EL EMENT A RY

P RA C T IC A L P H Y S IC S
A L A B O R A T O RY MA NUA L

B E G IN N E R S

W I L L I A M WA T S O N
E sc ( LO N D O N) . .

S E N I O R D E MO NS T RAT O R I N P H YS I C S I N T H E R O Y A L C O L L EG E O F SC I E N C E L O N D O N
A S S I S T A N T E XA MI N E R IN P H YS ICS FO R T H E S C I EN C E A ND A RT D EPA RT MEIVI
,
‘

A ND T HE U N I V ER S I T Y O F L O N D O N

NEW YO RK
LO NG MA NS , G R E E N, CO .

LO ND O N A ND B O MBA Y

A 11 n lz t : -
r est weak
 P R E FA C E

T HE met h ods of t eac ingh elem en ar t y phy sics have been

rec e n tly u n d ergoing an im porta n t c hange, and it i s no w
nec essary that t h e i ndividu l m m b of classe s sho ld b
a e ers u e

t gh t t o th emselves perf m t h e e pe im ent inst ead of t he

au or x r s,

te he as h s b een h ithe to c om m only t h e p c t i

ac r, a r l ne ra c e, a o

pe r for m ing t
t h e ex perim en s i n t h e pr esence of t h e class .

In ord er t o sat isfac torily c o nduc t such a c lass wh ere a ,

num b er of st u d ent s ar e working at elementary prac t ic a l

p h y s ic s,
a nd w h e r e ,th er e fo re t h e t ea c h er ca nno t de v ot e h i s
,

time ex c lusi vely t o one or t wo i t is ab solutely nec essary th at

,

t h e stu d e nt s sh ould be supplied w i th wri tt en i nst ruc t i o ns as

t o t he m et h od i n wh ic h t h e e x p eri m e nts ar e t o be p erfo r m ed ,

rt icu larly i f as is gen er ally t h e c ase all t h e st ud e n ts are no t

p a , ,

eng aged on t he sa me ex per im e nt ; and i t is w ith a v ie w of

supplying suc h instruc t i on i n t h e form of a la b orat ory m a nual

t hat th is b ook has b een writ te n Alth ough in most c ase s a .

fe w i n trod uc tory r emark s wh ic h h a ve p urposely b ee n m a d e

,

as sh ort as possible ar e gi ve n t h e b ook i s not in te nd ed t o

, ,

r epla c e personal inst ruc t io n wh i ch should c onsist o f both

,

ind i vi d u al supervision and o f g enera l e x planat ions g ive n t o t he

wh o le c lass eith er in t h e form of lec t ures or demonst ra t ions
, .

Th e e x p erime nt s h ave b ee n c h ose n wit h a v iewo f o btai n

ing wh erever it was possible a q u a nti t a ti ve a nswer and a re
, , ,
vi P r efa ce .

g e n erall y of su c h a na ure t th at a c a reful worker will be bl

a e

t o g et sa ti sfac tory resul s. t T h i s is a m ost importa nt point,

for if th ere is o ne th ing m ore than h h h a n ot er w ic tend s to
d isappoint b eg inn ers and t o g et t he m in to a careless and
slipsh od m eth od of w ork i ng it is p erfor ming a n u mb er of
,

e x peri m ent s in w h ic h t he re sult s can only be de pe nde d upon

t o a v ery roug h appr ox im at ion so th a t a g ood result i s m ore a ,

m att er of luc k th an of c are ful work .

A lthough t h e b ook is i nt en d e d for t h e st uden t rat h er th an

t h e tea c h er i t is h op e d t ha t t h e li st o f appara t us e t c r e q uired
, ,
.
,

for eac h ex perim e nt g iv e n a t t h e c o mm e nc e m ent o f t he

,

e x erc i ses a nd t h e i n for mat ion g ive n in t h e A ppe nd i x will be

, ,

fou nd o f use t o t h e t eac h er A s will be see n fr o m t h e li st of

.

a ppara t us giv e n i n t h e A p pe n d ix t h e c ost of i nst it ut i ng suc h a ,

c ourse a s d e sc ri b ed i s n ot v ery g rea t ; and a ft er t h e i n st ru ,

m ent s h av e on c e b e en o b ta ined t h e annu al out lay nec essary ,

t o keep t h e la b ora tory i n a n e ffi c ie n t c ond iti on is ve ry sma ll .

It will pro b ably be fou nd b e st t o le t t h e st u d en t s work in

p a ir s,
a n d i t i s p e
, r h a ps sca r c e ly n e c e s
,s a ry t o a d d t h a t a li tt le

j udg m e nt and forethought ex erc ised in arranging th e pairs will

g rea t ly a ss i s t t h e m a n ag e m e n t o f t h e c las s I n t h e fo ll o w i n
.
g
a
p g e s n o a tt e m p t h a s .b e e n m a d e t o d i v i d e t h e e x e r c i se s i n t o

le ssons si nce t h e am ou n t of wo rk wh ic h c a n be g ot th ro ug h
,

in a le sson by differe n t pu pils var ie s so m uc h A g re a t d e a l . ,

o f t im e w i ll be sa ved if ea c h pai r of st u d en ts is t old at t h e e n d

o f ea c h le sson t h e e x p eri m e nt w h ic h th ey will h av e t o perform
a t t h e nex t lesson so tha t t h e y m ay in t h e m ea n t im e rea d u p
,

t h e i nst ru c t ion s et c ,
a nd th us b e a b le t o sta rt w
.
,
ork with ou t

loss of t im e on e nt er in g t h e lab orat o ry T o c arry o u t t h i s.

ar ra nge m e nt i t i s a s well t o hav e a s m a ny c a rd s as t h ere a r e

,

se t s of a ppara t us ava ila ble wit h t h e nu m b er of t h e e x erc i se,

written upon t h em and t o d ist rib ut e th ese c ards a t t he e nd o f

,

e a c h le sson . If this m e t h od is adopt e d t h ere is n o d an g e r ,

 P r ef ace . vi i

t
O f sim ul an e ously se tting t h e sa m e ex peri m en t m or e tim es
t h an t h e a ppara us t will allow .

h
Th e fi g ures av e in m ost ca ses e en prepared from p oto b h
g raph s o f a c t ual pi ec es o f a ppar at us w ic a v e ee n fou nd t o h hh b
wor well I a ve, h owe ver, t o t a n Pr ofessor Wort ingt on
k . h h k h ,

for pe rm issi on t o u se a fe w fi gu res wh ic h ar e take n

fr om h is y b
P h sical La orat or P rac t i c e ”
y . 1 h ave a lso to

th ank my b othe M J
r r, r. a m es D ouglas Wa tson F I A
, . . .
,
for
m uc h t
assis a nc e i n pr e par in g t h e m a n u sc r i pt fo r t h e press .

W W . .

ROYA L CO L L EG E O F SC I EN C E, LO NDON .
 CO N T E NT S

R efer ences t o t he exp/a n a tof y pa r ag r aphs a re pr i nted i n i t a li cs

.

P A RT I .
—
ME NS UR A T I O N .

S ECT I O N I — T HE
. M EA S UR E M E NT O F L EN GT H .

ax o n

B r i t i sh em it s of leng t h
Ya rd and its subd i vi is o ns

Met r i c u n i ts of leng t h
Met re and its subd ivi sions
Meth od of usi ng t he sca le
Meth od of using sca le
Ca lcula t ion f
o mea n v a lu e

C o mpa rison of t h e B ri t ish and m e t ri c u ni t s o f leng th

Use of d i vider s for m easu r i ng leng t h s
v
Use of di id ers for m easuri ng leng t hs
M asu r emen t of d i a meter of spher e
Measure m ent of d ia me t er of sphere
S l id e cal ipers
To m ake c opy l
o f sc a e

Wedg e
Meas urem ent o f s ma ll l e ng t h s wi th wedg e
S cr ew
'

S c re w
S er ewa nd m et
S crew and nu t

S cre wga ug e

Leng t h of curved line by d i id er s v s

Le ng th of cu rve d l ines by t hread

Rat io o f circ um ference of c i cle t o d ia m e t e
r r

I a lue
r
f
o 1

Ca lculati on of diam eter or circumference of circle .

X Contents .

S ECT I O N II .
— TH E M EA S UR E M E NT OF M A SS .

B a la nce
Measurem ent of
m ass by ba ance l
C om parison o f B ri t is h
a nd m e tri c u ni t s o f m ass

S ECT I O N III .
— TH E M EA S UR E M ENT O F A RE A .

A r ea a r ecta ng le
A rea o f r ec tang e l
A rea of lar fig
ir reg u u res

A re by we ig hi ng
a

A e a of c i c l e
r r

A r ea qf par a llelog r a m
A rea of par a e ogra m ll l
A rea of t ria ng e l
SE C TION IV .
—
TH E M E A S URE M EN T O F V O L UM E .

Volu me f ig ph t rois m r

l
Vo ume by m easure m en t
Con nect ion bet ween u n i ts f
o mass a n d volu me

C o nnec t ion bet ween u ni t s of m ass a n d v o lu m e

Fl ui d m easures
Vo lum e o f so lid by displacem ent
S ECT I O N V .
— TH E M EA S URE MENT O F D ENS l l Y
’ ‘
.

D en si t y of liq ui d by weighing a m eas u re d v o u me l

D ensi ty f q
o li u i d b
y mea ns of a fl ash
D e nsit y l
of i q ui d by m ea ns of a fl ask

A d d i t iona l ex erc ises i n m ensu ra ti on

P A RT II .
—
HY D R O S T A T I C S .

Ba l a nci ng co u m ns l ( m anome t er )
( c ompariso n of d ensi ty)
when liq uids m i x )
H a re p
s ap ara tus

P r i nc iple f
o A r ehi medes
 Conten ts .

Proof of princi ple of A rchim ed es

D ensity of solid m re de nse tha n wa t er
o

less
liquid
Flo ta tion
D ensi ty of l iq uid s by flo tat ion
Hyd rom et er
S iph on
A dd i t i ona l ex erc ises in hydrosta t ics

PA RT III .
— T I IE —
BA R O ME T E R
B O Y LE S LAW
'
.

S EC T I O N L — THE BA R O M E T ER .

B a r ometer
B a rom et ric h e i ght ( I)
(2 )
n ( 3)
Efl e ct s of i n t rod uc t i on
'

of liq ui d s on ba rometri c height

S ECTI O N II — . B O YL E S
’
LA W .

B oy le s la w ( pres ures great e than one a t m osphe re )

’
s r

less
S em en III .
—
G E O M ET R I C AL RE P RE S ENT A T IO N O F
V A RY N G I QUA NT I T I E S .

P lot t ing point s of curv e p a pe r

Loci
Loci
A lg ebr a iea l rep r esen t a t i on o f !or i
L oc i
Gr aph i ca l r ep resent a t ion o f
’
B oy le s la w
Plot res l ts of e periment s on Boyle l w
u x
’
s a

A d d it i onal ex e c ises i n pl ot t ing c r es

r u v

P A RT IV .
—
ME C HA NlC S .

C al ib ra ti on o f spring balanc e
Mea surem ent of m ass by spri ng ba la nc e
Le v er

Moment s
e Contents .

Moments ( I)
n

Moment of a f or ce
Le v er, when d i rec ti ons of ap plied for ces ar e Inc lined to lengt h of leve r

To t est t h e eq ualIt y i n t he lengt h of t he a rms of a ba l a nce

Rider

Measurement of a ng es l wi th prot ra c t or

Gr aphi c p ffi
r e r esent a t i on o r ces

Res ul ta nt of t wo forc es ( par all e l og ra m of for ces)

Tr iang le of fo rces
R esu ta ntl two pa ra e
of ll l fo rc e s
Cent r e fg
o r a v ity
C en t r e of gravity by suspen sio n

by bala nc i ng
of t ri ang u ar l lam in a

Lever ( f u lcr u m not a t cent re f

q g r a v ity )

Le ver ( fulc rum n ot at cent re of gra i ty ) v

D e t er mi nat ion of m ass of lever
In cli ned pla ne
l
Inc ined p lane ( po wer pa llel ra to leng t h )
b ase )
P u lley .

Fi x ed p ll ey
u .

S i ng le movable pu lle y .

Si m ple pend ulum ( I)

(z )
( 3)
Veloci ty

Fa lt i ng bodies
Mot ion on an l
i nc ined plane
At wood s ma hine ( I)
’
c

( 2)
( 3)
(4 )
I. (5 )
“ ”
Va lue g of

Mo m entu m
Mom entu m
ll
Ba isti c pendu l um
 Cont ents . x i ii

ll
B a ist ic pend u um l
! Vibra t ions of a t i n h lath

P A RT V .
—
S O UND .

To p ro e t v h at so undin g bodies are in a sta t e of vib a t ion r

T uni ng for -
k
To c o m pa r e freq uency
th e of t wo t un ing -for ks
T o m ake a m onochord
V ib rat ions hed string
of a st ret c . Rl be tween pit ch and length
e a t i on

V ib r a t i ons o f a st r et ched st r ing . Rel a t ion bet we en pit ch and stre t ch

ing force
V ib ra t io ns o f a st re t ch ed st r in g . Re l a t i on be t wee n pi t ch and d ia m e t e r
Vi br at ion s f
o a colu m n of a ir

Vi bra t i o ns l
of a co u mn of a ir

Lo ng i tu d ina l vi bra t ions o f a ro d .

Ve l oc i t y of so un d In a i r by K und r 5 ’
m e t h od

P A RT VI .
—
L I GH T .

Th e sh ado w photomet er
Reflect i on la n e surf ace
at a p
Re fl e c t i o n at a plane surface ( I)
(2 )

Re fl ec t i on at a plane surface ( 3)
P osit ion i m ag e by ara ax m e t
of p ll hod
Con e f
o r ay s wh ich en ter th e ey e

L a t e ra l i n v ersi on of i mage in a p l a ne m i r o r r

Im a ges f or med by t wo pla ne m ir r or s i ncli n ed a t a n a ng le

Im ag es for m ed by t wo
pl l
ane m i r ror s i n c i n ed a t an an
g le
Im ages formed by t wo parall el plane m i rors
. r

Reflect ion at cu rv ed su r a ces

f
R gflect i on at conca ve su rfa ce

C oncav e m irror
Reflect i on a t a convex f
su r ace

v
C o n ex m i rror

Refra c t ion plane sur face

at a

R fract ion at t wo parallel plane surfac es

e

P a t h of a ray of l ight through a p i sm r

D ispersi on by p rism
D i sper s i on f li g h t by r ism
o a
p
x Iv Contents .

C om posi t e na t ure of white ligh t

Spect r u m a nd Spect roscope
A bsorpt ion light by c oloured bodies
of

B right lines of m e t al s
D ark li nes in solar spec t rum

P A RT V II — H E AT .

C onduc t i i t vy of soli d s for heat

C om parison of con duc t iv i ty of so li d s

C ondu ct ion of hea t in l i q ui ds

Me th od of fi inll g l
an a coh o l t he rm o m e t e r

Th e t her m om et er
To t est t h e cor rec tness of t h e fre ez i ng -po int of a t h e rm o m e te r
To t est t h e c or rec tness of th e b oi ing - po i nt o f l a t he rm o me ter
l gp
Effe ct of sa t on t h e freez in - oi nt of a t e r w
Effec t of sal t on t he boili ng poi nt -
of wa t er

E pansi on of sol ids

x

Expansion o f liqui d s
Ex pa nsi on of wa ter
’
H ope s ex per im ent
Coefi ci en t o f ex pa ns i on o f g as es

C oe ffi ci ent of incre ase l

of v o u m e of a i r a t c onst a n t p ressure

C oe ffi c ient of i nc rease of pre ssu re of ai r a t c onst a n t vl o um e

Qu a nt i ty of h ea t
Therm l capac ity o f wat e at
a r di fferent t em pe ra t ures
The m a l ca paci ty of al ohol
r c

Specific heat of cO pp er

C hang e of s tat e
L at en t h eat
L a t enthea t of ice
L at ent hea t o f st ea m
Pi zpou r ten si on a nd boili ng -poi n t
Va pou ten ion of water at t h e boiling pom t
r s -

B oil i ng poin t of al cohol

Effec t of ch ange of pressure on t h e boil ing po nt of al
cohol -
I

D istilla ti on

P A RT VI I I .
— MA GNE T I S M .

Magnet s
Mag net s
L i nes of force of a m ag n e t ( I)
 Contents . XV

Lines of force of a magnet

Method of ma gnet iz in g a st e e l st rip ( I)
(2 )
n ( 3)
Effect of breaki ng a magnet

of a m ag net i z ed d isc
To find t h e m a gne tic meridian
Measurem ent of dip
Mag net i c mome nt
Com parison of m agnetic m oment s
Indu ced m ag net i sm
g
Indu ced m a n et i sm i n i ron a nd st ee l
Induced m agnet i sm
Mag net ism i nduced by t h e eart h s
’
fie d l .

PA RT IX .
—
E L E C TR I C I T Y .

S EC T I O N I—
. S TA T I C E L E C T R I C I TY .

Electrifi ca t ion by frict ion

Elec t rical a t t ract ion
P osi tiv g l
e and n e a t iv e e ec t r i fi c a t i o n

P osi t i ve a nd nega ti ve elect r i fi ca ti on

Elec t r ifica t i on by conta c t with electr ified body

C ondu ct o rs and i nsu a t ors l
Cond u ct or s a n d i nsu lat or s
The pr oof pla ne
p
T h e roof p ane l
In duc t ion

Induced c harge
B ou nd ch a rg e a nd f r ee ch a rge

h
In d u ce d c ar g e on an uninsu lat ed body
Th e g old-leaf elect r oscope
Th e g o d l leaf elect roscope
-
( I)
u (2)
C onduc t ion
The elect r ophor us
Th e l ph orus
e ec t r o

El ec t ri c d ensit y

D is t ribut ion ha ge on hollow cond u ct or

of c r

Fa ra day s ice pail ex peri ment

’
-
x vi Contents .

Equali ty of t h e posi t i ve a nd neg at i ve i nd uced ch arg er

Eq uali ty of th e posit iv e a nd neg a t i v e ind uced charg es
Elect ric sc ree ni ng
To m ake a L eyd en j ar

Th e Le den y j ar

S EC T I O N II .
— V O LT A IC EL E C TR IC I T Y .

Th e v lto ai c ce ll
Effec t of cu rr ent on su spen d ed m a g ne t n e ed e l
A ct i on f
o cu r r en t on mag net
A c t ion of c u rr ent o n m ag n et
L ines of force of wire con v e y i ng a c u rre nt .

H ea t dev elope d by l
e ec t ri c c u rre nt

S olenoid ( I)
(z )
r

Th e g a lv a nom et e r

l
E e c t ri c re si st anc e

Resi st a n ce
y resistance
B a t t er
D iffe enc e of pot ent ial or elec t ro m ot i e for ce
r -
v

Fall of pot ent ial long a wi re con eying current

a v a

law
W
’
O hm 5

C om parison of resi sta nces ( heatstone 5 ’

n et )
W ’
h ea tst one s br i dg e
VVh eat st one
’
s b rid ge
Resist a nce of wires
C om par ison of the specific resist ance of t wo wires
Effect of rise of tem pera t ure on th e resist a nce of a WIre
Resist ance of t wo cond uct ors i n parallel

A PP E ND IX I.

TO sold e r m et al j
ob ec t s

T o si lv er gla ss
To b end g ass t ub e l
w
To d ra out a tub e
To sea l t h e end of a g lass t ube

To blow a bu lb on t h e end of a pIece o f glas s t u be .

A PP E ND I X II
.

A pparat us and materials 2 2 9— 2 3 8

 EL EMENT A RY

P R A C T IC A L P H Y S IC S .

P A RT I .
—
MENS U R A TIO N .

SE CT I O N I .
—
TH E M EAS UREME NT OF L E NGT H .

P H YSICS h as b een defin ed as t h e Scien e of Me su emen t and c a r ,

it i s t h i spe t of t h e s bj e c t w
s a chi h will be p im ily dealt u c r ar

wi th in th ese page th e fi rst m e su em ent wit h wh ic h we

—
s a r

sh all d e l b eing th t of d ist an e o leng th

a a c , r .

In o de t o be ble t o e p es t h e di stan c e b etwe en t wo

r r a x r s

p o in t s i t i s n e c e ss y t o h oose som e fi ed leng t h an d t o say

ar c x ,

t h at t h e d ist n e i s so m any t im es th is fi ed length Th us we

a c x .

say th t t h e d ist n e b etw

a een t wo pla e s i s
a c h nd e d pac es c a u r ,

m eani ng t h t a h und ed t imes t h e dista n e wh ic h we c an step

a r c

wo u1d each f m one pl c e t o t h e othe

r ro A ny fi e d le ngth a r . x

whi h 3 m ade se of in th is w y s a standard of eference

c 1 u a a r

when e p e ing lengths o d ist n e is c alled a ni t of l gt h

x r ss r a c u en .

In G e t B i t in t h e st and d nit of leng t h i s calle d t h e

r a r a ar u

y rd nd is t h e distan e b et ween t wo v e y fi ne m k on a
a , a c r ar s

c e ta in m e t al b
r whi h s ca ef lly p ese ved at t h e S t ndar ds
ar c I r u r r a

O ffic e of Westm i nster

t h e B oa rd o f Tra d e, at .

Suppose we h ad a n um b er of st ic k s of wood t h e leng th of ,

e a c h p iec e b e ing a ya rd a nd we found t ha t four t ee n of t h ese,

s t ic k s w h en plac ed end t o en d stret ch ed in a stra igh t line

, ,

fr om a Spot A t o anot h er spot B

,
Th en t h e d i stanc e from A
, , .

t o B or t he le ng t h AB wo u ld be fourt e en t im es t h e unit of
, ,

leng th in t h is c a se th e yard
,
Th e distan c e fr om A t o B i s .

B
2 Mensu r a t i on .

t herefore ya d It i s i m po tant t o noti e th t t h e ec o d

I4 r s. r c a r r

O f t h e le ng t h A B c nsist s of t w o disti nc t p a t s
o fi st of r : r ,
a

n mbe
u ( 4) wrh i h t e
I lls u s t h e n cm b e o f ti m es t h e n i t u r u

is c ont in e d i n t h e len g th A B ; sec ondly

a of a w o d ( ya d ) ,
r r

wh i h t ells s wh at p ti l leng t h we ha ve u sed as o

c u ar cu ar nit ur u .

A ll e o d s of m eas e m ent s no m tt er wh a t t h e q antity

r c r ur , a u

m ea s ed m y be m st lways on si t of t wo s c h p t vi
ur a , u a c s u ar s, z.

( ) I a n u m b e ( ) t h e n m e o
r, f t h e
a ni t a u .

Th e distan e b e tween t h e end d i vi i on li ne s of th e y d

c
“
s -
ar

sc le w a i th wh i h you e supplied i a y a d
c S in e h oweve
ar s r . c ,
r,

fo many m e s e m en t ei th e a sm alle o la g e u ni t th n
r a ur s r r r r r a

t h e y a d i s c onv enie nt c e t i n s b d i v ision s an d mu lt i ple s f

r ,
r a u o

t h e y d h av e ecei ved spec i l n m e

ar r and a e ed ni t s
a a s, r us as u

of lengt h Th e onne tion between t h ese nit s and t h e ya d

. c c u r

i sh own in t h e following t b le
s a

2
; of a ar d i sy c a l ed a f o o l t .

1 of a
3; ar d i s y
c a ed a n i n c ll h .

yard s are c alled a m ile 1 7 60 .

We m ay ex press th e sa m e fac ts O t h erwise t h us ,

1 2 i n c h es I foot .

3 fe et I yard .

