomme wijf, dat ie
nou noodig had.—
[Inhoud]
II.
—Mô je main?