1 7 60 y ar d s I m ile .

y
If you ex am ine a ard sc ale i t will g en era ll be found t y h at ,

b b
esi de s t h e n u m e re d d iv isi on li nes, m ar ing t h e i n c es, t -
k h he e r

ar e th er lines wh ic h su b div i de eac h inc h i nt o a num ber of

o

e qu al part s Th e m ost u sual n u m b er of part s i nto wh ic h t h e

.

inc h is sub divide d are ei t he r 8 1 0 or I 6 NO spec ial nam e s , , .

are g iven t o t h e se frac t ion s of an i nc h b ut t h ey are referre d ,

t o sim ply a s e ig h t h s t e nt h s or six te ent h s a s t h e ca se m a y

, , ,

be For r easons whic h will be se en lat er on t h e m ost c on

.
,

v enient sc ale for our p p

u r ose is on e in whic h eac h inc h i s
su bdivided into t en eq al p rts It i u a . s, h owever som eti me s ,

n ec e s y t o m e su e
s ar l ngt h t o wit h in less t h an a t en th o f
a r a e

a n in h Und c . s h i m st nc es w m y i m gi n e h O f
er uc c rc u a e a a e ac

t h e t en t h s f th e s b div i d e d in t o t en e q
ur r l pa t s n d t h u
u ua r , a s

e t im t e t o t h e n earest t en t h of a d ivi si n t h e am o n t by
s a o u

whi h t h e given leng t h e eed s t h e nea est wh ole tent h o f a n

c xc r

i nc h A ft e. li ttl p c ti e t h is s b division by eye wi ll

r a e ra c u
 4 Mensu r a t ion .

lengt h th a n th e yard , bu t t h at th e su b di vi sions o f the metre

ar e m ore v
co n en ien t than b
t h e su di visi ons of t h e yard .

Th e m etre is di vi ded int o t en pa rts, eac h of wh ic h is called

a deci metr e ; a dec i m etre i s di vid ed i nt o t en centi metr es, and a

c en ti metre int o t en m i lli metr es For measuri ng long distances .

t h e kilometr e 1 00 0 m e tr es) is u su all y employed .

Th u s t h e table of leng t h a cc ordin

g t o t h e m et r i c yt
s s em

is as follows
tim etre I c en .

I d ec im etr e .

I m et re .

I k ilom etr e
‘
.

Th e ad vantage of t h e a b ove m et h od of Sub divi sion i s t h e

e ase w it h wh ic h a le ngt h m ay b e written d own in t erm s of
any on e of t h e a b ove un i ts a nd i f n ecessar y c on ve r te d into
, , ,

e i th er of t h e ot h er unit s Thus a leng th of say 3 m et res

’

.
, , ,

I de c im e tre 8 c ent i met re s an d 4 m illim et res c a n be w

, , r itt en

m et r es
or d e c i m et r es
or 318 4 t i m
c en
et r e s

or 3 4
1 8 m i ll im etr es .

EXE RC IS E z .— Th e metr e a nd i ts s ubdi vi si ons .

Appa r at us Metr e sc ale divid ed into m illim etr es

—
.

Ex am ine t he m etr e sc ale ; t h e n um b er ed d ivisions m ar k t h e

cen ti m etr es In y our not e b ook d ra w str a ight li nes one c ent i m e tr e
.
-

a nd one d ec i m etr e long A lso d r a w a str a ight line

. m l on g . .

Mea sure t h e lengt h a n d br ead t h of t h e t op of your t able a n d of

t h e r oom i n m et r ic u n it s .

Met h od of u si n g t h e S c ale .
— Wh en m easuring th e
dist anc e between t wo p oin t s i t
is im portant t o old t h e sc a le h
y
c orre c tl , or it w b
i ll be i mpossi le t o O tain ac cu rat e result s b .

In t h e fi rst pla c e, t h e en d of t h e scale is seld om c u t q u i t e

s q uar e, t h e last d iv i sion e ing g enerall b
t oo s ort Do no t y h .

t he refore a ttempt t o plac e t h e end of t h e scale at one of t h e

i v n oint s an d read off t h e d ist anc e t o t h e ot h e r p oi n t; bu t

g e p
ll w g b v
Th e fo o in a bre ia t io ns are g enera em oyed lly pl : In . m etr e,
d eci met re, cm cen t i m e t r e , m m
. mi imet re . ll .
 Method of Usi ng Sca le . 5

set t h e scale so th at th e fi rst point is at th e first or ten th

ce nt imetre or i nc h di vi sion a nd ta k e t h e readi ng on t h e sc ale
,

Opposi te t h e sec ond p oint From this read ing t h e reading at

.

t he fi rst p oin t will h a ve t o b e su b trac t ed t o g ive t h e lengt h

betwee n th e poin ts .

y
Sec ond l , if t he scale is pla c ed flat o n t h e su rfac e on wh ic h
th e tw k
o po in t s a re m ar ed a n e rror will p ro a l be m ad e in b by
h k
th e re adi ngs, du e t o t h e t ic ne ss of t h e rule T h e way t is . h
error m ay a ri se is illustrat e d i n Fig . I . If, wh e n taking th e

BAD WAY O F U S ING T H E S C A LE .

F IG . I.

read ing on t h e sc ale c orresp ondi ng t o B, t h e eye is placed

e x ac tly v B a c orrec t value 3 3 5 c m will be b
o er , ,
°

.
, o ta in ed .

O n t h e oth er hand if t h e eye is n ot ex ac tly over B t h e

, ,

read ing ob ta ined w ill be ei th er gr eater or less th an cm .

ac cording t o t h e p ositi on of t h e eye .

Th e c orrec t way of u sing t h e sc ale i s sh own i n Fig 2 wh e re .

,

t h e posit ion o f t h e eye w ill not a ffect t h e readi ng ob ta ine d ,

QO OD WAY OF USING THE S CALE.

F IG . 2.

a nd t h e e n d di vision, wh ic h may be inac c urat e, is not made

u se of.
6 Mensu r a t ion .

EX ERCIS E 3 .
— Method of usi ng a sca le .

A pp a r a t u s —
Y a rd m et re sc a l es p iec e of c a r d bo a r d wi th
a nd

th ree sm all c rosses pla ced in a st ra igh t li ne, a nd lett ered A, B , and C .

Mak e sever al m ea sur e m ents in B r it ish a nd m e t ric un it s of t h e

, ,

d ist a nc es b etwe en t h e p oi nt s A a nd B B a nd C an d A a nd C , , ,

st a r t ing e a c h t i m e a t a differ e nt d iv i sio n of t h e scale a nd m a k i ng ,

a c a refu l e st im a t e of t h e t e nt h s of t h e sm all e st d iv i sion of t h e sc a le

i e est i m a t e by eye t o t h e nea r e st t e n t h o f a m ill i m et r e o r h u nd re d t h

. .

of a n i nc h Ent er your r esults i n a t a ble a s i n t h e followi ng

.
,

e x a m pl e

Re ad in g of Sc a le for
p
'

D ifl e re noe of R e a din
No . of E x e r i m e nt .

of Sca le g
le n t h A
s

C alc ul a t i on of th e Me an V a lu e It Wlll be not ic ed

—

th at t h e values ob tain ed i n t h e b
last c olu m n of t h e t a le i n t h e
p r e v i o u s e x e r c i se a r e n ot a ll e q ua l T h i s i s d u e t o slig h t
. err or s

in a dj ust i ng t h e p osi t ion of t h e sc ale a t t h e poi nt A an d i n ,

est im at ing t h e frac t ion s o f a m i lli m et re a t B In suc h a ca se .

we take as t h e di stanc e b etween A and B t h e a verage or m ean

, ,

of all t h e m ea sure m en t s T o o b t ain t h e m e an add all t h e

.

r esult s t og e t h er an d divid e t h e su m by t h e n um b e r o f result s

,
.

In th e a b ove ex am ple th e su m of t h e result s i s 8 8 5 I D ivi ding .

by 4 t h e m ean value i s 2 2 1 2 7
, c m In pe rform ing t h e . .

d ivi sion i t will be n ote d th at we h av e st oppe d at t h e th ird plac e o f

de c im als In t h is c a se a dig i t in t h e secon d plac e r e presen t s
.

hundredth s of a c enti metre and sinc e our measu rem ent s were , ,

o nly ta k en t o t h e n eare st h un dr ed t h i t i s u nnec essa r y t o carr y ,

on t h e d ivision beyon d t h e n e x t pla c e o f d e c im als i e t o t h e , . .

n earest t h ou sa nd th Si nc e h oweve r we ha ve only m easure d t o

.
, ,

withi n one hundredth of a c en tim etre we are only ent itled t o

-
,

r ec ord t h e re sult t o t h e ne arest h un dred th an d so t h e m ean valu e ,

O b t ai n e d i s We writ e t hree h u ndred t hs b ecau se we

h ave see n th at i f we c o nt i nue t h e d i vi sio n t h e d igi t a ft er t h e
 Compa n i on f
o B r i t is h a nd Metr ic Uni ts .
7

2 in t h e second 7 h e n c p i
lasc emior
s e c orraec t , and e a

value t han Wh enever a nu m b er O f m easurem ents are

tak en of t he s m e q antit y t h e m an m ust be c alculated and
a u e ,

ent e ed i n yo r not e b ook

r u -
.

C alcula te t h e m ean value for t h e d istanc es A B , B C , a nd

A C in t h e last ex erci se, a nd see h ow near t h e sum of the

valu es o b ta ined for A B and B C is t o the value o bt ained
for A C .

EXE R C IS E 4 .
—
To com a r e
p the B r i ti sh a nd Metr i c u n its of
lengt h .

Appa r a t us Met re an d yard scales

—
.

Plac e th e y ar d a nd m etr e sc ales sid e by side wit h th e gra dua ted

ed ges i n c ont a ct and t aki ng t h e end d ivision s of t h e y ar d sc ale a s
, ,

t h e po int s A a nd B of t h e la st ex er c ise d et er m i ne t h e length of ,

t h e y ar d i n ce nt i m etr es Repeat t h e m ea sur em ent th r ee or four

.

t im es a nd enter th e r esult s in a ta ble si milar t o t h at u sed in t h e

,

prev iou s ex erc ise .

Fr o m t h e m ean of th e values obt ained for t h e n u mber of centi

m etr es ia a y ar d c alc ula t e t h e num ber of c ent im etr es in a foot and
, ,

i n an i n c h A l so calc ulat e t h e n um b er of i n ch es i n a m etr e

. H ence .

fill i n t h e sp a c es in t h e followi ng t a ble

Th e Us e C om p a sse s or D i v i d er s for m e a sur i n

of g
L en t h s g .
—
It i s som e tim es i mpossi le t o appl a scale d irec tl b y y
b
t o t h e O j ec t t o be m ea sured . For in stanc e, i f i t be nec essar y

FIG .
3 .
G) .

to measure t h e distanc e et ween t wo m ar s on a sm all tra b k y

h
w ere t h e raised edg e preven ts th e u se of a sca le , we may
k
m a e use of t h e inst ru m ent s own in Fig 3, an d calle d a p air h .
8 Mensu ra t i on .

of hair dividers
-
. Th e leg s of t h e inst ru ment are h inge d at B ,

and t h e poin t O f one of t hem can be m oved thro g h a small

u

distan ce by turning th e sc rew A . When using t h e div iders,

say, t o m easure t h e d istan c e between two m ar ks M,
an d N ,

one p oi n is plac ed at M,
t t ill t he
and t h e divid ers are open ed
o t h er p oin t is n ear Nhen by turning t he screwA thi s point
T .
, ,

is adj u sted t ill i t exa c tly c oi ncides wi t h N Th e d i vi ders .

ar e t h en l d th t i t t f h d i v i i
p ac e so a on e p o n res s o n o ne o t e s o n s

of a d iv ide d sc ale and t h e posit ion o f t h e ot h er i n t i

, p o s
r ea d ofl
'

Ex ERC IS E
Appar at us — - v
H ai r d i id er s sc ale .

Mea sure by m ean s of t h e d ivid ers t h e d istan ce between

, , the

po i nt s A B a n d C, o n t h e c ar,d u s ed i n Ex e r c i se 3 .

Ent er y our re sult s i n a ta ble as below ,

S ca le R ea d in gf or '
D Ifle rence o f R ea d m g s
No . of E xp e ri m e n t
D b
is t a nce e t wee n
P
.

Le g A .
t he g iv e n oi n t s .

Me a su r em en t of t h e D i am e t e r of a S p h er e or

C yli n d er It is impossi le .
—
b by means of a sc le alone to m e a asure

t h e d ia m e ter of a sp ere h Wi th t h e assist nc e h owev e

. a , r, o f

t wo blo k of wood
c s ,
t h e e nds f wh ic h e c oat e ly squ ar a c ur a re d

off, this m e su em ent a r c an be m a de .

L ay t h e sc ale fl at bl k s o f
on t h e table , a nd p la c e t h e t wo oc

wood along sid e t h e grad a t ed e dge with t he Sph e e be twe en u r

th em in t he mann er sh own in Fig 4 T hen t ke t h e eading s

, . . a r

on t h e scale opp osi t t h e en ds of t h e t wo b l k e Th e oc s .

diffe enc e b et ween t h e re d in gs will be t h e d iam t er of t h e

r a e

sp h e er .

A n i na c te es lt will be ob t ined if t h e en d s f t h e
cura r u a o

bloc ks a e not at righ t gl s t o t h e ides To test wh eth e

r an e s . r

th is is so em ove t h e sph e e nd pl c ing t h e b lo k s in c on tac t

,
r r ,
a ,
a c ,
 Ca liper s .
9

see if t h eir e nd s touc h all rou nd If t h ey do not th ey ar e not .

s q uar e ; an d ev en i f t h ey d o it d oes n ot follow t h a t th ey are

FIG .
4 .

s quare ,
for t wo blo k h ving
c s a t h e s ape of h t hose sh o wn at A,
Fig 5 ,. touc h all roun d. If, h owev e r, one of th e block s be

FIG .
5 .

turned over so that t h e fa ce wh ic h was at t h e t op is now nex t

,

t h e table t h en i f t h e e nds of t h e b loc k s ar e square t h ey st ill

,

touc h all round ; bu t if th ey are n ot square t h ey no longer

do so , a s is s hown at B .

EXE RCIS E 6 .
—
To measur e th e di a meter o f a s ph ere .

App a r a t u s —
T wo blocks of wood wit h a c c ura t ely sq u ar ed end s
m eta l wooden sph ere sc a le
or .

Test whet h er t h e en d s of t h e t wo blocks of w ood su pplied t o you

ar e squa r e wi t h t h e s id e s e n t er i ng i n y ou r n ot e b ook a d e sc ri pt i o n
,
-

of t h e t e st s yo u a pply a n d t h e r ea s on s why you a pply t h e m

,
.

Then m ea sure t h e d ia m et er of t h e given sph er e a l so t h e l ongest ,

a nd sh or t est d i a m et er s of a n e gg Ent e r y our r esu l t s i n a t a ble

.

s im i la r t o th a t e m pl oy ed i n Ex e r c i se 3 .

EXE RCIS E 7 . Th e sli de ca li p er s.

Appa r a t u s —
S l id e c a li p er s ; s ph er e ,
et c .
,
u sed in pr eviou s
ex er c i se .

A n i n st r u m e nt wh ic h works on ha t th e sa m e pr in c i ple as t

em ployed in t h e pr ev ious ex er c ise is S h own in Fig 6 a nd is c a lled .

,

t h e sl id e c ali p er s . Th e t wo m et a l j a ws on e o f wh i c h A i s fix ed t o —
, ,
Io Mensur a t ion .

t
t h e s em , a nd t h e o t , , m ova ble take t h e place of t h e bloc ks
h er B i s —

of wood u sed in t h e la st ex erc i se, wh ile t h e di stance b etween t h e

FIG 6 . .

j w
a s c an b e d irec tly r ea d o ff by m ea n s scale en r a ed g v on
t h e st e m .

Re pea t t h e m easurem ent of th e l ast ex erc i se, u sin g t h e sli d e

c ali pers .

EX E R C IS E 8 .
—
To m a he a co py of a milli metr e scale.

Appa r a t us P iec e of wood 24 in x Qin x 5 ln ; steel m ill i

— . . .

m et r e sc ale penc il a nd pin s str i p of c ar db oar d .

At a b out a n inch fr om on e en d of a pi ec e of wood a bo ut t wo feet

long and half an inch squ ar e dr ive a st out blanket pin ri ght th r ough
,
-

t h e wood so t h a t t h e poi n t pr oj ec t s a b out a q uar ter of a n i nc h

, At .

a b out t h e sam e di st anc e fr om t h e oth er end c ut a d ee p n ot c h i n t h e ,

wood par allel t o t h e pin a nd fir m ly t ie a short lengt h of bla c klead

,

penc il i nto t h is not ch Then fa sten t h e m illim etre sc ale and a str i p
.

of c ar d b oard t o t h e t op of y our t a ble w ith drawi ng pin s so th a t th ey -

,

ar e i n t h e sa m e stra ight l i ne an d a b ou t on e foot a p art O n th e .

c a r d d r a wt wo l ongit ud in al line s t o sh ow t h e l eng th s o f t h e l on g a n d

,

sh ort d ivisi on lines re spec tiv ely

-
Th en placi ng t h e point of t h e pin
.
,

suc ce ssi vely i n eac h of t h e d i v i si on s of t h e steel sc ale dr a w a c orr e ,

S po n ding d i v i si on lin e on t h e c a r d m ak i n g t h e fifth an d t ent h li nes

-
,

l onger th an t h e oth ers N u m b er t h e wh ole c entimetr e divi sions

. .

Th e We d e g
A BC , in Fig 7 , r epresent s a triangle of w ic
— . h h
t h e sid e A B is 1 0 c m long , a n d t h e side B C I c m a nd t h e angle
. .
,

at B is a rig t angle h h
T i s t ri angle h as een drawn on pape r
. b
h h
w ic i s d ivi ded up in to a n um er of squares t wo se t s of b by
p ar allel st r aig ht lines at rig ht an gles t o one a no t h er . Th e
 I2 Mensur a t ion .

EX E RC IS E Io . Use of the wedge to mea sur e small leng ths .

Appa r a t us — triangu la r piec e of c urve pa per sim ilar t o Fig

A ,
.
7,
m ou n t ed on t h i n c ar d som e sh or t le ngt h s of gl a s s t ub e .

Insert t h e t h in end of a wed ge sh a ped pi ec e of c ar d b oa rd wh ic h

-

i s d ivid ed i n t h e sam e way as t h e t r ia ngle, Fig 7 , a s fa r a s i t will g o .

in t o t h e b or e of a p iec e of gla ss t u b e, a nd n ot e t h e r ead ing on t h e

sid e A B wh ic h i s opp osi t e t h e e nd of t h e tub e F rom t his readin g, .

the i nt er na l d ia m eter of b y d ed u ced sinc e

t h e t u e c an be i mm ed ia t el ,

t h e h eigh t of t h e wedge a t t h e gi ven p oint i s kn own fr o m t h e ,

previous ex erc ise t o be a te nt h of t h e dista nc e of t h e gi ven poin t

,

fro m t h e e nd of t h e wedge R ec or d your r esult s a s in t h e following

.

ex a m ple

L engt h of wedge 1 0 c m .

He ight of w edge 1 cm .

Re a ding on A B O ppo sit e end of tube cm .

diam eter of b or e of t ub e o 43 2 c m
°

Th e S c r ew — Th e . c yli n d er s h own in Fig 8 is ex ac tl . y

10 c m. in c i rc u m ferenc e, an d h as i o f c u rve pa per
a p e ce

p as e d rtou n d it ; a nd on t h is p p
a e r a

seri es o f lines, suc h as AC , Fig 7 , .

h v e b e en
a d rawn . Now if we start
,

from t he p oi n t B and follow t h e

slopin g line rig ht ro u n d t h e c ylind er ,
we sh a ll, t
a f er m a ing k a c om ple e t
t urn, arr i e at
C v
H e n c e ,
i n t r.a v e l
ling onc e r ound t h e c lin d e r, we av e y h
t ra velled d own th e c lin d er t roug y h h
a d i stan c e, B C, w ic h i s I c m h If we .

g o r oun d an ot h e r wh ole t urn we

sh a ll, in t h e sam e way arrive at D
, ,

the d i stanc e C D be i ng e qual to

FIG 8
h oweve
. .

BC . If, r, in stea d of g o i ng
a wh ole turn we had origi nally only gone one fi fth
,
-

of a t urn h ow far d ow
, n t h e c ylinder sh ould w e h a ve g one ?

With out ac tually m easuring we c an at onc e say for if we , ,

c ou ld u n r oll t h e
p p
a e r fr om t h e c li nder w
y e sh o u ld h a v e a ,

triangle e x ac tly like t h e tria ngle A B C Fig 7 t h e edge of t h e , .

,

p p
a er c o rr espo n d ing t o t h e sid e A B wh ile t h e slant ing line ,
 Scr ew . I3

j oining C would c orre spond t o t he side A C

B an d Sinc e t h e .

c irc u m ferenc e of t h e c linder i s 1 0 c m , i f we y

a ve g one . h
h
of a t urn t at m ean s we m ust h av e g one 2 c m along t h e .

c ircum fe renc e from B , t a t i s, t o E, a nd w e h

n ow t at t h e k h
h h
eig t of t h e w edge at 2 c m from t h e poi nt A is 2 m m . .

H enc e, i f we h a ve g on e of a t urn r ou n d the c ylinde r, we

h ve g one mm down t h e ylinde
"

m ust a 2 . c r.

Th e slan t ing lin e whic h g oe s rou nd a n d rou n d t h e c ylind e r

form s wh at is called a spiral lin e, or sc re w ,

on th e su rfa c e of

t he c ylin de r.

EX E RCIS E 1 1. —
Th e scr e w .

App a r a t u s c y lin d er o
-
n Awh i c h a sc r e w h a s b een t ra c ed l .

You ar e supplied w it h a Cylind er si m ilar t o t h a t sh o wn i n

Fig 8 D et er m ine h ow fa r d own t h e c yli nd er you wi ll h a ve gon e
. .

a ft er foll ow i ng t h e S pir a l li ne for 0 7 t ur n s F r o m y ou r , .

r e sult s see 11 you c a n di scov er a sim ple r u le s im ila r t o t h a t gi v en ,

wit h r eferenc e t o t h e wedge on p 1 1 by m ea ns of whi c h if you .

, ,

a re giv en t h e n u m b er of t ur n s you c a n i mm edi a t ely w ri t e d own

,

t h e d ist anc e tr a v elled p ar a ll el t o t h e l e ngt h of t h e c yli hd e r .

Th e S c r ew a n d Nu t Instead of eeping t h e cylinder —

k
fi x ed an d followi ng t h e sp iral line roun d and rou nd, we m ig t h
h y
a ve t urn ed t h e c lin der , at t h e sam e t im e m oving it p arallel

t o i t s leng th , so th t a t h e sp iral lin e alwa s y r em ai ne d o

p posi e t
som e fi x ed poi nt th is c ase by c ounting t h e nu mber of
In .
,

turn s a turn w
a n d frac t ions of e c ould a t onc e say h ow far ,

t h e c ylin d er h ad m ov ed p arallel t o i t s leng t h In ord er t o .

fac ilit ate t h i s opera ti on t h e spiral line m igh t c onsist of a g roov e

c ut i n t h e w ood a n d t h e fi x ed poi nt m ig h t b e a sm all
, p g
e

a tt ac h e d t o t h e t a ble a nd fi tt ing i nt o t h i s groo v e .

In t h e sc rew and nu t we h av e a n arrangement of t hi s kind ,

th e p eg b ei ng replac ed by t h e n ut wh ic h i s e q ui valent t o a ,

wooden cylinder 1 0 cm in ci cum ference (i e I} inches in di a

A . r . .

m et e ) r ound wh i ch a p iece o f mm c urve pape r Io c m by 6 cm

r , h as
.
, . .
,

be en pas t ed B efo e s t i cking on t h e pape d a w a eries o f st ra ig h t

. r r r s

l ines di vi di ng th e paper into a num ber o f t ria ng les each e q ual t o A B C ,

Fig 7 nd so arranged that t h e li nes when t h e paper is wr apped round

, a ,

t h e cylind er for m a sc rew wi th a one cm pi t ch

,
-
. .
14 Mensur a ti on .

series of
p g
e s fi tted in si de a c ollar th at they cann ot slip
so

o ut of th e g r oove . Th e ri d g e be tween t wo neighbouring

turns of th e i s called t h e t h read of t h e sc rew and th e
g r oo v e ,

d ist anc e b etween t h e c entres of t wo adj ac en t t hreads is calle d

t h e p itc h of t h e sc rew Eac h t im e t h e screw is tu rned onc e
.
,

rou nd it w ill m ove t hrough t h e n ut a di stanc e e q ual t o th e

p i tc h o f t h e sc r ew .

EXERCIS E 12 .
—
S cr ew a nd nu t .

App a r a t us — S c r ew a n d n ut .

D et erm ine t h e pit c h of t h e screw supplied t o you by m easuring

t h e d ista n c e b et w ee n t en thr ead s a nd di viding th i s d i st a nc e by t en .

Then pr ove by m easur em ent th at wh en t h e nut is rot ated through

, , ,

a c om plet e t ur n it t r a v els d o w
, n t h e sc r ew t h r ough a d i st a nc e equal

t o t h e pit c h of t h e scre w Al so fi nd by m ea sur em ent and c alc ula

.
,

tion t h e d ist anc e which t h e nut t ravels along t h e scr ew in m aki ng

,

a nd turns r espect ively .

Th e S c r ew G au ge The sc e wis often employed wh en.

— r

y
ver sm all distances h ave to be ccurately m easured An a .

in str m en t called a sc ewgauge in wh i h a screw is u sed fo

u r -
,
c r

t his p pose is sh own in Fig 9 T he obj e t to be m ea ured

ur , . . c s ,

FI G .
9
.

say a p i e c e of wire ,
i s plac e d e t we e n t h e en d of tbh e sc re wA

a nd the bloc k h
B, w ic h is a ttac ed to t h e nu t h
t h e strong by
v
c ur ed arm D . Th e scre wcan be turned by t h e m illed h e ad
b
C , t h e nu m er of wh ole t urns eing rea d off on t h e sc ale E, b
h h
wh ic is so di vid e d t a t a c om ple te turn of t h e screwm oves
t h e edge of t h e c ap G, w ic is fi x ed t o t h e screw, t rough h h h
t h e distanc e b et ween on e d iv ision lin e -
an d t h e nex t . Th e
 Leng th of Cu r ved L i nes . 1 5

frac t ion s of a t urn ar e r e ad off on t h e scale F ,

e ngra ed o nv
th e e dge of t h e cap G . T he pit c h of t h e sc rew i s g enerall y
mm .
, a nd t h e e dg e of t h e c ap i s di vi ded in t o 5 0 e qual

par s t . T he r efore , S in c e turning t h e sc re w through a c om ple e t

turn m oves t h e end A thr ough a d istanc e of mm .
, on e

d ivision on t h e sc ale F c orrespon d s t o a m o ion of th e sc rew

t
p oi n t o f 1 of
3 6
m m .
, or mm .

EX E RCIS E 1 3 . Th e scr e wg a ug e
-
.

Appa r a t us gauge p iec es of wir e of var iou s diam eter s

—
S c r ew -
.

Mea sure t h e d iam et er s of t h e pieces of wire su pplied t o you

by m ea ns of t h e sc rew ga uge -
.

Wh en m aking a m ea sur em ent wit h a sc rew ga u ge h old t h e c ap -

G very l igh t ly b etwe en t h e t h um b a nd fi r st fi ng er of t h e ri ght h and ,

a nd t ur n t h e sc rew t i ll t h e obj e c t i s j u st lig h t ly gr i pp ed b etwe en

t h e end of t h e s c r ew a nd t h e bloc k B If t h e i n str u m ent i s scr ewed .

u p t ight ag ai nst an obj ec t t h e sc r ew t h r e a d w il l b e i nj ur ed and t h e ,

r ea d ing w ill b e l ess l ik ely t o b e c or r ec t t h a n if o n l y a l ight p r essur e

i s em pl oy ed .

Th e Me a su r e m e n t . of
C u r ve d L i n e s
t h e L en t h g of .

— h
H it erto we av e o nl h yb
e en c on si de ring t h e m ea surem e nt of

t h e length of t h e str a ig h t lin e j oining t wo g i ven points, w e

h ave nex t t o c onsider th e m e t o d s of m ea sur ing t h e lengt h of h

c urve d li n e s .

A c u r v ed h as A B Fig 1 m y be on sidered a
lin e suc , . 0, a c s

built up of a n m be of sho t st aig h t lin es pl c e d e nd t o en d

. u r r r a ,

as h own t C D Th e length of t h e line will th en be t he

s a .

sum of th e leng t h s of all t h e se h o t st igh t lin es s r ra .

EXE RC IS E 4 Th m ement o
1 f th l ng th of a c v d
. e ea s ur e e ur e

li ne by mea ns f
o di vider s .

App a r a t us — A p a ir of d ivid er s, l
a pair of c om passes wit h
p en c il-
point .

If we m a ke eac h of t h e sm all s tr aight elem en s, t i nt o which we

br eak up t h e c urved line of t h e sam e length then by sim ply , ,

m ult i ply ing t h e l engt h of ea c h elem en t by t h e n u m b er of elem ent s

we sh all Obt a in t h e l engt h of t h e li ne In ord er t o a pply .

t h i s m eth od a dj u st t h e h ai r d i vid er s so th at t h e d i st a nc e b etween

-

Spring bows a re som ewha t easie r t o manag e than di vi ders for t his
-

e pe ri m en t
x .
16 Mens ur a t ion .

th e point s is 3 m m Plac e one point at t h e ex trem ity A of t h e

.

v
l ine, and t urn t h e di iders t ill t h e other point r est s on t h e lin e i n
di r ec tion of B . Then, keeping this point fix ed , t ur n t h e divid er s till
t h e fir st point a ga i n r est s on t h e li ne C ont in u e t h i s st epping pr o
.

c ess t ill t h e oth er e nd of t h e l in e i s r ea c h ed k eep ing c oun t of t h e

,

FI G . 1 0.

nu m b er of st eps t aken Th e tot al num b er of st eps m ultipli ed by t h e

.

lengt h of a st ep ( 3 m m ) w ill b e t h e lengt h of t h e l ine

. .

With a pa ir of c om pa sses h avi ng a sh ar p p en c il point dra w i n -

your n ote book a c ircle with a r adius of about 4 c m Mea sur e t h e

-
.

lengt h of t h e d i am et er by m ean s of a sc ale and t h e length of t h e ,

c ir c um fer en c e by t h e a b ov e m et h od .

EX ERCIS E 1 5 .
— Measu r ement of cur ved lines with a fi ne

App a r a t u s —
C otton h eet of t h e one inc h ordnance m a p
a s -
.

If i t w er e po ssible t o lay a p iece of cotton ex a c tly on t h e c u r ved

lin e wh ic h h a s t o be m easu red an d t o plac e m ark s on t h e c ot t on a t
,

t h e e x t re m it ies of t h e li n e th en by st r et c h ing t h e c otton str a ight

,

a nd m e a su r i n g w ith a sc a l e t h e d i st an c e b e t w een t h e t wo m a r k s we

sh ould g et t h e len gt h of t h e l ine S i nc e h owever it would b e

.
, ,
 Ci r cu mf er ence o
f Ci r cle . 17

d iffi c ult t o g et t h e tt on t o lie a ll a long t h e wh ole l ength of t h e line

co

a t on c e we h a v e t o a d o pt a sligh t ly m odi fi ed m eth od

, Th e m a nne r .

of pe r form i ng t h e ex pe r im ent i s sh ow n i n Fi 1 1 Pl ce on f th e
g a e o . .

FI G . 11 .

e n d s of thr ead a t one ex t r em it y of t h e given lin e t h en h old ing

the ,

it th er e w it h t h e fi r st fi nger of t h e left h a nd st r et c h t h e t h rea d a l ong ,

a sh or t por t i on of t h e li ne a nd h old it d ow n w it h t h e n a il of t h e
,

fir st finger of t h e right h a nd Now m ov e t h e left finger up c lose t o

.

t h e r igh t fi nger and th en st ret c h t h e t h r ead over an ot h er sh or t

,

portion of th e c urve Pr oc eed in thi s way t ill t h e end of t h e li ne is

.

r e a c h ed T h e lengt h of t h re ad u sed m u st t h en b e m ea sur ed by

.

m e an s of a sc a le .

Measur e by t h is m et h od t h e c i r c u m fer en c e of t h e c ir c e u sed l in

the previous ex erc ise Also m ea sur e t h e di st an c e fr om
. to
a l o ng t h e r oa d m a rk ed on t h e or d n a n c e m a p a nd g iv en th a t , , an

i nc h on t h e m ap r e pr esent s a m ile ex pr e ss t h e di st a nce i n m iles

, .

EXE RCIS E 1 6 .
-
Tofi nd t he n um ber f
o t i mes t h e d i a meter
f
o

a ci r cle is cont a i ned i n the ci r ca mf er ence .

Appa r a t u s Wood en d isc s of v a ri ou s d iam et ers 4 in 6 ia

— —
.
, .
,

8 in a nd a bo ut I in th i c k st r ip s of t h i n p a per sc a l e
.
,
. .

Wr a p a st ri p of t h in p a per t ig h tly r ound t h e edge of one of t h e

wood en d isc s su pplied t o you so th a t t h e end s overlap for about
,

h alf an i nc h Th en at a pl a ce wh er e t h e t wo ends of t h e st r ip over

.
,

la p pri c k a sm a ll h ole thr o ugh t h e p a per w it h t h e point of a pi n

,
.

H a v i ng u nr olled t h e pa per c ar efully m e a sur e t h e d ist a n c e b etw een

,

t h e t wo pi n h ole s by m ea n s of a sc a le
-
Th is lengt h will be t h e cir .

c u m feren c e o f t h e c i r cle for m ed by e it h er ed ge of t h e di sc O n th e .

C
18 Mensur a t i on .

surfac e of t h e di sc , h gh t h e c entre drawfour di a m eter s so

and t rou ,
‘

a s t o d iv i d e t h e c irc le i nt o ei ght n ear ly equal sec t or s .

Measure t h e lengt h of ea c h of t h e four diameter s and t ak e t h e ,

m e an ( see p . Now divid e t h e numb er ex pr essing t h e length

of t h e c ir cumfer enc e by t h e n u m ber ex pressing t h e lengt h of t h e

d i am et er conti nu ing t h e d i vi si on t o t h e th ird place of d ec i m als

,
Be .

c a r eful t o m ea sur e t h e c ir c um fer enc e and t h e di am et er in t h e sam e

u nit s th us eith er m ea sur e b oth i n c enti m etr es or b ot h in i n c h e s

, .

Re pea t t h e m easur em ent s usin g di scs of two oth er si z es ; a nd

,

t h en d r a w u p a ta ble a s i n t h e following ex a m ple

,

C ircu m fere nc e
CIrc umfere nce .
Diame t er

If you h ave m ad e your m ea surem ent s c arefully you willfind th at ,

alth ough t h e siz es of t h e c irc les you h a ve m easur ed a r e v er y d iffere n t ,

t h e n u m b er s you obt a in i n t h e la st c olum n are n ea r ly t h e sam e .

This sh ows th at as nearly a s you are able t o t ell t h e num ber

, ,

obta i n ed by d ivi ding t h e l en gth of t h e d i am et er i nt o t h e lengt h of

.

t h e c ir c u mferenc e i s t h e sam e for a ll c irc les or m ore shortly t h e , , ,

r a t io of t h e len gth of t h e c ir c um fer en ce of a c irc le t o t h e length of

t h e d iam eter i s c on stant .

Th e V alu e of It can be prov ed

ar. —
by g omet y tha t t h e
e r

r ati o of t h e leng t h
of t h e c i rc u m ferenc e t o that of t h e diam et e r

is ex ac tly t h e sam e for i

a ll c rc les. This atio i g en erally
r s

i n dicat ed by t he G eek lette r r 7r (p ) ,

i and is e qual t o 3 141 6
For all prac tical p p
u r oses it is suffi c ien tly n e ar if th e m ore
e asil y rem e m b e ed f a ti on 3% o
r r ctaken as t h e valu e of Ir
r is .

K n ow ing t h e value of Ir we can if we are g iven t h e di ame t e r

, ,

of a c ircle, c alc ula t e t h e c irc u mferenc e or if w e are giv e n , ,

t h e c irc um fer enc e c a lc ula te t h e d ia m e ter

, As an exam ple .
,

If th e cent re of t h e fac e m arked , d ra w any str ai gh t

of t h e d isc i s not
li ne righ t across t h e fa c e , bi sect this line by m eans of t he d ivi d ers, a nd
t hrough t h e point of bi se c t i on, by m ea ns of a set square , d ra w a ch ord a t
r ight a ngl es t o t h e fi rst l ine B isec t t h e chord ; t his poi nt wi ll be t h e
.

cen t re of th e circl e .
20 Mensur a tion .

ea r th ex erts on a body is called t h e weight of t h e b ody H enc e .

it is v ery common t o speak of t h e wei gh t O f a b ody wh en really

t h e m ass i s w hat is m eant It is also u sual to refer t o the
.

O per ati on of d e t er m i ning t h e m ass of a b od y as weig h ing .

It is i mporta nt t o c learly und er stand t h e d iffere nc e b e twe en

weigh t and m ass If a b ody say a lum p of lead is tak en up
.
, ,

in a b alloon t h e pull ex ert ed by th e eart h on t h e lead t ha t is

,
—
,

t h e weig h t of t h e lea d st e ad ily dim in ish es as t h e b alloo

1
, n r ises .

Th e am ount of m atter in t h e lu mp o f lead h owev er would not , ,

alt er as n one of t h e lead w

, ould h ave b ee n lost a n d t h erefor e ,

t h e m ass would still re mai n t h e sam e alth o ug h t h e we ig h t h ad

alt er ed Th e m ass of a b ody c annot alt er unless som e of t h e
.

m a tter of whic h it i s c om posed i s t ak en away or fr esh m atter ,

add e d . T h e weigh t h owev er m ay alt er if t h e b od y is sim ply

, ,

car ri ed fr om one plac e t o an o th er si nce t h e forc e w ith wh ic h th e ,

eart h attrac t s a g iven m ass varies fro m place t o plac e e ven on

t h e sur fa c e of t h e eart h .

T h e B r it ish un it of m ass i s a c er ta i n lum p O f platinum

wh ic h i s preserved at Westm inster t og eth er with t h e standard
y ar d, a n d i s c alle d t h e P O U ND A V O IR D UP O IS T h e fo llow i ng .

tab le gives som e of t h e m ore c omm only used multiples an d

sub d iv isio ns of t h e p oun d .

grains I o unc e ( ) oz .

1 6 ounc es I pound (lb ) .

14pound s I st one.

I 1 2 p ound s I h und redweigh t (c wt ) .

2 0 h und r ed w e igh t I t on
.

H er e , as in th e c a se of the u ni s t of lengt h ,
no r egu la r

yt
s s em been em ployed and to onv e t f om one unit
h as ,
c r r to
an o th e we h av e t o m ltiply o d ivi de a t h e
r se m y be
u r ,
s ca a , by
1 4 , 1 1 2 , 2 0 , e t c.

Th e m etri c u ni t of m ass i s also a ce r ai n t lum p of pla tin u m

wh ic h is p re ser ved at P aris, an d is c alled the K I LO GR A MME .

Th e k ilogram m e i s e q ual t o a out b lbs .

pull ex ert ed by th e earth m ay be m easured by a Spring balance

Th e ,

an ord inary bal a nce woul d not do as t h e pull ex ert ed o n t h e weight s

,

would also decrease .

 B a la nce . 21

Th e su bdivisions of t h e kilog ra m m e are d ec im al, an d are

g iv en i n t h e following t a le b
m illigr a m m es
Io t ig ra m m e 1 c en .

Io c ent igr a m m e s
1 d ec igr a m m e .

IO d ec igr a m m es
I gr a m m e

I k ilog ra m m e (k il o
I oo g r a m m e s
p .

Th e adva n tag e of t he m et ric sy st e m over t h e Briti sh syste m

is well sh own if say we r equ ire t o re duc e ( I) 8 I4 5 3 025 t o t ons
, , .
,

an d
( )
2 1 6 7 8 5 d e c ig ra m m e s t o k ilo g r a m m e s .

T he st eps i n t h e reduc t ion are as follow s

( ) 1
( )
2 1 6 7 8 5 dec igra m m es .

1 3 02 5 rm s.
.
g
5 0 lbs . kilos .

2 5 c wt .

Ans . 2 tons 5 wtc5 0 lbs . . I3 023 . A ns . k ilos .

In t h e o ne c ase we h vea t o di vid e by 1 6, th en by 1 12

a nd 2 0 wh ile in t h e o th er we h ave sim ply t o m o ve t h e dec im a l

p oi n t .

Th e B a la n c e .
-
Th e m ost u sual m et h od of c om paring

t h e pulls ex er ed by t h e e th on two bodie nd thereby om

t ar s, a c

p a in
r g t h i r m se ie by m ea n s o f
as t h e b al n e
s, o scsle A a c , r a s .

fo m of b lanc e u it ble fo
r a om p ing u h m asse
s a will be r c ar s c s as

re q i ed in th i o e is sh own in Fig
u r s c T he b e m of t h e
u rs a

b l n tog the with th e sti p a ying t h e s ale p n an

a a c e, e r rru s c rr c -
a s, c

b e rai ed b y t n ing th e lev e A t o t h e igh t

s ur Wh en t h r r . e

b l nc e is not in se and wh ne ve ny thi ng h t be pla ed

a a u ,
e r a as o c

in or r em o ed vfro m t h e pans, t h e lev er A m u st be turned as

far as p o ssi ble t h
o t h e le ft ,
so t a t t h e p an s r e st on t h e st a n d .

A long point e att c h ed t o t h e b eam n d movi ng in f on t of an

r a , a r

i vo y scale B en bles
r t o ee wh en t h e loa ds in t h e t wo p n
, a us s a s

ar e e q ua l Th e b eam is s ppo te d by a ste el k ni f

. dg e wh i h u r e e ,
c

t
r e s s on tw t
o sm all fla t s eel p la es fi x ed t o t h e t op o f th e pilla r t .

Th e pans are su spended from small s tirrups whic h are fi tted

,

h h y
wit slig tl curved steel plate s T . h ese plates rest on k nife
wi ll be found of great assi sta nce i f t he
It t each er t akes one o f th e
ba l a nces t o pi ec es a nd sh o ws t h e co n t ruc t i o n of
, s t h e d iffe ren t part s t o th e
pu pils allowing them t o e amine each part
, x .
22 Mensur a t ion .

e d ge s wh ic h ar e fi x ed t o t h e beam An enlarge d
en d of t h e .

vi ewof t h e end of t h e b eam n d t h e st ir up is sh own in Fig 3

a r . 1 .

Th e sm all we igh t E can be sc ewed ne are or f th r aw y r ur er a

f om t h e m id d le of t h e b eam and is u sed t o a dj ust t h e b lanc e

r ,
a

FI G . 12

of th e b eam so th a t wh en b ot h pan s a r e em p t y th e point er is

at t h e c e n ret o f t h e i v or y sc ale .

Wh en using a bal n
it i s im port an t t o o serv e t h e
a ce b
followi ng rules, or m uc h t im e will be wa st ed , a nd th e ala nc e b
an d w h
e ig t s q u ic l ru i ne dky .

h
I N o t ing m ust be pla c ed on or r em ov ed from t h e pan s ,
.

n or m u st t h e m ov ing p a r t s o f t h e b
a lanc e be i n a ny way t ouc h ed ,

u nle ss t
t h e p a n s ar e r es in g o n t h e b ase of th e b a la n c e .
 B a la nce .
23

II . N ever , on any ac co un t use t h e

, balance for c om pa ing r

grea te r m asse s t h an it i s intended t o ca rr y H ence b efo e

.
,
r

sta r ti ng t o use a b alan c e ,

asc erta in t h e m ax im u m

load whic h m ay be em

plo ye d .

I II . B efore s art t in g
to weig h a b o dy , r a ise

th e b ea m a n d see th at it
s wing s reg ularl y . N ote
t
t h e posi ion of rest of

t h e poin t er and in t h e ,

su b se quen t weigh ing s

F 3 IG .
take th is position as t h e
1 .

z ero t o w h ich t h e pointer h a s to be b rou gh t back It i s n ot .

n ec e ssary t o w ait t ill t h e b e am c o m es t o rest bu t n ot e wheth er ,

t h e poin ter sw ings O v er t h e same nu m b er of di visi ons of t h e

sca le o n eac h side of t he e o z r .

IV P l c e t h e b od y t o be weigh ed in t h e left h nd pan

. a -
a

a nd t h e w eigh t s i n th e igh t h nd p n sin e in this p osi tion r -

a a ,
c

t h e arre te n be w
s o k ed w
r ca it h t h e le ft h an d a nd th e we igh t s
r

c h ng ed w
a i th t h e igh t r .

V Raise t h e b am slowly and i f t h e poin te im m edi t ely

. e ,
r a

an d d e id edly ind ic t e wh ic h side i th e heavie lowe t h e

ca s s r, r

b eam ag in and alte t he weight in the dire t ion indi ted

a ,
r s c ca .

O nly when t h e e qualit y of th e loads in t he t wo pans i s nea ly r

r eac h ed n eed t h e b e m be en t i ely ised a r ra .

V I Till o me e pe ien e in j udg in g th e m ass O f a b ody

. s x r c

h as b een O b ta ined t y all t he weig h t in orde wi t hout

, r s r,

om i tt ing any c om m en in g w it h t h e l gest

, c ar .

V II N eve t o c h t h e weigh ts wit h you finge s ; use t h e

. r u r r

twee e s su ppli ed for th is pu po e

z r r s .

V III P l e t h e bo . of weig h t
ac s n ear t h e igh t hand
x s a r -

n s i a
s onvenient o t h at i f by ac id en t a w
c e ig h t slips
s c
p a ,

o u t of t h e t w ee ers t h e e i n o c h n e of i t s f lli ng on t h e
z r s a c a

fl oo r.T he weigh t s sh ould n eve be placed anywhe e e e p t r r xc

on t h e pa n of t h e b alanc e or i n t h ei p p
r o e p la e i n t h e r r c

box .
 24 Mensu r a t ion .

Wh en fra ct ions of t h e gramme are not placed i n

the
se parat e subdiv isi ons in t h e box , r ule and num ber a sm all p iec e

of card board i n t h e m ann e r s own -

h
i n Fi g . Plac e t h is card on t h e
1 4.

base b -
oard of t h e balance, a n d on i t

arra n ge the hu erions of a g ra m m e ,

r epla c ing ea ch wei gh t on i ts prope r

FIG 1 4. Q)
sq ua r e aft er u se.
. .

IX . Wh en e quili briu m h as b ee n o bt ai ned ,

r ead the m ass
by see ing wh at weig hts a re m is sing from t h e box . T he n
ma ke a no t e ofvalu e of eac h weigh t as you replac e i t i n
th e
the box and see t ha t t h e valu e t hu s O btai ned agrees with
,

tha t p r e viously g ot by rea d ing t h e we ig h ts m i s si ng fr om

t h e bo x .

EX ER C I S E 1 8. — D eter mi na ti on f
o m ass by mea ns of th e

Appar a tus :— B alanc e ; set of weight s 50 g r m s. to g r m .

pi e ces of m et al ( coin s) .

D et erm ine t h e m ass ,

in gr am m es ,
of t h e g i en v pi ec e s of m etal
a l s o o f a penny .

EX R IS E
E C 1 9 .
— Comp a ri son of B r i t i sh a nd metr ic u ni t s

App ar a t us — weight s u sed i n pr evi ou s ex erc i se

B alanc e an d ,

also com m on sc ales c a p abl e of w eigh i ng u p t o 3 lb s ; gr am m e .

weights u p t o I kilo B r iti sh we ights 1 oz t o 2 lb s

. . .

D eterm ine by m eans of t h e sc ales t h e num ber of pou nd s a n d

ounc e s i n a k ilogr a mm e Also t h e nu m b er of gr amm e s in a p ou n d
. .

O n t h e sen sitive b alan c e d et er m i ne a s ac c ur at ely a s po ssi bl e

t h e n u m b er of gr amm es i n a n oun c e a nd from y our r esu lt s fill i n ,

t h e followi ng t ab le
 A r ea . 25

SE T C I ON I II .
—
T HE ME AS UREMENT O F AR E A .

Th e un i t of a r ea , o rfr su
ac t h a t i s ue,
sually e m ploy ed i s
the a rea o f a squa re ea h sid e of w
c hi h is of unit leng th c .

T h u s, i n t h e m etric system a square eac h ide of whic h is

, s

one c en tim etr e m ay be

t a k en as t he uni t of

area, and is c alle d a

squa r e centi metr e, som e

t imes written cm
‘
. In
t h e same way we , h av e
t h e B ri ti s h u nits of a r ea
— a q
s uare i nch , a

q
s uare foot, et c .

Suppose we h ave a

q
s uare ea c h si d e of

whic h is 1 dec im etre

( 1 0 cm
) lo n g a
. n d t h a t ,

we divid e t wo a dj ac e nt
sid es i n t o c e nt im e tre s , Fm . 1 5 .

a nd t h rough t h e se po in t s

d ra wlines parallel t o t h e sides of t h e sq uare, as i n Fig 1 5 , t en . h

t h e sq uare will b e d iv ided u p i nt o a num er of small sq uares b .

Th e a rea of ea c h of th ese sm all s q ua res will be 1 sq

. cm .
,

sinc e t h e sid es o f ea c h are 1 c m. long k

. Ta ing t h e
sm all

s q uares i n horiz on tal rows it will be s , ee n th at e c h rowc ontai nsa

t e n sq uar es and t h a t t h ere are t e n

,

r ow s H en c e th ere are 1 0 x 1 0
.
,

or 1 0 0 square s in all ; th a t i s t h er e ,

are 1 0 0 sq c m in 1 sq d ec im et re
. . . .

Suppose t he ar e a t o b e m ea sure d
is a re ct angle , t h e lengt ei ng h b
5 8 c m. , a nd the b rea d th cm .

T h en i f, as b e fo e r ,
t wo j
a d ac en t
FIG 1 60
sid es, A B, AC , Fig 1 6, are di vid ed
.

i n to c en t im et re s, start in g i n ea c c a se from A, h lines parallel

a nd

t o t h e side s a re d ra wn t h ough th e
r se p o ints, fi ft een small sq u ares,
eac h 1 sq . cm . in area, an d nine sm all rec angles, t eac h of
26 Mensur a tion .

whic h t han 1 sq cm in area will be form ed O f th ese

is less . .
, .

sm all rec tangles th ose m arked x are 1 c m b roa d a nd cm . .

long . If a square c ent im etre i s d ivid e d int o t e n e qua l

strips as a t E Fig
, 16 ,
then t he shaded part will be equal
.
,

t o on e o f t h e a b ov e r ec tang les and it is ob viou s t h a t t h e

‘

ar ea of t h e shad e d par t is eigh t t e nt h s o f a sq u ar e -

c en t imet r e H e nc e t h e ar ea of eac h row in t h e r ec tangle i s

.

sq c m . If one of t he se r ows was d iv ided int o t en eq ua l

.

st rips eac h
, cm wide t h en t h e are a of t h e rec tangles
.
, ,

m ark ed Z in Fig 1 6 would be e q ual t o t h re e of t h e se stri ps

.
,
.

Th us t h e a rea of t h e re c tangles Z i s t hree t en t h s o f sq c m - . .

Th e t otal area of th e r ec t angle i s t h ere for e t imes t h e are a , ,

of on e of t h e r o w s ; t h at i s x sq c m ,
sq c m . . . .

It will be seen t ha t we ob t ain t h e area of t h e r ec t angle by

m u ltiplying t h e length s of t wo adj ac e n t sid es (A B A C ) toget h e r ,
.

Th is i s a lway s true an d t h e area of any r e c tangle c a n b e

,

O b t ained by m ult iplyin t o e t h e t h n u m b e s wh i c h repr e sen t

g g r e r

t h e le ng t h s of t w o a dj ac ent sid es If t h e leng th s o f t h e si de s .

a re m eas ur ed i n c e n ti m et res t h e area w ill be ex pressed in squar e

,

c en t i m etres ; if t h e sides a re m easur ed i n i nc h es t h e ar ea w i ll ,

be ex pressed in square inc h es e tc , .

EX E RCIS E 20 .
— A r ea f
o r ect a ng u la r fig u r es.

Appa r a t u s —
Met r e and yard sc ales .

Mea sur e t h e ar ea of t h e t op of your wor k t able and of a pag e -

of y our n ot e b ook b oth in sq ua r e c en t im et r e s an d in squar e inc h es

-
,
.

Ent er y our r esult s a s i n t h e followin g ex a m ple

L eng t h of Table . Wid t h of Ta ble . A r ea .

1 2 2 3 cm 7O I cm cm .
°

93o 7
°
. . 0 3 sq .

EXE R C IS E 2 1. — Th e m ea sur ement of t h e a r ea f

o i
fg u r es other

tha n r ecta ng les .

App ar a t u s —
C urv e p a p er c om pa sses w it h pen c il point -
.

Th e a r e a of a ny figu re c an be obt a in ed in a m a nner r e sem bl in g

t h at em ployed wh en m e a sur ing t h e l engt h of a c ur ved l ine ( Ex er c i se
S u ppo se t h e giv en fig ur e d ivi d ed u p int o a nu m b er of sm a ll
 28 Mensu r a t ion .

ce nfi m et r es in a gr a m c ut t he pi ece Of car d i
g en you in t o
v a

of sq uar e ce nt i m etr es in t h e ar ea by t h e weig h t in g ra m m es ; t h e

q u ot ien t will be t h e n um ber of sq uare c en ti m e tr es whi c h wei gh 3 .

D ra w a c ir c e on l t h e ca r d , by m ea ns of a pair o f c om pa s se s ,

wi t h 6 c m rad ius Car efully c ut o ut t his c ir c le a nd we igh i t Th e

. .
, .

wei ght m ulti pli ed by t h e n u m ber of sq u ar e c en ti m et r es of t h e ca rd

boar d whic h we igh a gr amm e will be t h e ar ea of t h e c i r c le i n sq u ar e

Trac e on t r a c in g - pa per t h e ou lin e t of t h e c o unt y of fr o m

p
t h e m a p su pli ed t o yo u , pa st e t hi s t r ac in g on t o ca rd boar d ,
an d

b
d et er m ine b y t h e a o e m et od t h e ar ea i n v h sq uar e m iles .

EX ERCIS E 23 .
— R ela t ion between the a r ea f
o a ci r cle and

It c an be hown from g eom et ry t ha t t h e ar ea

s of a c ir cle of

r ad i u s r is f r
’
wh er e r e presents t h e r a t io of t h e
,
1 c i r c um fe r e n c e

of a c ir c e l t o i t s d i a m et e r .

C alc u la te by t h is ex pr ession t h e ar e a of t h e c ir c es l m e as u r ed i n
t h e t wo previ ou s ex er c ises , a nd dr aw up a ta ble as fo llow s

Ra di us of C irc le Ca lc u la t ed Area s r
’
. M eas ure d Are a .

A r e a of a P a r a llelo r a m g
A parallelogram i s a quadr i .
—

la t eral figu re in wh ic h t h e opposite sid e s a re pa ralle l Th e .

figu re A BC D, Fig 1 8, i s a parallelogram ec a use t h e sid e A B

. b
is para lle l t o t h e sid e D C , a nd t h e side A D is paralle l t o t h e
sid e B C If t h e sid e A B is produc e d t o M, and t e n fr o m C
. h
and D t
s ra ig ht lin e s a re d rawn p erpen d ic ular t o MB , t e n h
F EC B is a r ec a ng le t . Sin c e t h e tria ngle FD A i s e q ua l t o t h e
triangle EC B , i f we cu t off t h e tria ng le EC B from t h e paralle lo
g r am A B C D ,
t h i s p art c u t o ff wo u ld e x ac tly fi ll u
p t h e t r i a n g le

FD A , an d we sh ould c onvert t h e para llelogra m A B C D i nt o

t h e r ec tangle F EC D wit h ou t a lte ring t h e area T h e re fo r e , .
 A r ea f
o P a r a llelog r a m '
. 29

in order t o d eter mine t h e ar ea of t h e pa r alle log ra m , we have

on l y t o m easure t h e ar ea of t h e t
rec a ngle FEC D . Bu t t h e
area of this rec tangle is o b tained by m u ltiplying the b a se DC

FIG . 1 8 .

by th e h eigh t C E (p . hus t he are of pa llel g am

T a a ra o r

is qual t o
e t h e p rod uc t of th e b ase ( D C ) into t h e p e p en d i ula r c r

di st ance b et ween t he b ase a nd t h e opposite sid e ( C E o r FD ) .

EXE RC I S E z 4 .
—
A r ea f
o a p ar allelogr a m .

Appa r a t a s P ar allel ru le pa per sc issor s m illim etr e scale

—
.

D ra w on a sh eet of pa per a pa r allel ogr a m sim ilar t o A B C D ,

Fig 1 8 h a ving t h e sid es A B a nd D C ab out 4 i nc h es long and t h e

.
, ,

s i d es A D a nd B C a b out 3 in c h e s lon g Also d r aw t h e r ect angle .

FEC D wh i c h h a s t h e sa m e ar ea a s t h e p ar allelog r am
,
Th en car e .

fu lly c ut out t h e t ri angl e B B C a nd prove by a c t ual su per posit ion

th at it is equ al t o t h e t r ia ngl e FD A .

Mea sure t h e l en gt h s of D C and FD a nd c al c ulat e t h e a r ea of ,

t h e rec t a ngle a nd t h u s ob t a in t h e ar ea of t h e pa r all el og r am

,
.

Al so d ra w a st r a igh t lin e fr om C p er pend ic u l ar t o A D a nd by , ,

m e a sur ing t h e l e ngt h of th i s perpend i c u lar a nd t h e l engt h of th e

s id e A D ob t a in a s econd value for t h e ar ea of t h e p a r a ll elogr am
,

ABCD .

Ar e a . of a. Tr i a n le g —
If in t h e triangle A B C Fig , . 1 9,
we d raw A E parallel t o B C , an d C E par allel t o B A, t h en
th e fig ure A EC B is a parallelogram , and t h e area of t h is
p ar allelogr a m is twic e t hat of t h e triangle A B C , b ec a use t he
t riangle A B C is equal t o t h e t r ia n gle A BC B ut . t h e area of
30 Mensur a t i on .

t h e parallelog ram A B GE i s o b tained by y

m ult ipl ing B C by
AD . He nc e th e area of t h e triangle A BC is e q ua l t o half

F1 6 . 1 9.

t h e produc t of B C and AD — t h at is, half t he produc t of the

b t
a se i n o t h e height .

EX E R C IS E z
5 .
—
A r ea of a t ri a ng le .

App a at u
r s — pr evious ex ercise
As in .

D r aw on a large scale a figur e similar t o Fig 1 9 and prove by .

,

c ut t i ng o ut t h e tr i a ngle t h a t A C E i s equa l t o A B C .

A l so m e a sure B C a n d A D a nd c alc ulat e t h e area of t h e t ri a ng le

, .

Re p eat t h e m ea sur em e nt t a k ing t h e sid es A B a nd A C i n t urn a s

,

t h e b a se and t h e p er pen dic ular s fr om C a nd A r espe c t iv ely a s t h e

,

h eight .

S E CT I O N IV .
— TH E MEASUR EMEN T O F V O LU ME .

J t us as in t h e case of ar ea t h e uni t em ployed is a q

s ua r e

ea c h si de of wh ic h
i s of uni t leng t , so for all scienti fic purposes, h
t h e un it of volum e is t h e v olum e o f a cube eac edge of wh ic h h
h h
i s of un it leng t , and t ere fore eac fac e of u ni t area T er e h . h
ar e c er aint Britis h t
uni s of v olume such ,
as t h e p i n t, all
g o n,
et c. , wh ic h
have no si mple r ela t i on t o th e uni s
t of leng t h
th e
us e o f suc h un it s h ow ve ,
e r, oft en lea ds t o
tion s grea t c o m plica .

Th e uni t of v olum e u sed c omm erc ially on t h e Con tine n t is

t h e litre and is t h e volu me of a c u b e eac h edge of wh ic h is a
,

d ec im etre In th ese ex erc ises we sh all generally employ t h e

.
 Volu me . 3 I

volum e of a c u be ea c h e d g e of whi c h is a c e n t i m e tre as t h e ,

un i t
o f v olume .
h i
T su n i t i s ca lled a c u b ic c e n t i m e t e an d S r , I

denot ed by c c . or cm
“ .
.

V o lu m e o f a . Ri gh t
P r i sm v o l u m e o f —a n y b
The o d y i n

h
t e fo r m o f a r i g h t p ri sm 1
c a n b e o b t a i n e d by m u lt ip ly in g t
h e

b
nu m e o r f u n i t s o f ar e a i n t h e b as e in t o t h e n u m b e r o f u n i t s

of leng t h i n t h e h e i h
g t .

Th e ru t t h o f t h e a b ov e r u le w i ll b e e v i d e n t a ft e r w h a t h a s

b een said on p 2 5 For t e . .

h n u m b e r o f u n i ts o f a r ea i n t h e

base represents t h e number of unit b h h c u e s w i c c an s t a n d o n t h e

FIG . 20 . FlG 21 .

base ,
sinc e t h e fa c e of eac h u ni t cu e b is of u ni t area. H enc e,
if t he prism is di vi ded i nto oriz ontal h
h slice b eing sli c es, eac

u ni t lengt h h k h
in t i c ness, t ere will be as m a ny li es as t he e s c r

ar e un it s of lengt h in t h e h eig h t of t h e p ism Therefo e th e r . r

t o ta l volum e will be t h e n m be of ni t of area in t h e b ase

u r u s

m lt iplied by t h e num b e of lic es th t is by t h e num b er o f

u r s — a ,

u ni t s of length in t h e h igh t F igs e a nd 3 s.h o w . 2 0, 2 1 , 2 2 , 2 ,

se v eral igh t p ism s

r r .

EXE RC I S E 6 D te m n t on of ol m by me sur em nt
2 .
— e r
’

z a z
°

v u e a e

Appa r a t u s — Right
pri sm s in wood or m etal on r ectangular
, , ,

trian gular , and c ir c ul ar b a se s m ill i m etr e scale slid e c ali per s .

Mea sur e t h e length and b readt h of one fac e of t h e r ec ta ngular

pri sm supplied t o you and h enc e c alc ulate t h e area of t h e face
,
.

A right prism is a body of whi ch t h e ends a re pa rallel and t h e sides

ar e everywhe re a t rig h t a ng l es t o t h e end s .
 3 2 Mensu r a t ion .

T h en m easur e t h e len t h of t h e e d es
g g p pendicular t o t his fac e, t o
er

g et t h e h eig h t Ca lc ulat e t h e volum e of t he

.

t h e a r ea of t h e b ase b t h e h e igh t
y .

FIG . 22. FIG . 23.

Measure t h e dia m et er of t h e c ylinder su ppli ed t o you by m e an s

of t h e slid e c ali per s and t h en c alc ulat e t h e ar ea of t h e en d by t h e
,

Ar ea of a c ir cle = n
’
,

wh er e r is t h e ra d ius Also m easure t h e lengt h of t h e c ylinder an d

.
,

calc ula te t h e v olu m e .

Measure t h e ar ea of t h e end of t h e tria ng ula r prism su pplied t o

yo u b y t h e m et h od of Ex e r c i se 2 5 a lso m easur e t h e h e i gh t an d , ,

h en c e calc ula te t h e volume .

C alc ula te t h e n um ber of c ub ic centim et res i n a litr e .

C onn ec t i on b et we en t h e Un i t s of Ma ss a n d
V olum e i n t h e Met r i c S y st em — Th e u ni t of m ass in t h e
k
m e tric syst e m ( the ilo ) wa s c ose n a s eing t h e m ass of a
. h b
li tr e of water at a t em pera ture a little a ove t h e freez i n g b
p o i nt of wat er Si . h
nc e t er e ar e 1 0 0 0 c c i n a li tre and als o . .

1 00 0 g rm s. in a kilo .
, a c c . . of water weighs a r am m e.
g
l
T is h
c onn ec tion bet ween t h e u ni t s of mass an d volum e in th e

It is only at a p
t e m erat ure of 4
°
C th at
. a c. c . o f water weighs ex act ly
r am m e Th e effec t of t em perat ure on th e v olu m e o f wa t er wi ll b e
a g .

consid ered lat er .

 Flu i d Mea sur es .
33

m e tric yt
will be found of g reat
s s em ser vic e ,
for by sim pl y
weighing a given quantit y of wat er we c an i m med ia t el y w ite r

d own it s volum e .

EXE RC I S E bet ween tlze u n i ts f m

'

2 7. Tile eonneet zon o a ss a nd

of volu me i n fi re met r i c system .

Appa r a t u s —
C ub i c a l t in b ox t o hold a lit re ; pint m ea sur e ;
l
s c a e s a nd weight s .

D eter m ine t h e volum e of t h e inside of t h e c ub ical box supplied

t o you by m ea sur ing t h e ar ea of t h e open end a nd t h e d epth
,
Then .

fi nd t h e w eight of w at er wh i ch fills t h e b ox a nd t h u s v er i fy t h e ab ove ,

st a t em ent a s t o t h e w eigh t of a c u b ic c ent im et r e of w a t er A l so .

d et erm ine t h e weight of a pint of water b oth in B ri t i sh a nd m etri c ,

u n it s . H enc e c alc ulat e t h e n um ber of c ub i c c entim et r es i n a pint ,

a nd t h e n um b er of pint s in a l it r e .

In c ar r y ing out t h e a b ov e ex per im ent s pl a c e t h e em pt y b ox or ,

a n em pt y gla ss b e aker on t h e l eft h a nd n f t h l nd ou nt er

p a o e sc a es a c
-
,

b a la nc e by ad ding sm all sh ot t o t h e r igh t h and pan Th en pour - .

i n t h e wat er and leavin g t h e sh ot i n t h e pa n a dd w eigh t s t ill

, , ,

e q u i l i b r i u m i s a ga i n r e a c h ed S inc e t h e sh ot c ount erb alance t h e

.

b ox or b eak er t h e add ed weight s m u st give t h e m ass of t h e wate r

,

o n ly .

FLUID MEASUR ES .

In order t o m easu re t h e v olum e of fl uid s, variously h

s aped

vessels are u sed . Som e of t h e m ore usua l for ms are s o h wn in

Fig . Of t
2 4. hese A is , ca lled a g ra d ua e dtc ylind er,
an d is u sed

for m e asuring a c o nsid era ble vol u m e of fl u id , a nd wh ere t he

volu me is on l y eq r t wh ole cub ic centimetre
uired t o t h e n eares .

A series of gra duat ions on t h e sid e show eith er th e volum e

between any g iven divi sion and th e b ottom of th e c ylinder or ,

t h e v olum e b e twe en t h e d i v ision a nd a z ero division n ear t h e

t o p of t h e m easure .

For m ea suring ou t a g iv en volume of liquid with gre a er t

a c c ura c y th ani s possi le wit th e a b h b ove , t he arr ange men t
s hown a t B, a nd c alled a urett e, i s used b . It c onsis s o f a t very
n arro w c ylind e r, gra d uate d g e ner ai n t en t
ll y h of a s cu bic
c en timetre, and fi tt ed with a t ap or pinc c oc h -
k by m e,
ans of

whic h t h e li q uid in t h e b urett e m ay be run off . B ure ttes are

D
 34 Mensur a t i on .

g e n er aly
l g rad uated t o read down ward s, i e t o g ive t h e v olume
-
. .

of liqu id run o ff. Wh en a liq uid is plac ed in t h e b

urett e i t

FIG . 24 .

wi ll be found th at th e surfac e is curved it is best t o read t he

g r a d u at i on oppo si t e t h e lo we st part of t h e c urved port i on .

Th e flask C h as a m ark on th e neck and wh en fi lled up t o, ,

t h is m ark c ont ai ns 5 00 c c
,
. .
 36 Mensu r a t ion .

m a ss of b ic c entim et e by di id ing t h e n um ber of g am mes

a cu r v r

in t h e mass by t h e nu m b e of cu bic c en timet res in t h e volu m e

r .

It will b e found t h a t th e m ass of a c u b i c ent im e t e i s t h e c r

sa m e fo t h e t w ro ub e s R ep at t h e m easure ments on
c . c ub e e a

o f some o th e m t e ial Th e nu m be now ob ta in ed fo t h e

r a r . r r

ma of a
ss b i c entim et e will be d iffe en t ; sh owin g th t
cu c r r a

wh ile with b odies of t h sam e m ate i l t h e m as s of e bic r a a cu

c en tim e tre i s c o nst an t w ith bo dies of d i ff e n t m te i l t h e

,
er a r a

m a ssof a cu b i c enti m e t e va i e s
c Th e m ss of i t of
r r . a a un

vol m e of any substan e i

u lled it s D E NS ITY
c s ca .

Since t h e m s of c bi asent i metre of wat e is

1 ug m m c c
e r r ra ,

t h e d en si ty f w ter is u ni t y
o a .

EXE RC I S E 3 M m nt o
0 f
. d
— n i y q fi
t f i d
ea su r e by w h
g g i n e e s u s ei

a known volu m e .

App a r a ust— B alance ; b u rett e beaker ; m e thylated sp ir it ; m ilk .

We m ay d et erm ine t h e d ensit y of fluid s eit her by m ea suring th e

m a ss a n t d h e v o l u m e o f a g i v e n q ua n t i ty ; o r by m eas u ri n g th e m a ss
of a c e r t a in v ol u m e o f t h e fl u id a n d th e n d e t er m i n i ng t h e v o l u m e

by m easuring t h e m ass of an equal volume of wa ter sin c e we kno w ,

h
t a t et h v o lu m e o f I g r a m m e o f w a t e r i s I c c I n o r d er. t
. o c ar r y

o ut a d e t e r m i n a t i o n by t h e fi r s t m e th o d pl a c e a s m
, a ll b e a k e r o n

t h e le t f h -
a n d p a n o f t h e b a l a n c e a n d ,
c ar e f u l ly c o u n t e r p o i s e w i t h s h o t
a d
n t i nf o il .
F i ll t h e b u r e tt e w i th t h e g i v e n l i q u i d a n d n o t e t h e,

r ea d in g f o r t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e li q u i d Th e n .r u n a b o u t 2 0 c c . .

of t h e l i q u id i n t o t h e b e a k e r a g a i,
n re a di n g t h e b u r e t t e T h e .

f f
di e e r n c e b e tw e e n t h e b u r e t t e r e a di n g s w i ll g i v e t h e v o l u m e o f t h e

liquid Replac e t h e b eaker on t h e balanc e and add wei ght s ti ll

. ,

eq u ili b r i u m i s r e a c h e d . T h e m a s s o f t h e a d d e d w e i ght s w i ll b e t h e

m as s o f t h e v o lu m e o f l iq u i d t a k e n D i v i
. d e t h e n u m b e r o f g r a m m e s

in th e m a s s by t h e n u m b e r o f c u b i c c e n t i m e t r e s i n t h e v o l u m e an d ,

the q u ot i e n t w ill b e t h e m a s s o f I c c i e t
. h .e ,
d e n. s i
.t y M e a su r e by .

t h i s m e th o d t h e d e n s i t y o f m e t hy l a t e d s p ir i t a n d o f m il k e n t e r i n g ,

your r esults a s in t h e following ex am ple

Readi n of u e g b r tt e b e f o r e ru n n i n g o ff li q u i d
a ft er

V ol um e of liq ui d t a k en c c . .

Ma ss of liq uid g r m s .

m a ss
'
2I 42
D ensity vl o um e 20 8
 D ens i ty .
37

D en s i t y of a L i q u id b y Me a n s o f a Fla s k — W e n . h
t he d ensit y of a liquid i s t o b e m easure d by de t erm i ni ng t h e
m ass of a c e r a in
t volu me ,
a nd wh en t his volu m e is t o b e
o b a ined
t by weigh ing n eq l a ua volum e of wa ter it , is n e c es

sar y to b e a bl t o e tely o b ta cc ura a in e qual vo lum es of t h e

g iv e n

liq uid a nd of wat er .

For t hi s p p
u r ose a

v essel of som e kind

m u st be e m ploy ed o n ,

th e side of wh ic h a
m ar k h as b ee n m a de
to i nd ic ate to wh a t
lev e l i t ha s to be

a nd B sh owt wo form s pm 5 , , ,

o f v essel w hic h m ight

be u sed for t h is pu rpo se Now wh en a dj usting t h e level of t h e
.
,

liq ui d t o t h e m ark i t is impossib le t o avoid sligh t errors in

,

t he lev el a nd on r efere nc e t o th e fi g u re i t wi ll be ev ide n t t h at

, , ,

t h e possi ble error in t h e volum e o f li quid t ak en is m uch gr ea t er

i n t h e c ase of a ve ssel suc h as A th an in t h e c ase of one lik e B ;
for t h e volu m e of t h e shaded
t f t h li q i d i n A i v e ry
p a r o e u s

m uc h g rea ter t h an i n B alth oug h ,

t h e d ept h of t h e sh a ded pa rt ,

wh ic h repre sents t h e error th at

m ay be m ade i n adj ust ing t h e
le ve l is t h e sam e in t h e t wo
,

c a ses.

H enc e the n arro wer th e

n ec k of v essel e m ployed
the
the bette
r For v e ry ac c urat e
.

m easure m ent s a flask fi tted with ,

FIG
a gla ss st op per t h r ou gh w h ic h
. 2 6.

a fi ne h ol e b en b ed
h as e or Fi
( , g
B . is e m plo> ed . The
flas ki s filled wi th t h e liquid ,
a nd t
t h e s o pp er is i n ser e d ; t h e t
su perfl uous liquid fl ows ou t th rough th e h ole i n th e t
s o ppe r ,
are ca lled spe c ifi c- grav i ty or densi ty bo ttles .

EX ERC I S E 3 I. —
D ensi0r of liq uid by mea ns q/ a fl a s h.

App a r a t us : B alan ce ; n arrow n ec ked

— -
fla sk wit h m ar k o n n ec k;
m et h yla t ed s pir it m i lk , et c .

Count er poi se a n e m pt y a nd dry n arro w nec ked fl a sk wi t h s h ot -

a n d t i n foil, t h e n fill i t wit h wa t er u p t o a m a r k o n t h e n ar r o wes t

par t of t h e nec k, repla c e o n t h e bala nc e , and a d d weight s t o t h e

ri ght h and pan t ill eq uilibr ium is rest ored T h e m ass of t h e
-
.

we ight s a d d ed will b e t h e m ass of t h e wa t er Fr om t h e m ass of .

t h e wat er t h e v o lum e of t h e fl as k u p t o t h e m ar k o n t h e n ec k i s
a t o nc e o bt ai ned s inc e a gr am m e of w at er oc c u p ies I c c
,
. .

Em pt y t h e fl as k and c ar eq y dr y i t by ge n t ly war m i ng i t o ve r
,

a B un se n fl a m e an d su cki ng o ut t h e ai r t h r o u gh a p ie c e of glas s
,

t u be. Fill with t h e gi ven liq uid u p t o t h e m ar k a nd weigh T h e , .

s hot a nd t i nfoil u sed t o c ount e r b ala nce t h e fl as k wh en e m pt y m u st

be left on t h e r i gh t ha nd p an wh ile we igh i ng t h e fl ask wh en fu ll

-

of t h e liq uid . Then t h e m as s of t h e we ight s a dd ed will b e t h e

m a s s of t h e li q u id i n t h e fl as k Th u s knowi ng t h e m ass a nd
.
,

v olum e of t h e li uid t h e d en s it y c an be c alc ula t ed

q ,
.

D eterm ine by thi s m et h od t h e d ens ity of m ilk a nd of m et h yla t ed

s pi ri t e n t e r in g y our r es ult s a s in t h e follow
,
i n g ex a m ple

Mas s of wat er filling fl ask g r m s .

V ol um e of fl a sk u p t o m ar k c c . .

Mas s of m ilk filling fl ask g r m s .

m ass 85 6 3
D ensity of m ilk
v ol u m e

A D D IT ION A L E XE RC ISES MENS URATIoNIN .

I Mea s ur e t h e c ir c um fe r e nce of a c yl i nd er by w
.
ra ppin g t e n o r

m or e t ur ns of fin e wir e or c ot t on round t h e c ylind er t he n st r ai gh t en ,

i ng o ut t h e wi r e and m ea s ur in g t h e l e ngth Th e wir e m u st b e

.

wou nd o n reg ula rly a nd in a si ng le la yer

,
.

2
. Meas ur e t h e d i am et er of s om e wi re by wr a pping a n um b e r
o f t u rn s of t h e w ir e i n a s in gle la y er r ou nd a pe nc il a nd m ea s ur in g ,

l
t h e e gt
n h o c c u p i ed by t h e se t u r ns E a c h t ur n.m u st li e i n c los e

c o n ta c t wi t h t h e n eighbo ur i ng on es .

3 T
. es t t h e a c c ura c y of se t of gr a m m e w e ights by b ala n c i n g
a
 A dd i t iona l Ex er ci ses .
39
the s g rm
o -
weight against all t h e r est t h e t wo 20 g rm weights
.
,
-
.

a ga i nst ea c h oth er one of t h e 2 0 gr m

, weight s a gainst t h e I0
-
.
,

5, 2 2
, a n d
, I g r m w
-
e ight s.a n d so o n , .

4 D .e t er m i n e t h e m ass of 1 0 c m of fin e w ir e a nd c alc ula t e

.
,

t h e leng th of wi r e wh i c h will h ave a m a ss of m

'

g r C ut o fl a .

piec e of wir e r ath er larger t h a n t h is and adj ust it ex act ly t o ,

0 0 I g r m by car eful c utt ing

°

. .

5 D ra w t wo p a r allelogr a m s (not r ect angles) ea ch of wh ic h h as

.
,

a n ar ea of on e squ ar e i nc h .

6 F ind t h e ar ea of a g iven polygon by d ivid ing it into a

.

n um b er of t ri a ngles a nd m ea su r in g t h e a r ea of eac h of th e se
,

tr ia ngl es .

7 F i
. n d t h e v o lu m e of t h e sl a b of w oo d for m i ng t h e t op of

your t able and given t hat t h e d en sit y of t h e wood is

, ,
c alc ula t e

the m a ss .

8 F i nd t h e ar ea of c ross sect ion of t h e b or e of a gr aduated

.
-

c ylin d er and of a b ur et t e , by m e a sur in g t h e leng t h occu pied by a

given n um ber of c ubic cent im etres .

9 F in
. d t h e ar ea of c r o ss s e c t i o n of t h e b or e of t-h e g iv e n

t est tube by m easuring wit h a b urette, or by weigh ing t h e volum e

-

of wat er between t wo m ar ks on t he sid e about Io c m . a par t .

H ow d o you v
a oid t hé d iffi c ulty d u e t o t h e c l osed en d of the
t est -
tu b e b ei ng c urved ?
 P ART II —
H Y D R O S T ATI CS .

P r essu r e D u e t o a H e ad is bored of Li q u i d — If a hole

h h
t roug t h e o ttom or side of b a vesse l c ontain ing a liqu i d, say

h
wat er, t en, so long as t h e h ole is below t he surfac e of t he
,
k
liquid , it is well no wn t h a t t h e li qui d will g ush out If an .

a tt e m p t is m ade t o st 0 p t h e flow of t h e w a ter by closi ng t he

h ole w h
it t he finger, t he li qui d will be felt pressing t h e fi ng er .

It is th us ev iden t th a t t h e li q uid press es, or ex er s a pre ssu re , t

on th e inside of t h e c on taining ve ssel . In t h e sam e way ,
if
a solid body is imm e se d in a liquid t h e li quid e
r x er s at pr e ssur e

t
on t h e ou si de of t h e solid . If t h e solid were rem o e d a n d v i ts
pla ce taken by th e li qu id then thi s , replac ing liq ui d would be
ac t e d on by t h e sam e pr essure, d u e t o surr ound ing liquid , as

was t he soli d H e nc e, at any point elowt h e free su rfac e

. b of

a liq u id t here ex is s a t p ressur e d ue t o t he liquid T is pressure

. h
is fo un d t o be proport i onal t o t h e dept h of t h e gi ven poi n t

b elow t he fi e e surfac e of t h e li qui d , or t o t h e

'
h ead of liqui d ,
as

i t is called, a nd t o t h e d en si t y of t h e li quid . H enc e, if we

know t he head of liq uid at a ny p oi n t , and also t h e d ensi t y ,

then we can i mm ediat el y ca lc ula e t t h e pressur e d ue t o t h e

liq u id at t h is point .

EX RCIS
E E ( a nometer )
'

3 2 .
—
B ala na ng colu mns m .

Afi a r a t us —
U -
t ub e on st an d m illim etre sc ale .

P our water d own one of t h e lim b s of t h e U tu be t ill t h e t wo -

lim b s ar e a b out a qua rt er full The n m ea sur e t h e h eight of t h e .

su rfa c e of t h e water in t h e t wo li m bs a b ove t h e u pper s ur fa c e o f

t h e s ta nd P our m or e wat er i nt o t h e tube till both lim bs are a bo u t

.

on e t h ir d full an d a g ain m eas u r e t h e h eigh t of t h e su rfa c es of t h e

-
,

wa ter above t h e st and If t h e t ube i s c lean i t will b e found t ha t in

.
 B a la nci ng Colu mns .
4 !

eac h c a se t he surfac es of t h e liquid in t h e t wo t ubes are at the

sam e le v el.

At t ach a s hort length

bber tubing t o t h e end of one
of india - ru

of t h e l im b s of t h e U tub e O ver t his rubber tube slip a pinc h

- .

c oc k Now gently blow d own t h e r u bber tube opening t h e pinc h

.
,

c oc k at t h e sa m e t i m e t ill t h e surfa c e of t h e wat er in on e t ub e i s

,

a b out 6 or 8 i nc h e s h igh er th an i n t h e o t h er th en sh ut t h e p in c h ,

c o c k a nd m ea sur e t h e h eight of t h e surfa c es of t h e w a t er fr om t h e

s t an d T h e d ifference in t h e t wo h e igh t s will give t h e d ifferenc e

.

in level b etw een t h e wat er in t h e t wo bra nc h es In on e lim b .

,

th at ex posed t o t h e open a ir t h e s urfa c e of t h e water is fr ee , ,

while i n t h e oth er lim b a pressure i s ex erted on t h e s urfa c e d ue

t o t h e a ir blown into th i s lim b of t h e t ub e At th i s sur fa ce .

t h e u pwar d pr essure d ue t o t h e h ead of wat er wh ich now ex i st s

, ,

ex a c t ly bala nc es t h e d own war d pr e ssure d u e t o t h e a ir blo wn

i n t o t h e c losed li mb Thus t h e difference i n level in t h e t wo lim bs

.

i s a m easu re of t h e pressur e of t h e a ir in t h e c losed lim b Thi s .

pressur e i s t h erefor e said t o b e equal t o t h at ex ert ed by a h ead of

w ater equ a l t o t h e differenc e b et ween t h e level of t h e surfa ces of
t h e w a t er i n t h e t wo lim bs T h e U tube a nd li quid wh en used i n
.
-
,

th is m a nner t o m easur e pr essu res i s c alled a m anom eter ,

.

A tt ac h t h e r ubb er tube t o t h e g a s supply a nd th us d eterm ine ,

t h e h e ight of t h e colum n of w ate r wh i c h ex er t s t h e sam e pr essure

a s th a t a t wh ic h t h e g a s i s supp lied .

Take a clean and d ry U tub e a nd using m er cury in t h e pla ce -

, ,

of w a t er m easure t h e h eight of t h e m er c ur y c olumn whi c h ex er t s

,

t h e sa m e pre ssur e as ( I) t h e w at er supply 1

and ( 2 ) t h e great es t ,

pr essure you c an ex ert with y our lungs .

EXE RC IS E 3 3 .
—
Compar i son o f the densiti es of t wo liqui ds
wh ich domix by th e meth od of ba la ncing colu mns
not .

App a r a t u s —
U t ub e on stand m illi m etr e scale
-
su pply of

v liquid s such a s turpentine par affi n oil et c

a r i ous , , , .

P our w ater down one lim b of t h e U t ube till bot h li m b s ar e -

a b o ut on e t h i r d full th en c ar efully p ou r t u r pe nti ne d own t h e oth e r

-
,

li m b .Go on a dd ing t ur p ent ine t il l t h e sur fa c e of se par a t i on

( B ,
F ig 2 7) b e t
. we e n t h e t ur p e nt i n e a n d w a t e r i s a b ou t th r ee i n c h e s

a b ove t h e b e n d T h e u pwa rd press ur e a t t h is surfa ce sep ar a ting

.

t h e t wo li quid s d ue t o t h e h e ad of w at er equal t o th e v ert i c a l

,

If th e at er su y i w
s at a er i ppl ressure th e U-t ube i v y h gh p
not be w ll
hig h enough t o measure t h e p
ressure, a nd t he ex pe rim ent m ust be o m i tt ed .
4 2 li b dr osta t ics
'
.

dis tan ce between A and B , m ust b e wnwar d pr essur e

eq u al t o th e do
d ue t o t h e hea d o f t ur pe n ti ne B C T h e v er ti c al
, .

di st anc e bet ween A a nd B is eq ual t o AD wh er e D ,

i s a t t h e sam e lev el a s B so t h a t t h e h ea d o f w at er
,

a t B i s eq u al t o t h e h ei ght AD B u t t h e pr e ssu r e .

i s in ea c h c as e pr opor t i on al t o t h e h e ad of l iquid
a nd t o t h e d ens it y of t h e li u id th f
q e r e o r e

C B x (d ensit y of tu r pent in e ) A D x ( d e nsity

of w a t er )

or

D ensity of t ur pentin e
since ty of wat er i s I
t h e d ensi .

C om par e by t h is m et h od t h e d e nsiti es o f t ur pe n
tine para ffi n oil and m er cur y with t h at of w a t e r
, , , .

Also c om p ar e t h e d ensit y of m er c ur y w it h t h a t of
p a r a fli n oi l l
E n
.t e r y ou r r esu lt s as i n t h e fo llo w
F'G
i ng ex a m pl e
' 27°

H eight of surfa c e A of wa t er a b ove st a nd 56 ; cm .

B 7 7
‘

H ea d w a t er ( A D )
of

H eigh t of su r fa c e C of t ur pe nt ine a b ov e st an d

B 77

H e ad of tur pent ine ( C B ) 55 6

D ensity of tu rpent ine AD
H enc e,
D ensit y of wat er CB 55 6

EXE RC IS E 34 . Comp a ri son of the densi ti es f

o t wo li q u i d s
wh ich m i x by mea ns qf th e U t ube -
.

Appa r a t us — U t ub e m et r e sc ale
- m erc u ry
t solut ion s al .

Th e m et h od u sed in t h e last ex er c i se c a nnot b e e m pl oy ed i f t h e

liqu id s t h e d en si t ies of wh ic h ar e t o b e c om par ed m ix
,
U n d er , .

t h e se c ir c u m st a nc e s fi r st i nt r od u c e som e m er c ur y i nt o t h e U t u b e -
.

Th is m er c ury w ill st an d a t t h e s a m e level i n t h e t wo t u bes C a r e .

fully st ick a p ie c e o f g um m ed l a b el r o u n d on e of t h e l im b s so t h a t
t h e ed ge of t h e la b el i s ex a c t ly on a l ev e l wi t h t h e sur fa c e o f t h e
m er c ur y .F ill one lim b of t h e t ub e t o w it h in ab out t wo i n c h e s o f
t h e t op with t h e le ss d ense of t h e t wo l iqu id s t o b e c om p ar ed t h e n ,

'
Th e t u be m ust be ca refu lly clea ned between each se t of m eas ure m en t s .
 44 Hy dr osta t ics .

Th e pre ssure at t h e fr e e su rfa c es of t h e t wo l iq ui d s i n the be aker s

is also t h e sa m e . Ther efore
D ensit y of liquid i n t ub e A B h eigh t of c o u m nl CD

C om par e by ppara tu s t h e d ensiti e s of t h e

m e an s of H are s ’
a

following liquid s wa t er m ilk a nd satu ra t ed solu t ion of c o m m o n

—
, ,

salt Enter your r e sults as in t h e followi ng ex a m ple

.

H e ight of t op of c olum n of m ilk a b ove st a nd cm .

H eight of sur fa c e of m ilk i n be aker a bove st a nd cm .

H e igh t of c olu m n of m ilk 499 cm .

H eight of t op of c olu m n of w at er a bove sta nd cm .

H e ig h t of sur fa c e of wa t er in beak er a bo e stan d v 84 cm .

Height of c olum n of wat er 5 I

°

4 cm .

H enc e
D e nsit y of m ilk 5I4
°

I 03
°

D e n sit y of wat e r 7
.

43 9
( s inc e d e nsit y of wa t er I ) d e n si t y of m ilk

P r i n c i p le A r c h i m e d es
of W en a .
—
h b ody i s pa r tl y or

wholly i mm e rse d i n a li qu id, t h e liq uid ex er s an t up war d

p r ess u r e b ody e q l t o th e weig h t of t he vol m e o f
on the ua u

liq id d i pl c ed by t h e b ody
u s a O in ot h er wo d s t h e los s . r, r ,

of w e ig h t o f body wh en im m ed in liq id i eq al t o t h e
a e rs a u . s u

we igh t of vol m e of t h e li q id eq l t o t h e volum e of t h e

a u u ,
ua

b ody Th e ab ove is st te ment of wh t is called t h e P i ncip l

. a a a r e

of A h i mrcd i nc A c
e es, s
e h i m e d e s w s t h e fi st t
r o d i sc ov e t h i a r r s

i mp o ta nt l w in hyd ost ti s
r a r a c .

EXE RC IS E 3 6 .
—
P r oof of t he pr i ncip le o
f A r chi med es .

App a r a tu s —
lid a nd h ollow c yli nd e r s bea ker
Ba la nc e so .

In ord er t o p rov e t h e p r i nc ipl e of A r c h i m ed e s you ar e s uppl i e d ,

wit h a h oll ow cy lind er a nd a sol id m et al c yli nd er wh ic h e x a c t ly

,

fill s t h e i n sid e of t h e hollow cylinder H ang t h e t wo cylind e r s fro m .

t h e h o ok wh ic h c a rr ies t h e left h a nd pa n of t h e b a la nc e t h e h ollo w

-
,

c yl i nd er b e i ng u pp er m ost ( Fig a n d c o unt e r poise w ith S h ot a n d

.

t in foi l Th en place a beaker of w ater so t h a t t h e solid c ylind er i s

.

c om plet ely i m m er sed s upp or t i ng t h e b e a ker on a s m a ll st a n d i n

,

su c h a wa y th a t t h e m ov em ent s o f t h e pan of t h e b ala nce a r e n o t

 P r i nciple f
o A r ch i m edes .
45

i nt erfer ed wit h Th e eq u il ibri um of t h e bala nc e w ill i n th i s wa y be

.

u p se t t h e c yli nd er a pp ar ently losi ng w e igh t

, C ar efully po ur w a t er .

i nt o t h e h oll ow c yl ind er t ill eq u il ibr i um i s a ga i n se c u red It w ill .

b e found t h a t wh en t h i s h a ppe n s t h e h ollow cyl ind e r i s ex ac t ly full .

S in c e you h a ve a dd ed t o t h e le ft h a nd pa n a v olu m e of wat er -

FIG . 2 9. (L) FIG .

30 .
G)
.

e q u al to t h at of t h e i m m er sed so id , weigh t of th is v ol um e
l a nd t he
o f wa t er e x a c t ly c om p en sa t e s t h e l o ss of w e igh t of t h e sol id c yli nd e r

wh e n i m m er sed i n wa t er t h i s ex pe ri m ent is a proof of t h e tr u t h of

,

t h e p r i n c i ple o f A r c h im ed e s .

R e pea t t h e ex p eri m ent i m m er sing t h e cyl i nd er i n a sat ur at ed

,

so l u t i on o f c om m on sa l t a nd fi ll i ng t h e h oll ow cyl i nd er w i t h t h e
,

s a m e s ol u t i on .

EXE R C IS E 3 7 .
—
Densi ty o
.
f a soli d mor e dense th a n water .

App a r a t us — B ala nc e ; l id s b eaker ; so .

S i nc e wh e n a sol id is im m er se d in w at er t h e los s of we ight i s

, ,

eq u a l t o t h e w eight of a v ol um e of w a t er e q u a l t o t h a t of t h e sol id

i f we w ei gh a sol id fir st i n a ir a nd th en wh en im m er sed i n w ater

, ,

t h e d i ff er e n c e i n t h e two weigh t s w ill b e t h e w eigh t o f a volu m e

of w at er equ al t o th a t of t h e solid B u t we k now t h e volum e of any
.
4 6 Hy dr os ta t ics .

g i v e n weight of wa ter , henc e we c an imm ediately c alc ulate th e

a nd

volum e of t h e bod y . K nowi ng t h e m ass and volum e we c a n t hen ,

m a ss
find t h e d ensi ty , sinc e d e nsit y
volu m e .

In a pply ing th is m eth od su spend t h e solid by a fine si lh t hr ead

fr om t h e h ook c arryi ng t h e le ft h an d pan of t h e b ala n ce a nd -
,

weigh Th en completely im m er se t h e bod y in a beaker of water

.

F
( g 3 )
i . 0 su pp or t ed a s i n t h e la s t ex e r c i se an d a ga i n w e igh C ar e , .

m u st b e t ak en t o rem ove all a ir b ubbles whi c h m ay b e a tt a c hed t o

t h e b od y wh en i m m er sed i n t he w ater This m ay be d one by .

r ubb i ng t h e bod y w ith a sm all c am el s h a ir br ush

’
-
.

D eter m ine i n th is way t h e volume and density of t h e solid s

s uppli ed ent eri ng y our r e sult s a s in t h e followi ng ex a m ple
,

We ight of solid i n air g rm s .

in wa ter

Weigh t wa t er d isplac ed
of

Volum e of b od y c c . .

m a ss I
°

o7
D ensIt y of bod y v olu m e

EXE RC IS E 3 8 .
— D ensi ty f
o a soli d less dense th a n wa ter
Appa r a t u s previ ous ex erc ise
as in .

In t h e c a se o f a b ody suc h a s a p iec e of wax or w ood wh ic h

, ,

float s in wat er we c annot d ire c t ly weigh it when imm ersed i n w at e r

, ,

si nc e i t w ill not sink U nd er these c irc um st ances som e heav y

.

su b st a nc e m u st b e a t t a c h ed t o t h e b od y t o a c t as a sinker F ir s t .

w eigh t h e sinker in a ir a nd t he n in water supp ose t h e loss o f weigh t ,

t o be w gr a m m es N ex t at t ac h t h e sinker t o t h e sub st ance an d

.
,

weigh in air a nd in wat er a nd let t h e loss of weight be W g r am m e s

, .

S in c e t h e sub st an c e u n d er ex per i m e n t i s light er t h a n wa t er it will ,

t en d t o b uoy t h e sink e r u p a nd t h er efor e W will be g re a t er th a n w

, .

Th e d ifference b et we en W an d w w ill be t h e loss of w eight o f t h e

sub st a n c e wh en i m m ersed i n w a t er an d h enc e t h e v o l u m e
, is
( W w ) c c .T h.e fo llo w i ng exa m ple will a ssi st i n m ak i n g t h e

a b ov e ex pla na t ion cle a r .

Weigh t of si n ker in a ir g r m s .

wa ter
L oss of weigh t of sinker
Vol um e of sinker c c..
 P r i ncip le of A r ch i m edes .
47

Weight of su bst a nce s in ker i n a i r gr m s .

water
L weight of substanc e a nd sinker
oss of

Volum e of sub stan c e sinker c c

. .

Volum e of sub st anc e c c . .

Mass of sub stance (m ass of sub st anc e sin ker)

(m a s s of si nk e r )
gr am s.

m a ss 6 80
D ensit y of su b stance v olum e

D eterm ine by t h e above m eth od t h e d en sity of parafli n wax and ,

o f a pie c e of varn ish ed p ine e nt er i ng y our r esult s a s i n t h e a bov e

,

e x a m ple A sm all pi ec e of sh eet lead m ay b e u se d a s a si nk er

.
.

EXE R C IS E 3 9 —
. D ensi ty o
f a liqu i d by weig hing a soli d fi r st

in wa ter ,
th en i n t he li quid .

App a r a t us — B a la n c e beak er solid va ri ous liquids , suc h

as m ilk , vi g
paraffin oil et c
ne ar , , .

B y weigh in g a b ody fir st i n a ir an d t h en in w at er we c an ,

c a lc ul a t e a s i n t h e pr ev ious ex erc i ses it s v ol um e

, If now t h e b od y
, .

i s w ei gh ed wh en i m m er sed in som e ot h er l iquid t h e loss of w eigh t ,

will b e t h e weight of a volum e of t h i s liq uid equa l t o t h e v olum e of

t h e b od y B ut t h e v olum e of t h e b od y i s k n own from t h e loss o f
.

we i ght wh en we igh ed in wat er h enc e we knowt h e m a ss a nd t h e

v o lu m e of a c ert ain quantity of t h e g iven liquid a nd can c alc ulat e ,

t h e d en sit y .

D eterm ine by th is m eth od t h e d ensity of m ilk vinegar par afli n , ,

o il e t c
,
u si n g one of t h e solid s em ploy ed in Ex er ci se 37
.
, Ent er .

y o u r r esu lt s a s in t h e follow ing ex am ple

Weight of solid in a ir g r m s .

w a t er
H enc e loss of weight of so l id
V olum e of solid c c
. .

Weight of solid in m ilk gr m s .

H ence loss of weight of solid i n m ilk

We igh t of v olu m e of liquid d ispla c ed g r m s.

B ut volume of liquid displac ed volum e of solid c c . .

m a ss 538
D ensity of m ilk v olum e
 48 Hy d r os ta t ics .

Flot a t i on — Wh e n a solid is les s dense t ha n t he li q ui d i n

wh ic h it is i mm erse d , t h e loss of w eigh t , or u pt hrust of t h e

liq uid will be great er

, t h an t h e weigh t of th ebod For th e y
.

up th r ust
d ue t o t h e li q uid is, by t h e pri n c i ple of A r c i m e d e s,
h
eq ual t o t h e w eig h t of a v olum e of th e liq ui d e q ua l t o the
v olum e of t h e solid If t h e soli d is less de nse t
. h n t he liq ui d
a ,

a g i ven volume of t he solid will weigh less t h n a n e q ual

a

v olum e of hence th e pt hrust is g e t er t ha n t he

the fl ui d , an d u r a

d own ward p ll e e t d by t h e t h on t he so lid i

u x r e th e we ig ht e ar , . e. .

If t h e fo e t h e s lid is not held d own i t will i se t

,
re r , o the , r o

s fa e of t h e li qu id
ur c Whe it e ch es t h e s fa e p t will
. n r a ur c , ar

p r j
o ec t ou t of t h e li qu id t h is par t no longer dis pla c es a n y of
,

t h e li quid so tha t t h e v olume of fl u id displa c ed i s r edu c e d

, ,

a nd t h ere fore t h e u p t hrust d u e t o t he liqu id i s also red u c e d .

Th e downwar d pull d ue t o t h e eart h howe ver rem ains un alt ered , ,

a nd t h e bod y w i ll g o on ri sing till t h e u pt hru st du e t o t h e d is

la c e d li q uid is ex ac t ly e q ual t o t h e down p ull d u e t o t h e ea r t h -
p ,

i e t h e weig h t
. . Thus whe n a bod y fl oa ts on a li q uid t h e
.
,

weig h t of t he li q uid displac ed m ust be equal to t he weig h t o f

the bo d y .

EX ERCIS E 4 0 .
—
H ota t i an .

Appar a t us — v
B loc ks of arn ished wood of various s h apes g las s

d ish c ontai ni ng water m etr e sc ale and rough balanc e .

Floa t a rectangular bloc k of wood on water an d not e t h e d e pt h ,

t o wh ic h it i s i m m er sed S in ce t h e bloc k m a y n ot be i mm er sed t o

.

qu ite t h e sam e ex t ent all r oun d m easure th e d epth at ea c h c or n er , ,

a nd t a k e t h e m ean In ord er t o fa c ilit ate th is meas ur em e nt a s e ri e s

.
,

of d iv i si on m arks h av e bee n m a d e along t h e four sh ort er ed g e s o f

t h e block B y pla c ing t h e eye a l itt l e b elow t h e lev el of t h e sur fa c e

.

of t h e w a t er t h e po si t i o n o f t h e surfa c e ( wit h r efer enc e t o t h es e

,

d i vi sion lines) c a n be not ed a nd th en th e b loc k r em oved an d t h e ,

d ist an c e fr om t h e b ott om sur fa c e of t h e block t o th ese p oin t s

m eas ured C alc ula te t h e vol um e of t h e par t i mm ersed an d h en c e
.
,

t h e wei ght of t h e water di s pl a c ed Also weigh t h e bloc k a nd S ho w .

,

th at t h e weight of w at er d isplac ed i s equal t o t he weight o f t h e

bloc k .

Repea t t h e ex perim ent u sin g block s of various sh a pes , Ent e r .

 Flot a t ion .
49

yo ur r esu lts as in w g ex am ple in eac h

t h e follo in , c ase m ak ing
a lettered sketc h of th e bloc k in t h e position in wh ic h it
fl oa t ed

D epth below t h e surface of c orner A cm .

B cm .

C c m.

D cm.

Mean d epth of im m er sion cm .

Area of und er surfac e of block le ngth x b r ea d t h

x sq . cm .

v olum e im m er sed a r ea x d epth

x c c . .

wa ter d ispla ced

V olum e of 1 6 2 9 c c. .

Weight of water d isplac ed 1 62 9 g r m s .

We igh t of block ( obta ined by weigh ing) 1 62 g r ams .

EXE RCIS E 4 I .
— Meas ur ement of the dens ity o
f q
li u i ds by

App ar a tus — Gl
t ube 1 2 in lo ng and l ia i n diam et er closed
a ss . .
,

a t b oth end s an d w
, eighted with m er c u ry ; t all gla ss c ylind er ; sc ale .

You ar e su pplied with a p iec e of gla ss t ub e c losed at b ot h end s , ,

a n d w eighted w it h a litt le m er c ur y so t h a t it wi ll fl oat u pr ight F loa t .

th is tube in a t all glass cylinder filled with water and m eas ur e t h e ,

len gth imm er sed Measure t h e d iam eter of t h e tube wit h t h e slide
.

c ali per s and c alc ulat e t h e ar ea of c r oss sec t i on see p 2 8

, H enc e , . .

c alc ula t e t h e v olum e of t h e p ar t i mmer sed by m ult i ply ing t h e cr oss

sec tion by t h e length i m m er sed T h e weight of th is volum e o f

.

wa t er is equal t o t h e weight of t h e instrum ent : prove th is by

a c tu al w ei gh i ng .N ex t float t h e t ube in a saturated solution of
c om m on salt a nd aga in c alc ula t e t h e volum e im m er sed
, Th e .

we ight of th is volume of salt solut ion is equal t o t h e weight

of t h e i n stru m e nt H ence c alc ulate t h e d ensity of t h e salt solu
.

t ion.

If we d e not e t h e ar ea of t h e c ross sec t ion of t h e t ub e by A and ,

i f x is t h e l ength of t h e tube im m er sed i n wa ter and y t h e l ength ,

i m m er sed i n t h e salt solut ion : th en A x is t h e volum e of wa t er

d ispla c ed and Ay is t h e v olum e of salt solut ion d isplaced Th e refore
,
.

t h e weight of wat er di splaced i s Ax x ( d ensity of wat er ) a nd t h e ,

weight of salt solution displa ced is Ay x ( d ensity of solut ion) B ut .

E
5 0 Hy dr osta t ics .

the w eight l
of iq uid di sp la c ed i s i n e a c h c a s e e q ual t o t h e w e igh t of
t h e t ub e Th erefore
.

Ax x ( d ensity of wat er) Ay x ( d ensity of solut ion ) ,

D ensit y of solution A: x

D ensit y of wa ter Ay y

Th at is t h e d ensit ie s of t h e l iq uid s ar e i n v er sely a s t h e lengt h s o f

,

tub e im mersed .

Meas e u r t h e d e pth t o wh ic h t h e t u b e s i nk s i n sal t s ol ut i o n m i lk , ,

par affin oil a nd m ethylat ed spir it a nd c alc ulate th e d en sit ies of

, ,

th ese liq uid s .

Th e Hy d r om et er
I
Inst ead of measuring t he dept
.
— to h
wh h b
ic t h e tu e in t h e last ex ercise san in t h e d ifl erent li q ui d s k '

by
means of a separate scale , we m ig t av e h a d h h
a p a
per sca le fi x ed i nside t h e t ube ,
so t ha t the
leng t h
im m ersed c ould be read off t roug t h e h h
g lass A g.a i n i nst ead of av i
, ng t h e sc a le i n si d e h
t h e stem of t h e i nstrum en t grad ua t ed t o s ow h
t h e leng th i m m ersed, a nd th en from this lengt h
c alcula ti ng t h e density of th e liqu id ,
i t m igh t be
g r ad ua t e d t o g i v e t h e d en si t y d i re c t T h us .
,

using th e sa m e not a t ion a s i n t h e pr ec e d i ng

e x erc ise at a distanc e x from t h e e nd suc h a

, , , ,

sc ale would re ad sin c e, wh en th e i nstr u

m ent is place d i n water ( d ensit it S i n s t o y k
h
t is point A t a distanc e, y , from th e e nd , in
.

t h e sa me wa y, t h e sca le would rea d t is h

nu m b er y of th e alt sol
ex pre ssing t h e d e nsit s u

t ion in wh i h t he inst ment sank t o th is poin t

c ru .

C ont inuing i n this w y c le w o ld be c o n a , a s a u

st c t ed s
ru th at th den sity of t h e liq uid in
o e

wh ich t h e inst m nt i fl oat ed c o ld be d i e t ly

ru e s u r c

r ead o ff.

t h is princ iple a nd ca lled

An instrum ent on ,

a hy drom et er is sh own i n Fig 3 1 T h e sm all , . .

F G 3" ( i )
‘ '

bulb A is filled with m ercury in order t hat th e

'

inst rum ent may fl oat uprig h t T o re duc e t he leng th of t h e .

i nstru m en t t h e lower par t is blown into a b ulb B ; t h e u p pe r ,

5 2 Hy d r ost a t ics .

tube it self till t h e flowstops When t his oc cur s note

'

r a ise t h e U - .
,

t h e relat ive level of t h e e nd of t h e sh orter lim b a nd of t h e

su rfa ce o f t h e w a t er i n t h e bea ker i nt o wh i c h t h e ot h er lim b d ips .

If t h e level of t h e e nd of t h e outsid e li m b i s a bove th at o f t h e

sur fa c e of t h e w a t er i n t h e be ak er w ill t h e wa ter flowou t ?
,

A U t ub e u sed i n th is m a nn er i s c alled a siphon

-
.

Fr om t h e result s of t h e a bove ex per im ents give t h e c onditi ons ,

a s t o t h e l evels of t h e liq uid i n t w o vessels c onnec t ed by a si ph on

i n or d er th a t t h e liquid m ay fl ow from one vessel i nt o t h e other .

A lso give t h e c ondit ions wh ich h a v e t o b e fulfilled th a t we m ay be

a bl e t o d r a w o fl liquid fr om a v e ssel w ith a siph on
'

Ex pl a in t h e fl ow of liq uid t h rough a siph on by c onsid er i ng t h e ,

h ea d of liquid at eac h end of t h e siph on illustrate you r answ er by

m ean s of a d iagr a m .

A D D IT IO NAL EX ER C ISES IN H Y D RO STA T IC S .

1 T a ke 20 grm s of com m on salt and add enough wa ter t o m a ke

. .

u p t h e sol ut ion t o 1 00 c c D et erm ine t h e density To 50 c c o f

. . . . .

t h is s olut ion ad d 5 0 c c of w a ter a nd d et erm ine t h e d en si t y

. .
, Th is .

sol ut ion w ill c ont ai n 1 0 g r m s of salt in 1 00 c c

. Re pea t t h e pr o c e s s
. .
,

s o a s t o d et erm i ne t h e d e n sit i e s of solut ions c ont a ining 5 a n d

r m s of salt i n 1 00 c c r e spe c ti vely E nter y ou r r es ult s i n a t a bl e

g . . . .
,

t h e fir st c ol um n c onta in ing t h e q ua nt it y of salt i n 1 00 c c o f t h e . .

s olut ion a nd t h e se cond c ol um n t h e c or r esp ondin g d e nsi t y

, Th e .

d en sity of sea water i s fr om y our result s fi nd a pprox im a t e ly

h ow m u c h salt is c ont ai ned in 1 00 c c . .

2 D et er m ine t h e d ensit y of a v er y sm all piec e of ebony or a m b e r

.

by m aki ng a solut ion of salt s o t h at t h e solid j ust floats a nd t h e n ,

m ea suri ng t h e d ensity of t h e sol ut ion with H ar e s a ppara t u s

’
.
P A RT III —
TH E B A RO ME T E R A ND
LA W
’
B OY LE S .

SECT IO N I l H E B AR O METER
' ‘
—
. .

TA K E a g las s t u be abo t 36 in h es long

, u c , a nd closed a t one e nd ,

an d fi ll it with wat er . Close t h e wi th

e nd yo ur fi nger, a nd

i nv e r t t h e t ub e , d ipp ing th e en d below t he su rfa c e of som e

wat er in a b eaker Remove your fi nger and not e t h at t h e

.
,

wat er still com plet ely fi lls th e tu b e .

At t h e open end O f t h e t u b e t h ere is a d ownwa rd pressu re

e qual t o t h e w eigh t o f t h e c olu m n O f w at e r A B ( Fig wh i le .

a ppar ent ly t h e u pw a rd pressure is on ly e q ual t o t h e

weigh t O f a c olu m n O f liquid O f heigh t C B H enc e , .

,

i f t h is were t h e only upward pr e ssure ac t ing t h e ,

wa ter would ru n out O f t he t ub e t ill t h e le v el O f t h e

su rfac e i n sid e and ou t side t h e t u b e w a s t h e sa m e .

From th e fac t th at th e water does not run out in

th is way we are led t o c onclude th at t he u pward
,

p r e ssur e a t B m u s t b e g re a t e r t h an t h a t d ue t o t h e
“ h e ad ”
CB . h
T is increased pr essure i s due t o
t h e fa c t t h at h
t h e a t m osp e re is also a fl ui d a vi ng h
we igh t ,
a nd h en c e ex er s t a pr e ssu r e on the su r

fac e of th e wat er wh ic h
,
t ransm itted by pr e s su r e is
t h e wa t er S uppose t h at t h e pressure ex erted by
.

t h e a t m o sph ere is e q ual t o t h at wh ic h would be

F IG. 2.

e x e rted by a c olum n O f water 1 0 m etres high

3
.

Th en i f a t ub e were t ak e n 1 1 m et re s long t h e downward

, ,

p r es sur e a t B wo uld b e e q u al t o t h e weig h t o f a c olu m n of

wa ter 1 1 m etres h igh t he upward pressure b eing equal t o th e
,
 Th e B a r om eter B oy le s L a w
’
54 a nd .

weig ht of a heigh t of met es

c o lum n of water h ving
a a 10 r

t h e h e ig h t C B Hen e if GB is less t han one met e t h e

. c , r ,

d ownwa d p ess e at B wo ld be g eat e t h an t h e u ward

r r ur u r r
p
p erss re a n d t h e efo e t h e wate would un out O f th e t b e
u , r r r r u

t ll t h e h eigh t of t h e wat er olu mn i n t h e t ub e w s 1 m etres

i c a 0

CB Sin e it wo ld be v e y i n onv en ie nt to se a t b e
. c u r c u u
10 m et e long i t i s s l t o se a liqui d O f a m u h r e te
r s u ua u
, g c a r
d e nsity t h n wate so t h t an e q al d ow
a nw a d p esr, e t a u r r su r a
B m ay be o b t in ed wit h sh o t e ol m n O f liq id
a The a r r c u u .

li q i d b e t s it ed fo t his p pose i m e
u s u y t he density of r ur s r c ur ,

wh i h i c time th t O f w te o th at tube
s s of t h e a a r, s a

leng t h eq i ed in t h e
r e Of w
u r at e can be e m loyed c as r
p .

EXE RC IS E 4 4 .
— B a r ometr ic h eig ht .

Appa r a t u s —
Gl a s s
t u e, b 36 i nc h es long , l
c osed at o ne en d ;
m er c u r y 1
m et r e sc a e l .

F ill a clea n a n d gla ss tub e about 36 i nch es l ong a nd c losed

dry , ,

a t on e e nd w it h m ercu r y u p t o with in h alf a n i nc h of t h e e nd

, .

C lo se t h e e nd wit h t h e fi nger an d by gr ad ua lly in verti ng t h e t ub e , , ,

r u n t h e b ubbl e of a ir left slowl y pu a n d d ow n t h e t u b e so a s t o ,

r e m ov e any sm a ll b u bbl e s of a ir st i c ki ng t o t h e s id es of t h e t u b e .

Th en c om plet ely fill t h e t ube wit h m ercury a nd again c l osing t h e , ,

e nd w it h y o ur fi nger i n v ert t h e t ub e a n d dip t h e end b enea t h t h e

, ,

s u r fa ce of som e m er c u r y c ont ai n ed i n a sm all w ood en Fi x

t h e t u b e u pr ight i n a r e t ort c l a m p .

It w ill b e fou nd t h a t t h e m er c u r y d oes n ot c o m plet ely fill t h e

t ub e b u t t h a t t h e t op part of t h e t ub e i s e m pty
,
Measure t h e .

h eigh t O f t h e c ol um n of m er cury ab ove t h e sur fac e of t h e m erc ury

Unless special precau t ions a e t aken i t will be found t h at there is a r ,

ve ry gr e t wast e o f m er c u y i n t h e lab ora t o y

a It i s best i f possib l e t o
r r

h ve a t a bl e reser ed for a ll e pe i m ent s i n wh ich m e cu ry i s u sed

.
, ,

a v x Th i s
r r .

t b l e o gh t o nly t o b e ab ou t t wo feet h i g h ; a nd t h e e sho uld b e a h ea d i ng

a u r ,

a b ou t a n i n ch h ig h a ll rou nd t h e e d g A sm all hole a t one co ne wh ic h

, e. r r,

c an b e cl o sed by a c or k ser e s t o d a w O ff a ny m e c u y sp il t
, vIt i s a goo d r r r .

t h i ng t o c o e t h e fl oor u nd e t h is t a ble and for ab ou t a ya d o n each sid e

v r r r

wi t h o ilcl ot h ; n d t o na il st ri ps of wood abo t o ne t h i ty se cond o f a n i nc h

a , u r -

t hi k a ll o und t h e ed g e
c ,
r If i t i s not po ssible t o h a e a speci al t ab le
. v

r es r v
e ed f e p i m en ts in l i ng t h e use O f m e c y ll su ch e pe i m en t s
or x er vo v r ur a x r

ug h t t o be pe fo m ed ove r shall ow wood en t ays a bout 2 4 x 1 8 i nc h e s

,

o r r r ,

a nd 2 i nch es d eep .

S m all wood en b o es wi th on e side m ad e o f g lass a nd t h e edg es

x

c em e n ted w i t h m a i ne g l u e ar e ve y usefu l fo e pe i m en t s wi th baro m et e r

,

r ,
r r x r

t ubes .
 B a r ometer .
55
in t h e t r ough This height is c alled t h e B ARO M ETR IC H E IGH T
.
.

Em pty t h e tub e a nd r efill a ga in m ea sur in g t h e b a rom et r ic h eight

,

t h e v al ue O bt ai ned ought t o b e t h e s am e a s be for e if not som e a ir ,

bubbles h ave probably been left st icki ng t o t h e sid e of t h e tu be in

on e or oth e r of t h e ex per im ent s and t h ey sh ou l d be r e p ea t ed
, .

EXE R C IS E 4 5 .
—
B ar ometer (
conti nued ) .

A pp a r a t u s — A s i n Ex er c i se 44 .

In t h epr eviou s ex er c ises t h e barom eter tube was plac ed vert ic al

n ow i n c l in e t h e t u be fr om t h e v ert ic al and fi x i n th i s n e w p osit i on ,

by m ean s of t h e r et ort c la m p Mea sure t h e v er ti ca l d ista nc e

.

b etw een t h e level Of t h e m erc ur y insid e a nd out sid e t h e t ube T h e .

be st way of m aking th is m ea sur em ent is t o m ea sure t h e vertic al

h eigh t of t h e end of t h e m erc ury c olu m n abov e t h e surfa c e Of t h e
t a bl e and t h en m ea sure t h e h eigh t of t h e surfa c e of t h e m er c ur y i n
,

t h e t r ough ab ov e t h e t abl e Th e d i ff er enc e gi ves t h e h eight r eq uir ed

. .

R e p eat t h e ex per im ent inc l ini ng t h e tub e m or e a n d m ore ea c h ti m e

,

till t h e m ercury ent irely fills t h e t ube Ent er your r esult s in a table .
,

a s b elo w .

HS igh b t a ov e Ta ble o f t h e
M yi
e
ur fa c e of t he e rcu r n

P osi t i on of Tu be .

T r ou gh . T u be .

F rom t h e v al ues obta ined it will be evid ent th at t h e ver t i c a l

,

d i st a n c e b etween t h e lev el s O f t h e sur fa c es of t h e m er c ury i e t h e , . .

b ar o m etric h eight rem ai ns t h e sam e wh eth er t h e tube is vert ic al or

, ,

i nc l i ned so l ong a s t h e m er cury d oes not c om plet ely fill t h e t ub e

,
.

EX ERC IS E 4 6 .
—
B a r ometer ( cont i n ued ) .

A pp a r a t u s —
gem ent sh own in Fig 33 m etr e sc ale
Th e a rr an . .

In o r d er t o sh ow t h a t t h e b ar om etri c h eight d o e s r eally d e pe nd

on t h e p r e ssur e of t h e a ir o n t h e fr ee su rfa c e O f t h e m erc ur y i n t h e

t r ou gh you a re su ppl ied wi t h a m er c u ry b a rom et er t h e low er end of

, ,

o f wh ic h d i p s i n s om e m er c ur y c ont a i ned not i n a n o p en t r ough , ,

 Th e B a r ometer a nd le s L a w
'

5 6 q .

bu t in a bott le, A ( Fig . wh i ch is closed air t igh t by an ind iar ubber -

cor k
. Two other t u bes, besides t h e barom et er t u be pas s t h r ough ,

thi s c ork O f t h ese t u bes one B is bent

.
, , ,

and fo rm s a m anom et er ( see p t h e lower .

par t of t h e bend being filled wit h m ercury .

T h e ot h er t u be C h as a sh o r t len gt h of
, ,

in d iarubber t u b in g a t tac h ed wh i c h t u be c a n ,

be c l osed wit h a pin c hc oc k D B y sucking ,

.

or blowin g d ow n t h i s t u be t h e p r es sur e o f ,

t h e ai r ins id e t h e b ott le A c an be m ad e
either less or g rea t er t h an t h e pr essur e o f

t h e ex t ernal a ir whi le t h e d i fl er en ce b etwee n

'

t h e insid e a nd ou t sid e pre ssur e c a n b e r ea d

O H on t h e m an om et er B .

Op en th e pinc hcock D so t hat t h e air

in sid e t h e bot tle tion i s i n free c om m un i c a

wit h t h e ex t ernal ai r an d m easur e t h e h eigh t ,

o f th e m er c ur y c olu m n Thi s is th e b ar o .

m et r ic h eight Then blow d own C and c los e

.

t h e pin c h c oc k D so th a t t h e pr e ssur e on t h e ,

a i r in sid e t h e b ott le i s i nc r ea sed A ga i n .

m eas u r e t h e h eight of t h e m e rc ur y c olu m n

in E a nd also t h e d i fl er ence in t h e level O f
'

t h e m er c ur y in t h e t wo b r a nc h es of t h e
m a nom e ter B Th is d iff erence gi ves t h e
.

am oun t by wh i c h t h e pr e ssur e of t h e a i r

i nsid e t h e bot tle ex c eed s t h e pr essur e O f t h e

ex t ern a l a i r A c c or d i ng t o wh a t h as b ee n
F “ 33 ( )
.

; 1
s a id o n p h ght
16
h i f
° °

53 t e e . o t h e c olum n E
,

g i v es t h e p r ess u r e t o wh i c h t h e a ir in sid e t h e bott l e i s su bj e c t e d .

H enc e t h e b arom etri c h eigh t ad d ed t o t h e di fl er ence i n leve l i n B

'

ought t o b e eq u a l t o t h e h eight of E S ee if y our ob ser va tio n s b e a r

.

ou t th i s c onc l u si on .

Repea t t h e ex peri m ent by su c k in g a ir o ut O f t h e b ot tle a nd e n t e r ,

y our r e sults in a t able a s in t h e following ex a m ple

,

Condrt of A rr H g ht fl C olu m n
'

D Ifl er ert e o f Le ve l B arome t r i c H e ig ht
i p
ei
gx
o
D ifl e r e n c e
'

B
or
i ir E il B
of Le v e l i n
o

.
 B a r om et er .
57

If your gs have been taken with care and th e cork in t h e

read in ,

bo tt le d oes not leak t h e num bers i n t h e sec ond and fourth c olum n s
l
,

wi ll b e eq ual showing th at by altering t h e pressure of t h e a i r on

,

t h e sur fac e of t h e m er c ury i n t h e b ottle A t h e h e ight of t h e c olu m n ,

o f m erc ur y E alt er s a n d t h e am ount by wh i c h it alter s i s equ al t o

,

t h e am ount by wh ic h t h e pressur e of t h e air in A i s altered .

EXERC IS E 4 7 .
—
Ej ects o f f
the in tr od ucti on o a ir , water , et c .

on th e h eig h t f
o t he ba r ometr i c colu m n .

App a r a t u s
pi pet te wi t h bent
—
w ith t h e additi on of a sm all
As in Ex er c ise 44 ,
d elivery t ub e, a nd a
su pply of eth er et c ,
.

F ill a barom eter tube and m ea sure t h e height of t h e barom etri c

,

c ol um n Th en introd uc e a ver y sm all quant ity of a ir int o th e t ube

. .

Th is m ay be a cc om plish ed by m ean s of a p iec e

of gl a ss t u b e t h e end of w
, h ic h h a s been dr awn
o u t an d b ent r ound ( see Fig D i p t h e bent .

e n d b elow t h e surfac e of t h e m er c ur y i n t h e

tr ou gh a nd intr oduce t h e point A in to t h e end O f

,

t h e t u be then gently blow at B so a s t o force a ,

sm all b ubbl e of a ir i nto t h e t ub e N ow m ea sure .

t h e h eigh t o f t h e m er c ur y c ol u m n Intr od uce .

sev er al b ubble s i n su c c ession m ea sur in g t h e

F G 34 Q )
,
I
he igh t of th e column aft er th e introd ucti on of
. . .

ea c h bu bble D escribe car efully i n your note b ook what you have
.
-

d on e a nd wh a t oc c u rs wh en ai r is i nt roduc ed ent ering t h e

, ,

m ea sur em ent s of h eight as follows

H eigh t of m er c ur y c olumn before t h e in tr od u c t ion of ai r
aft er t h e i ntr od uc t io n of Ist b u bble of a ir

z ud

A ga in fill t h e tu be w ith m erc ur y, a nd in ert over t h e v trough ,

m ea s u ri ng t h e b ar om et ri c h eigh t The n , by m eans of t h e . pi pette ,

ca r e full y intr od u c e a lit tle water i nt o t h e t ub e , a nd m ea sur e th e

hei ght m er c ur y colum n
of t h e Introd uc e m or e water , an d a ga in
.

m ea s ure t h e h eigh t of t h e c olum n A s b efor e , wr ite a d esc ri pt i on

.

of t h e ex per im e nt , i n p ar t ic ular n ot in g a ny d ifl er enc e b et w

'

ee n t h e

eff e c t o n t h e h e i ght of t h e c ol um n of t h e intr od uct ion of suc c essi e v

s m all qua nt it ie s of a ir a nd w a t er .

R e pea t , u sin g eth er in plac e of w at er In wh a t r espect s d o t h e .

A ft er com p ressi ng th e ai r i n A wat ch t h e m a nom et er B , a nd see if t h e

p re ss u re a l t e r s i f t h e m e r c u ry gra d u a lly fa ll s i t m ea ns t h e co rk is l ea ki ng .

This m ay b e rem ed ied by r unni ng m elt ed para ffin wax round t h e pl ac es

wher e t h e c ork and glass m eet .
58 The B a r om eter B oy le s L a w
’
a nd .

e ffec st prod uc ed by et her a nd by wa t er r esem ble one anot her a nd ,

i n wh a t r espec t s d o th ey d iffer ?

Th e e x peri men ts i n t h e pr e vious ex erc ise h a ve sh own th a t ,

when air is in tro duc ed i nt o t h e spac e at t h e t op of a b arom e ter

tub e t h e c olu mn O f m erc ury i s forc ed d own Sin c e t h e
, .

i nt rod uc tion of t h e air int o t h e tu b e h as not alt ered t h e

am oun t O f t h e a t m os h er ic u e t h w d e t
p p r e ss r e u p a r p ,r e ssu r a

t h e open e n d of t h e t u b e r em ain s t h e sam e Th e downwar d .

p r es su r e d u e t o t h e c o lu m n o f m e rc u r y h o w e v er i s re d uc e d
, , ,

sin c e t h e h ei h t of t h e c olum n a n d t h er efore t h e h

“ ”
g ,
ea d i s ,

r educ ed .H e n c e i t follows th at t h e air en closed in t h e t ub e

m ust be pressing on t h e u pper surfac e of t h e m erc ury c olu m n ,

an d th i s pressure serv es t o par tly coun t erb alanc e t h e a t m osp h eric

p r e ss u r e . W h e n w a t e r i s i n t r o d uc e d i n t h e sa m e w a y t h e ,

c olu mn i s red uc e d i n h ei h t t o a very mu c h gr eat er e x t en t

g
th an would be du e t o t h e mere weigh t of th e sm all quan ti ty
Of w a t er w hich h as b een introduc ed and whic h floats on t h e ,

surfac e O f t h e m erc ury T h e great e r part of t h e d epre ssion is

.

due t o t h e fac t t h at t h e wat er give s off st eam or vap our wh ic h

ex er t s a d ow nw ar d pr essu re Th is q uestio n will be furth er
.

c on sider ed w hen we are dealing with t h e subj ec t O f heat .

S E C T IO N II B OY LE S L AW
’
-
. .

EX ERC IS E 4 8 .
—
B oy le s La w
’
.

B oyl e la w t ub e on st a nd m er c u r y l
’
App ar a t u s —
s m et r e sc a e .

Y ou ar e su h a ped tube fix ed t o a ver t ic al st a nd

pplied w it h a U -
s .

Th e end A ( Fig 3 5 ) of t h e sh ort er leg of t h e t ube i s c l osed wh ile

.
,

t h e ot h er end B i s open , ,
It i s i m por tant t h a t t h e e nd A sh ould b e
.

se a l ed i n su c h a m an ne r t h at t h e end of t h e b or e i s n ot d om e sh a ped -
,

b u t fl at tened a s sh own on a n enl ar ged scal e a t E

, P our a lit t le .

clea n a n d d ry m er cur y i nt o t h e t ub e a nd by in c l i ni ng a n d s h ak i n g
,

t h e t u b e a rrange t h a t t h e m er c ur y st a nd s a t a b ou t t h e s am e h e igh t
i n e ac h lim b Mea sur e t h e h eight of t h e sur fa c e of t h e m er c ur y in
.

e a c h li m b a nd of t h e e nd of t h e bor e of t h e sh or ter l i m b a b o ve t h e
,

surfa c e of t h e st a n d T h e d i ff er e n ce b et wee n t h e h eights of t h e

.

m er c ury i n t h e t wo lim b s t oget h er wit h t h e h eight of t h e b a r om etri c

,

c ol um n giv es t h e t ot al pr essu r e t o wh i c h t h e a ir en closed i n t h e

,

sh orter li m b i s subj ec t ed Re ad t h e b ar om et er an d enter t h e h e ight

.
,
 B oy le s L a w
’
60 The B a r omet er a nd .

L aw F om th e last c olum n b
ta le
'
B oyle s .
— r

p re c e di ng ex erc i se it will be ev iden t t hat

t h e produc t btained by
m ulti pl ing t o
o y
g e t erhc orrespond ing va lu e s of t h e pre s

sure and volu me of t h e a ir is c onstan t

for suc h p essu es as have b een employed

r r

in th e experim en t . H enc e i t follows

th a t volume of a given qua ntity of
th e
a ir varies i nv ersely a s t h e ressure t o
p
whic h it is subj ec ted for if we double ,

t h e pressur e i t i s evi d en t tha t i f t h e pro

du c t P x V is t o rem ain c onstant t h e
volume must be halved Thi s c onnec .

t ion be tween t he volum e an d pressure

of ai r is c alled BO Y L E S L AW sinc e it
’
,

was disc overed by Rob er t B oyle i n 1 6 6 2 .

EXE RC IS E 4 9 To t est B oyle s L a w

’
-
.

f or p r essu r es less th a n a n a t mosp here .

S tr ai ght gla ss t u be, closed

App a r a t us —

a t one end , a nd a b out 36 i nc h e s l on g ; t all

gla ss cylh i der ; m ercury ; m etre sc ale .

In t h epr evi ous ex erc ise th e pr essur e t o

wh ic h t h e a ir was subj ec ted wa s nev er less
tha n t h e atm ospheric pr essur e or a s it is , ,

c alled a pr essur e of one a tm o sph er e

, In .

o r d er t o t est B oyle s L a w for p r e ssure s l ess

’

th an an a tm osph er e you ar e su pplied w ith

,

a str a ight gl a ss t ub e c lo sed a t one end, .

F ill th is t ube ab out t wo t hi r d s full of m er -

c u ry a nd c l osing t h e e nd w i t h t h e fi ng er
, , ,

inv er t t h e tub e and pl ac e t h e O pen end

b elow t h e surface of som e m er c ur y c on
ra i ned i n a t all gla ss c yli nd er ( Fig .

Fix t h e tub e so th a t t h e open end i s only

j u st below t h e surfa ce of t h e m er cury and ,

m e a sur e t h e h eight A B of t h e m er c u ry
Fm 36
c olum n in t h e tu b e a nd t h e length A C of
’ ’

Th e cyl inder may be pl aced on t h e fl oor and t he barom et er t ube h e ld ,

i n a ret ort stand placed on th e t abl e a long side
-
.
 ’
B oy le s La w . 61

the tub e occ upied by t h e a ir Th en low er t h e t ube so th at t h e Open

.

e nd i s a b out six i nc h es b elow t h e su r fa c e of t h e m er c ur y a nd a g a i n ,

m ea s u r e t h e h eight of t h e m er c u ry colu m n and t h e v olum e of t h e ,

ai r
. C ont inu e i n t h e sam e way t ill t h e m er c ury st a nd s a t t h e sa m e
lev el i n side a nd out sid e t h e t ub e Wh en th is i s t h e c a se t h e a ir
.
,

i nsid e i s a t t h e a t m osph er i c pre ssur e wh ile i n t h e ot h er p osit ions ,

t h e pr e ssure i s equ al t o t h e b ar om etr i c h e ight less t h e h eight of t h e

m er c u r y c olum n .

C alc ula t e t h e v alues of t h e pr od uc t P x V a nd ent er your r esult s ,

a s in t h e follow i ng ex a m ple

He ’g h w B H ig Tot a l P P XV
éafixg V
p ss u re
i
cu
a ro me t ri c e ht . o lu m e V ° '

7 6 °

2 cm

Ss c n on III .
—
GEO MET R IC R EP R ESEN TAT ION OF
V ARY IN G QUA N T IT IES .

S upp ose it is requi red t o m a ke a rec or d of t h e ex ac t p osi tion

of som e p oi n t , sa y a sm all i nk spot,-
on t h e surfac e o f yo ur

table so t hat i f a sh eet of paper were glued over t h e t op o f

,

t h e ta ble you c ould from suc h re c ord plac e a d ot o n t h e pape r

ex a c t ly o v er t h e sp ot : one m e th od w h ich c ould b e em ployed
wo uld be t o m easure t he d ista nc e of t he spot from t h e front
e d g e of t h e t ab le a n d also t h e d i st anc e from t h e le ft h a n d
,
-

ed g e . B y t h e d ist anc e b etween a point an d a line (t h e e d ge

o f t h e t a b le i s a li ne) w e m ea n t h e sh ort est di st ance b e tw
,
een

t h e p oin t a nd t h e lin e i e t h e dist anc e m ea sured along a lin e

, . .

d ra wn t hrou gh t h e poi nt perpendi c u lar t o t h e line .

P r ove by ac tual m easurem ent th at t h e sh or test d i stance between

a p oi nt a nd a line i s along t h e p er p en d i c ula r fr om t h e poi nt t o t h e

li n e
.

Th e d ista n c es of t h e p oi n t from t h e t wo edg es of t he ta ble

c om plet ely fi x t h e p osit ion o f t h e p oin t For su ppose we ar e .
 B oy le s L a w
’
62 The B a r ometer a nd .

told th at g i v en p o i nat i s 1 4 inc es fro m t h e fr ont ed e, a n d

g h
h
8 in c es fr om t h e le ft and e dg e : t en , i f a lin e i s d rawn -
h h
p arallel t o t h e fr on t e dg e o f t h e t a le , a n d a t a d i st a n c e o f b
h
1 4 inc es from i t , a ll t h e poi n ts w i c a r e 1 4 i nc es from t h e h h h
fron t edg e of t h e ta ble lie on t h is line . In t h e sam e way a ll

t h e points wh ic h lie a t a di sta nc e of 8 i nc h es from t h e le ft h an d -

edg e of t h e t a ble lie on a st raigh t li ne d raw n parallel t o t h i s

e dge at a dista n c e of 8 inc h e s from i t H enc e t h e giv en po in t .

mu st lie in both of t h ese straigh t lines and t h e only poin t wh ic h ,

li es in both t h e lines is t h e poin t where th ey c ross T h e se .

t wo distanc e s t ell u s t h ere fore exac t ly wh e re th e point lies

, ,
.

P lac e a s m al l d ot on t h e su rfa c e o f your table at t h e fo lo l w in g

p oint s
I .
30 cm . fr om t h e fr ont ed ge , a nd 15 cm . fr om t h e left h a nd
-

e dg e .

2 . 2 1 cm . fr om t h e fr ont ed ge , a nd 41 cm . fr om t h e left -
h a nd
ed ge .

Th e a b ove m et h odfi x ing t h e posit i on of a point i n a

of

p la n e,
i . e
. on a fl at sur fac e, g i vi ng i t s d iby
sta n c e from t wo

fi x ed lin es, i s of g r ea t u se . Th e t wo fi x ed li ne s, wh ic h pra c t i

c ally are al ways tak e n at r ig h t a ng les t o on e a no th e r ,
a re

c alle d t he f
a x es o co or d i na tes or sh o r-
t ly , , , the a x es . In th e
a b v
o e ex am ple s t h e a x es t a k e n are t h e fron t a nd le ft -
h a nd

edges of t h e table . Th e d ista nc e s of th e p o i n t fro m t h e a x es

are ca lle d t h e co or di na tes o f t h e poin

-
Th e point 0 ( Fig
t . .

wh ere t h e ax es OX , O Y m eet, is calle d t h e or igi n If P i s . a ny

p oin t , th e MP an d NP Sinc e P NO M
c o- or d i na e s of t P ar e .

is a rec tangle NP i s e qu al t o O M an d MP i s eq ual t o O N

, , .

H enc e MP and O M m ay be t ake n a s th e c o or dina tes of t h e

,
-

p oi n t P .

It is u sual t o c all t h e c o or dina t e O M t h e a bscissa an d t h e -

,

c o o rdinat e MP or ON t h e or d i na t e of P
-
, If we ar e t old , .

t ha t th e a bscissa of a given point is cm a n d t h e ord i na t e

cm i t m ean s t ha t star t ing from t h e origin 0 we m ust

.
, , ,

m easure along O X a d istanc e O M e q ual t o cm th en , , .

,

d raw MP perpendic ular t o O X a nd m easu re of? a d istanc e , ,

MP along t his lin e equal t o

, cm In ord er t o sa v e th e .
 Co -
or d i n a t es . 63

t ime wh ic h wo uld be spe n t i n m easu ri ng o il the dist anc e s O M

and MP an d i n ,
drawi ng t h e p er pend ic ular MP , i t is usual
wh e n a n u m er b o f point s w h
it g iven c o ord inat es -
have t o be
set o ut —
eu opera tion c alled p lo tt i ng t h e p o in t s —
t o e m ploy
c ur ve a
p p e r . Two of t h e k
da r er li ne s are c ose n h as t h e a x e s,

FIG .
37 .

a nd then O M, MP c an b e d irec tl set off

t h e dis anc es t T u s, y . h
in Fig 3 7 , star t ing from 0 , we go alon g O X , 3 d ist ance o f
. .

c m , i e p a st four of t h e dar
. . . lin es on t o t h e t ird li g t lin e k h h
bey h h
on d , an d t en u p t is lin e past t w o d ar li nes, a n d st op k
on t h e sev ent h ligh t lin e b eyond .

EXE RC IS E 5 P lott i ng p oi nts on cur ve p ap er

o —
. .

A pp a r a t u s — C ur v e p a per rul ed i n m illi m et r e squar es .

O n th e piece of curv e pa per supplied t o you ch oose t h e d ark ,

li n e ne ar est t h e b ot t om of t h e sh eet for t h e ax i s of X a nd t h e one ,

n ear est t h e l eft h a nd edg e for t h e ax i s of Y

-
N um ber t h e wh ole .

c en t i m et r e s i e t h e d ar k l in es a lon g t h e t wo ax es t a king th e
,
. .
, ,

po int wh er e t h e t wo ax es cross as z er o i n ea c h c ase ( see Fig .

Th e n plot t h e following point s m aking a sm all d ot wit h a sh ar p ,

pen c il a t t h e r equired point an d su rr ou nd ing t h is d ot w it h a sm all

,

c ir c l e a s a t Q ( Fig wher e t h e fir st point h a s been plotted

. .

O r d ina t e . Abscissa . O rd ina t e

0 cm 6
( ) 67 38
°

3
°

(7 ) 63 P4

( )
8 4
°
0

( 9) 26 O 6
 B oy le s L a w
’
64 The B a r ometer an d .

L oc i .
— In Fig 3 8 b er of points h ave b een plotted
. a num ,

th ese point s h oweve have not b een sim ply plac ed at an do m

, r, r ,

but all s t isfy a c ertai n con dit ion th t is t h ey all h e on t h e

a — a ,

sam e st raigh t line F th e i t will be found that i n eve y

. ur r, r

c ase t h e o di na t e of eac h of t h e
r oin t i q al t o t wi e t h
p s s e u c e

a b sc issa. T hus t h e ab s issa of th e poin t P is

c cm wh il e

t he ordinat e is 4 o c m.
°

FIG 38
. .

Suppose, now, we ta e any ot er poin t suc k h

t at t h e h h
b b
ordinate i s d ou le t h e a sc i ssa, say t h e p oi nt of w hi c t h e h
b
a sc issa is c m an d t h e ord inat e
. cm i t will be fou n d .

h h
t at t is point lies on the sa me straig t line as efore H en c e h b .

we see t h at t for wh ich t h e ordin ates are double t h e

all p oin s

ab scissae lie on a c ertain st raig h t line Th is line is t h er e for e

.

c alled t h e locus o f all point s for wh ic h th e ord inates are double

b
t h e a sc issae .
 L oci . 65

EXE R C IS E 5 1 ,
—
L oei .

A pp a r a t us —
Cur v pp
e a er .

W h at i s t h e locu s of all point s suc h th at t h e ordina tes ar e h alf

t h e a b sc i ssa ? To solv e thi s q uest ion t ake a n um b er of v a l ues for ,

t h e a b sc i ssa 37 t n d l l t t h
°
sa y , I0 e , c a c a c u a e e , .
,

c orr e spon d i ng ord in a t es ; t h ese wi ll be 0 t

3 e c ,
.

N ex t plot these point s on a piec e of c ur ve pa per and see if you can ,

d et ec t a ny c onnec ti o n b etw e en th em .

Wh at i s t h e locu s of all points for whic h t h e sum of t h e ab sc issa

a nd or d ina t e i s equal t o 1 0 ? ( F or e x a m ple t h e p oi nt s of wh i c h t h e ,

a b sc i ssa ar e 3 a nd 8 and th er efor e t h e or d i n a t es 1 0 d 8

, 3 a n 1 0 ,

(i e 7 a n d
. . sa t i sfy th is c ond it i on ) .

Wh at i s t h e loc us of t h e point s pl ott ed in t h e previou s ex er c i se ?

g
Al eb r a i c al R ep r es en t a t i on of L oot In t h e a ov e —
b
ex a m p le s w e see t at all point s of w i c h t h e co or dina t es fulfil h h -

c er ta i n c ondi t i ons lie on a c ert ain line (n ot n ec essari l st rai t

g ) y h
c alled t h e loc us . Sinc e t his is true for all p oin s t whic h sa t isfy
th e g i v e n c on d i tion wet ly use alge braic
,
m ay c on eni en v
n ot a t i on i n w hic h symbols are u sed instead o f c onc ret e
n u m ber s T h us if we agree t o le t x repre sent t h e ab sc issa of
.
,

an y p oi n t and y r epre sen t t h e cor r esp on di ng ordi nat e t h en t h e

, ,

fi rs t loc us c on sid ered— nam ely th at of all poin ts su c h t h a t ,

t h e ord ina t e is d oub le t h e ab sc issa m ay be represent ed by t h e —

e q u a t ion

y 2 x ;
si n c e value of x if t h e
for any , p oi n t is t o li e on t h e loc us, t h e
co rrespon ding v alue of y m u st be t wic e as g r ea t .

EXER C IS E 5 2. — L oci ( conti nued ) .

U sing x to re pr ese nt b
t h e a sc i ssa of a ny po i nt on t h e loc u s an d ,

y t h e cor r esp on di ng or d i nat e , write d own a lgebra ic ally t h e fir st t wo

loc i plott ed in Ex er ci se 5 1 .

Plot t h e followi ng loci x y x y 2.

G r a p h i c a l R ep r e sen t a t i on of B oyle s L a m
’
In —

b
Ex erc ise 4 8 you o tain ed a nu m er of c orrespond ing values b
fo r t h e pressur e and volum e of a gi ven m ass of air For .

ea c h
value of th e p ressu re t ere was one an d onl one h y
 B oy le s L a w
'
66 The B a r ometer a nd .

c orresp ondi ng value of t h e volume . Suppose we no wagree to

let di st anc es m easu red along t h e ax i s of X r epresen t th e
v olum e of t h e a ir, a nd d ist anc es m easured along t h e ax is of Y
represen t t he p ressur e t o w i c t h e a ir i h h
s su j e c t e d b . A
sui at ble scale t o em plo yi s on e on whic h 1 cm . a long the ax i s

12 33 h
V O L U ME
FIG .
39 .

of Y re
pr esen s a n t inc rease of pr e ssu re of 1 0 c m . of m erc u r y ,

an d 1 c m a long . t h e ax is of X represents an increase of volum e

of 1 c m. a long y
t h e c lind ric al t ub e . S inc e, howeve r, th e

pr e ssur e e m plo e d y i n Ex erc ise 4 8 was n ever le ss th an 7 0 cm .

of m erc ury , i t i s u n nec e ssar y t o st rt th e o di n tes at but it

a r a 0,

wi ll be suffi c ient if ,
as in Fig 39 wh e e t h e res lts g iven i n t he
.
, r u

ex am ple on p .
59 ar e p lo tt e d , we start at 7 0 . In t h e sa m e

wa y we m ay s art t b
t h e a sc issa at
9 h
. u s T the p oi0n t
c orr espo nd s t o a pressure of 7 0 c m . of m e c y r ur , a n d a v olu m e

of9 cm . of the tube . O n p lotti ng t h e p oin ts h

in t is m ann er ,
we fi nd that a sm ooth c urv e can, as s o w n i n t h e fig ure , be h
dra wn through th e p oi n t s T is. c ur v e r epr esh
en t s t h e
 B oy le s L a w
’
68 The B a r ometer a nd .

fr om c enti m et r es t o inc h es, or from in c h es t o c enti m etr es F in d , .

v
fr om t h e c ur e t h e n u m b er of c en tim etres i n 1 foot ( 1 2 and i n

4 i n c h e s A.l so t h e n u m b er of i n c h es i n I c m a nd cm . .

2 . D r aw t h e loc us x
’
y . To d o th i s g i v e x t h e v a lu e s 0 I 2
, , ,

3 4
, ,
e t c . a n
,
d c a lc u lat e t h e c or res p o n di n g v a l u e s o f y .Pl o t th e se

point s on c urve pa per and thr ough t h em d ra w a sm ooth c u rv e

, .

S h ow h ow th is c urv e m ay b e used t o find squar es and squ ar e r oo t s -

,

i ll ust r at ing y our a ns wer by ex am ples .

3 . P lot a c u r v e sh o w i ng t h e r e s ult s o f t h e m e a s ure m e n t s o f

d en sity of sa l t solu tion s m ad e i n t h e ex er c ise on p 5 2 a n d fr om .
,

you r c urve read off th e quantity of salt i n 1 00 c c of sea wat er . . .

 P A RT IV .
—
ME C H ANI C S .

EXE RC IS E 5 4 Ca li br a ti on of a sp r i ng bala nce

.
—
.

App a r a t us —
S pri n g b alanc e weight s c urve p a per .

U nh ook t h e pill b ox lid D Fig 40 wh ich form s t h e sc ale pan

-
, ,
.
,
-

of t h e sp r i ng b ala n c e a nd plac ing it in

, ,

t h e le ft h and pa n o f a n or dinar y b a l a n c e
-
,

add sh ot or t i n fo il t ill i t w e igh s ex a c tly 1 0

gramm es Fix t h e spr ing balanc e u pr ight

.

in th e c la m p of a r etor t stand so th a t wh en
-
,

th e sc ale pa n i s attac h ed t h e stri ng B C li es

-

parallel t o t h e ed ge of t h e gradua ted scale .

Take t h e re ad i ng on t h e sc ale opposite t h e

sm all kn ot A ,
whic h serves a s an index .

Th is r ea d ing gi ve s t h e position of t h e ind ex

wh en t h e sprin g i s stretch ed by a for ce
equa l t o t h e weight of 1 0 g r m s s in c e t h e .
,

sc a le pan and s h ot w e i gh 1 0 g rm s
-
Inc r e a se .

t h e str et c h i ng we ight 1 0 g r m s a t a tim e till .

,

t h e t ot al loa d i s 1 00 g r m s t ak ing i n e ac h
.,

ca se t h e r ea d in g o po si t e t h e i nd ex A
p .

Ent er y our r esu lt s in a ta ble giving t h e ,

r ea d i ng for t h e i n d ex A i n one c olum n a nd

t h e c orre spondi n g l oa d i n a sec ond c olum n ,

r e m emberi n g t o a d d 1 0 m s t t h w ight
g r o e .e s

i n t h e pa n for t h e sc ale pan and sh ot -

A l so .

plo t th e r esults on a sh eet of curv e paper ,

ta k ing th e load s a s a b sc i ssa a nd t h e re ad ,

i n g s on t h e grad ua ted sca le a s or d i na t e s .

A suitable sc a le t o a d opt is one in wh ic h

o n e centim et r e a lo ng t h e ax i s of X r e pr e

s e n t s Io g r m s a n d one c ent i m etr e a l o n g

.
,

t h e axi s of Y r e pr e se nt s 2 c m on t h e gr a d u
F
.

4 (f ) IG . 0. r
a t e d sc a le . D ra w a c urve ( in th is ca se it i s
a s traight line ) t h rou gh a ll t h e ob serv ed points and wri t e t h e ,
7 0 Mecha n ics .

n um be r of t h e balanc e alongsid e this line B y me ans of th is c ur ve .

,

whic h i s c alled a ca li br a ti on cu r ve th e stretching for c e ac tin g on ,

t h e S pr ing for a ny r ea d ing on t h e gr ad uated sc ale c an imm ed i ately

1
be r e ad off.

EXE RCIS E 5 5 . Use of sp r ing ba la nce with calibr a t ion cu r ve

t o mea sur e mass .

Appa r a t u s b alanc e calibrated i n pre vious ex er ci se

—
S pri ng .

Measure t h e m ass of t h e piece s of m etal u sed i n Ex er cise 1 8 by ,

pl a c ing th em in t h e sc ale pan of t h e spr ing b alanc e an d t aking t h e

-
,

r ea d ing on t h e d ivi d ed s ca l e Fr om th is reading by m e a ns of t h e.

,

c a l ib r a ti on c urve O bt a in t h e st ret ch ing for ce i n gr a m m es

,
Th is .

str etc h ing for c e i s t h e for c e w it h wh i c h t h e earth a ttra c ts t h e g i v en

body t ogether with t h e scale pan and t h e sh ot it c ontai ns ( t e Io

,
-
. .

He nc e by ded uc t i ng Io g r m s from t h e r eadi ng give n by

, .

t h e c ur ve t h e m ass of t h e b od y i s obta i ned

,
Ent er y our result s i n .

a t a bl e a s b elow
,

Rea d ing
'

on Sca le of
No
Bl a a nce
c orrespond ing Value ° f
g
S t re t ch i n Force o ta ine d b M ass of B dyo .

from C urve
.
.

g r m s.
g r m s.

EX E RCIS E 5 6 .
— The lever .

Appa r a t us —
B ox - wood m etr e scale ;
2
su ppor t ; bala nc e a nd

we igh t s h ot ; sm all sc ale pan

s -
.

Y o u are supplied with a b ox w ood m etre scale h a vi ng a sm all -

h ole bor ed through nea r t h e edge at t h e 5o cm division P a ss a - . .

st out sew i ng needle th r o ugh th i s h ole a nd sup port t h e nee d l e on

-
,

t wo w ood en bloc k s in t h e m a nner sh own a t A Fig 4 1 . If t h e ,

. .

sc ale d o e s n ot sw ing h ori z ont ally w eight t h e ligh t er sid e wi th t in ,

foil t ill it d oes At one end pla c e a block of wood B i n wh ic h a

.
, ,

A s t h e 5 ri n ba ance s g
i l w ll
be used in se era ex pe rim en t s, i t is a v l
g ood t in h g
to av e a ca i b ra t i on c u r e fo r eac l
ast ed o n a i ec e of ca rd v hp p
boa r d .W en m akin t ese c ur es, it i be q uite suffic ient t o t ake t h e
h g h v w ll
r eadi ng s fo r oad s o f 1 0 a nd 1 00 g rm s , and oin t h e t w
l i a ined p h
j o o nt s t u s o b t .

b y a st raig t ine h l .

p l
For e x eri m en ts o n t h e e v e r, fi ne o es about sl, i nc i n d ia m e t er i hl h w ll
b e re q u ired , bored a t e er fift cent i m e tr e m ark v y hT ese h o es sh o u d be h l l
v
.

l
o n a i ne w
i th t h e i nside end s of t he mi imet re di ision-li nes ll .
 L ever .
7I

hea d less pi n h a s b ee n fi x ed , so th a t wh e n t h e sc a le is horiz ont al

th e en d of t h e pin i s on a l ine w ith t h e t o f t h e sc ale This pin
p o .

will ser ve a s a pointer t o Sh ow when t h e scale i s horiz ontal .

A r od su pp or ted in th i s wa y form s a lev er t h e point at whi ch it ,

is su pport ed ( F ) bei ng c all ed t h e f u lcr u m a nd t h e porti ons of t h e ,

lev er on eit her sid e of t h e fulcr um t h e a r m s of t h e lever .

B y m ea ns of loop s of fi ne c ot t on h a ng a 5 0 g r m we igh t on one ,

-
.

ar m of t h e lev er a nd on t h e ot h er arm a l igh t sc ale n T h e sc a le

p a -
, .

p a n m a y b e m a d e ou t o f a p i l l b ox sus p en d e d by t
-
h r ee th r,ea d s fr o m
a sm all book m a d e ou t of a b en t i n
p .

FIG 4 1
, .

P la c e t h e 5 0 -
weight at a d i st a nc e of 20 c m f r om t hef u lcr u m
g r m . .
,

a nd t h e s c a le pa n a t a d i sta n ce of 40 c m fr om t h e ful c r u m
-
. Th en .

p u t s h o t i n t o t h e s ca le p an t ill t h
-
e le v er i s i n e q u il i b r i u m i e t i ll , . .

it b ec om e s h ori z ont al a s sh own by t h e poi nt er B

, Rem ove a nd .

weigh t h e sc ale pa n and t h e sh ot Let t h e weigh t be P gram m es

-
. .

Then a weight of P gr m s at a di st anc e of 40 c m f r om th e f u lcr u m

. . .

h a s bala nc ed a weight of 50 g rm s a t a d i st a nc e of 2 0 c m f r om t h e
. .

f u l cr u m . K ee p i n g t h e p o si t i o n of t h e 5 g
O r m w e i ght u n a l
-
t e r e d .
,

plac e t h e sc ale pan su c cessiv ely a t di st ances of 30 20 a nd 1 0 c m

-
, , .

from t h e fu lc r u m and i n ea c h c a se d et er m i ne t h e w eigh t wh i c h

°

prod u ces eq u ilibr ium Ent er you r r esult s in a t able as b elow

.
,

LE FT °
H A ND A RM RI GH HT- A ND AR M .

We igh t m from
Weigh t P
gfi fig
fr om
W .

c
.

Mom en t s Suppose .
—
a lever is in q b e u ili r iu m wh en a

weigh t W is ha ngi ng a t
, , a dist anc e C F ( Fig 4 1 ) . from t h e
7 2 Mecha n ics
fu lcrum on one si de, and a weigh t ,
P , is h angi ng at a d i stan c e ,
FD, on t h e o the r . Th e th a t tracti ng th e t wo weigh ts W
ear ,

and P e x er t s a forc e in t h e v er t ical d irec t i on on t h e lever at

,

C an d D . If th en we ta ke a s our u nit of forc e t h e forc e wit h

, ,

whic h th e eart h a ttrac ts a m ass of o ne gra m m e or in oth er , ,

word s i f we t ak e t h e weig ht of a gra m me as t h e u ni t of forc e

, ,

we shall have a forc e of W u ni t s ac ting vertically d ownward s ,

a n d t h erefore at rig h t a ngle s t o t h e le ver at C ex ac t ly c oun t er ,

balancing a forc e of P unit s ac ting d ownwards and at right

a ngles t o t h e lev er a t D Th e forc e W t en d s t o t urn t h e le ver
.

roun d t h e fu lc ru m B i n t h e o pposi te d ire c ti on t o t ha t i n w h ic h

t h e han ds of a c lock m ove or a s i t is c alled , in an an ti
, ,

c loc kw i se d irec tion T h e forc e P on t h e ot h er han d tend s t o

.
, ,

t urn t h e lev er in t h e opposi te direc t ion ( c loc k w ise ) and a s , ,

t h e lever rem ains horiz on tal we see tha t t h e ten d e nc y of t h e

,

force W t o t urn t h e lev er i n on e dir ec tion is exa c t ly c oun ter

balanc ed by th e tendenc y of t he force P t o turn t h e lever i n
t h e ot h er d irec tion Th e am ount of t h e t e nde ncy of a forc e
.

t o t urn a lev er a bout a fi x ed p o in t ( t h e fulc rum ) i s c alled t h e

moment qf thef or ce ab ou t t ha t p oin t .

In t h e prev iou s exa m ple sinc e W r em ai ne d u nal ter ed

,

t hroug hout and sinc e it was k ept at th e sam e d ist anc e from
,

t h e fu lc ru m ( 2 0 it is eviden t th at t h e m om en t of W ab ou t
t h e fulc rum F m u st ha v e b een th e sa m e t h roug h ou t Th e .

value of t he forc e P wa s c h ang ed as well as t h e d ista nc e of ,

P from t h e fulcru m sinc e h owev er in eac h c ase t h e lever wa s

, ,

i n equ ilibriu m it follows tha t t h e m om ent of P ab o ut t h e

,

fulc ru m F m u st in eac h c ase h av e b ee n e qual t o t h e m om e n t

of W ab ou t F N O w it wi ll be found that i f eac h value of P
.
,

is m ult iplied by t h e c orresponding distanc e from t h e fulc r u m ,

t h e prod uc t i s a c onsta nt a nd t hat th is produc t i s equ al t o t h e

,

p r o d u c t of W i n t o i t s d i st a n c e from t h e fulc rum T h er e fo r e .

t h e m om en t of a for c e wh ic h ac ts at r igh t a n gles t o a le ve r

, ,

a b out t h e fulcru m i s ob tai ned by m ult iply ing t h e forc e by t h e

distanc e be t ween th e poin t o f t h e lev er a t wh ich it ac ts and t h e

fulcrum .
 Momen ts .
73

EXE RC IS E 5 7 .
— Moments .

App a r a t u s previous ex erc ise

as in .

C al c ul at e t h e m om ent s of t h e for ce s P an d W about th e fu lc rum

for t h e v a l ue s o bta ined in Ex er c i se 5 6 a nd h enc e sh ow th a t t h e ,

mom en t of P a bout t h e fulc ru m i s in e ac h c ase e q ual t o t h e m om ent

of W a b ou t t h e fulcr um so th a t t h e c ond it i on for equ ilib ri um of
,

v
th e le e r i s
W
P X FD X CF .

By t h e ab ov e for m ula c alc ula t e t h e p osit ion i n wh i c h W ( 50 gr m s ) .

must b e pla ced so th at wh en t h e sc ale pan is at 40 cm fr om t h e

,
-
.

ful c ru m t h e weight of t h e sc a l e pa n a n d sh ot m ay be 2 5 g r m s
- .

Test t h e a cc urac y of your c alcul ation by m aking t h e ex p erim ent ,

plac ing W a t t h e distanc e obt ai ned by calcula tion t h e pa n at ,

40 cm and a dd in g sh ot t ill t h e leve r i s h or iz ont al th en weigh ing

.
, ,

t h e pan an d sh ot .

Find t h e weight of th e given piec e of lead by h anging it by ,

mean s of a c ott on loop fr om one a rm of t h e lever a nd m ov i ng

, ,

t h e 5 0 g r m w eight t ill t h e lev er i s h ori z ontal

- . If d is t h e d i st a n c e .

of t h e l e a d from t h e fulcru m an d I t h a t of t h e 50 g r m w eight - .

,
,

t hen

( W e ight of t h e b o d y ) x d 5 0 x 1 .

Repe a t t h e m easur em ent se v eral t im e s h anging t h e b od y at d iffer ent

,

di st a nc es fr o m t h e fulc ru m a nd enter y our result s in a t ab le as

, ,

below

Di st a n ce of W from Di sta nce of Pf rom

Calc ula t ed We ight of p
Fu lcru m . Fu lcru m .
,

EXERC IS E 5 8 Moments (conti nued)

.
-
.

Appa r at u s a s i n pr ev iou s ex er c i se .

O n t h e l eft -
h a nd a rm of t h e l ever h ang a 5 g m
o - r weight W .
, , at
a d istanc e o f 2 0 cm .
fr om t h e fulc r u m a n d a , , a t 2 0 g rm w
-
eight X .

a d ista nc e of 40 c m fr om t h e ful c r u m
. Pla c e t h e sc ale pan on t h e
.
-

rig h t h a nd a r m , a t a d ist a nc e of m f m t h f l c ru m , a nd a d d
3 0 c o e
-
r u .

v
s h o t t ill t h e l e er i s h or iz ont al We igh t h e sc al e pa n a nd sh ot , P ,
.
-
74 Mecha n i cs .

t t h e m om ent of P about th e fulc rum A lso calc ulate

a nd c a lc ula e .

t h e m om ent of t h e 50 gr m and z o grm wei ght s resp ecti vely a bout

-
.
-
.

t h e fulc rum . Ad d th ese two last m oment s togeth er and sh ow t h at ,

t h eir sum i s equal t o t h e m om e nt of P .

Re peat placi ng W a t 2 8 c m X a t 49 cm and P at 35 c m

, .
,
.
,
.

Also h ang th ree we ight s a t d iffe r ent d i sta nc es fr om t h e fulc r um

o n t h e le ft h and ar m a nd i n t h e s am e wa
-
obt a i n t h e m o m e n t of
, y
P wh en t h e lever i s h oriz ontal C alc ulate t h e sum of t h e m om en t s
.

of t h e th ree w e ight s a nd sh ow th a t th i s sum i s equ al t o t h e m om e n t

,

of P .

En ter your r esults in a t abl e si m ilar t o t h e following a dd i ng ,

t h r ee m ore c ol um n s wh en ne c ess ar y .

LE FT- H A ND ARM . R IG H H
T- D
AN A RM .

Mom en t of a R om e —
In t h e previou s ex ercise s t h e forc e s
with wh ich we h av e b een h
d ealing a v e i n eac case e e n d u e h b
to the a ttrac tion of th e e arth Si nc e this attrac tion i s alwa y s
.

e x erc ised in a vert ic al dir e c t i on an d t h e lever h as alw ,

ays b ee n

brought into a h oriz ontal positi on th e direc tion in wh ic h t h e ,

forc es h ave be en ac t ing h as always b een at righ t a ngle s t o

t h e leng th O f t h e lever ; an d we h av e foun d th a t u n der t h e se ,

c i rc u m sta nces t h e prod uc t of t h e forc e in t o t h e d ista nc e b e tw

,
een

t h e poi nt on t h e lever a t wh ic h t h e forc e i s applied an d t h e

fu lc ru m gi ves t h e m om en t of t h e force a bou t t h e fulcru m We .

h ave n ow t o invest igate wh at tak es plac e wh en th e d ire c ti o n

of t h e forc e i s not a t r ig h t a ngles t o t h e le v e r a n d t o d et er ,

m i ne h ow t h e momen t of suc h a force is t o b e m easur e d .

 7 6 Mecha n ics .

Th e lever is w ac ted
no by t wo forces each a s in th e previ ou s
on , ,

ex er c i ses a t r ight a ngles t o t h e lev er

, Take t h e r eadings of t h e .

t wo b alanc es an d by m e an s of t h e c alib r ation c urves obta in

,

t h e m a gnitud e of t h e forces and S h ow th a t t h e m om ent s a b ou t

,

t h e fulcru m ar e equ a l .

N ext keeping t h e left hand balance fix ed move t h e r igh t h and

,
-
,
-

b alanc e i nto som e position such as t h at sh own a t D B Fig 43 ,

.
,

a dj ust i ng t h e t b th t v m b k
po si i on of t h e ala n c e so a ( I) t h e le er c o es a c

t o t h e original positi on a nd ( 2 ) t h e th read lies ex a ctly along t h e ed g e

,

of t h e gra d uat ed sc ale ; wh en th i s i s so t h e ed ge of t h e sc ale w i ll p oi n t

,

d ir ec tly a t t h e pla c e wh e re t h e t h r ead i s att a ch ed t o t h e leve r A .

c a r eful st u dy of Fig 4 3 w ill h elp t o m ak e t h e ar r angem ent c lear

. .

FIG .
43 .

In th is figure MN i s t h e m et r e sc al e pivoted at F and ac ted on b y

, ,

t wo for c e s one along A C d ue t o t h e st r et ch ing of t h e spr i n g o f t h e

, ,

bala nc e C E a nd t h e oth er along B D d ue t o t h e st retc h ing of t h e

, ,

S pr i n g of t h e b a la nc e D C .

Take th e readings on t h e t wo bal a nc es a nd run a penc il along ,

t h e ed ge of t h e scale of t h e b ala nc e D G Th en re m ove t h e b ala n c e .

,
a nd pr od uc e th i s li ne t o B ; al s o d r a w a l ine FK from
t h e fu lc r um , ,

F per pe ndic ular t o G B a nd m e a sure t h e distance FK th a t i s t h e

,
—
,
p pend ic ular d istance bet ween t h e fulcrum and t h e d irec t ion o f
e r

t h e for c e a c t ing a t B Mu lt iply th is perpend icular d ist an c e by t h e

.

m ag nit ude of t h e for c e a nd i t wi ll be foun d th a t t h e r od

,
p uc t i s eq ua l
t o t h e m om ent of t h e forc e d u e t o t h e oth er b ala nc
e ac t in g a t A .
 B a la nce .
77

H en c e it follows that t h e m om ent of a forc e a b out a point i s eq ual

t o the p r od u c t of t h e forc e i nt o t h e p er p en dic ul ar d i st an ce b etw een

t h e p oi nt and t h e d ir ec t i o n or li ne of a c t i o n of t h e for c e .

R e p ea t t h e ex per i m ent keeping t h e l eft h and b ala nc e un alt er ed

,
-
,

a n d t a ki ng t h e r ight h a n d b ala nc e i nc l in ed a t d i ffe r en t an gl e s t o t h e

-

le v e r a lso t aki ng t h e point of a pplic at i on B a t d i ffer ent d i st a nc e s

,

fr o m t h e ful c r um Enter y our r esu l t s in a t abl e a s in t h e follow ing

.
,

e x a m ple

L EFT - H A ND A RM . RI GH H T- A ND A RM .

P pe r e nd icu la r P p e nd icu la r
Di b M D b M
er
Force s ta nce et we e n o me n t Force ist a nce e t we e n o me nt
W Fl m a nd of W P F u lcr u m a nd of P
Di i u cru
Di P
. . . .

re c t o n o f W . re c t i on o f .

6 8 g rm s .
30 cm . 2040 92 g r m s cm .

Th e B ala n c e —
Th e b alanc e is r eally si m ply a le ver i n
wh ic h t h e arm s are of equ al leng th th e length of t h e arm b ei ng
t h e di st anc e b etween t h e c entr e kn ife edg e an d t h e e nd k ni fe
e d ge .A ft er t h e e x perim en t s wh ic h have already b een mad e ,

i t will be e viden t t h at t h e weig h t of a b ody a nd henc e t h e mass , ,

will only b e e q ual t o t h e weigh t an d mass of t h e weigh t s

e m ploye d t o c ount erb a lanc e it if t h e t w o arm s of t h e b ala n c e

a r e o f ex ac tly e qual le ng t h It is th erefore im port a n t t o test a

.

b alan c e t o see wh et h er t h e arm s fulfi l th is c ond it ion .

EXE RC IS E 60 .
— To test th e equ a li ty i n the lengt h o f the a r ms

f
o a bala nce .

A pp a r a t u s —
weights sh ot watc h glasses
B ala nc e ; -
.

C ar efully a dj u st t h e b a la nc e by m ov ing t h e sm all n ut s fix ed t o

t h e e nd of t h e b ea m t ill t h e p oin ter c om es t o r est ex a c tly a t t h e
c e n tr e of t h e sc ale Th en plac e 1 00 g rm s in t h e left h and pan a nd
. .
-
,

a la r ge wa tc h gla ss in t h e r ight h and pan A d d sh ot and tinfoil

-
.

t o t h e w at c h glass t ill t h e p oi nt er i s a ga i n b r ought b a c k t o t h e z ero

-
.

S et t h e wat c h gla ss and it s cont ent s a sid e b eing careful n ot t o S pill

-
,

a ny of t h e sh ot P erform t h e sam e oper ation with a second wa tc h

.

g las s .N o w r em ov e t h e w e i ght s an d pla c e t h e fi r st w a t ch glas s in -

t h e left h a nd n i f t h i nt r d oes not c om e t o z er o a d d w eight s

p a e po e
-
,
 7 8 Mech a nics .

t o t h e li ghter p a n t il l it d oe s, an d let t h e weight s th us a dd ed he

x g r a mm e s .

Th e t wow t h gla sses are of ex a ctly equal w ei ght S ince wh e n

a c -
, ,

pla ced one a ft er t h e ot h er i n t h e sa me pan they ha ve counter ,

b ala nced t h e sam e weights a nd they e ac h weigh ver y near ly 1 00 ,

g r m s L e.t a a n d b b e t h e l en gth s of t h e ar m s of t h e balanc e a ,

b ei ng t h e sh orter so th at t h e w eights x h ave been a d d ed t o t h e

,

p a n a t t a c h ed t o t h e a r m a Th e n by t h e p r i n c i ple of m om ent s
.
,

(p
x b
a 1 00

b 1 00 x

1 00
So tha t t h e ratio of t h e length s of t h e arm s of t h e balanc e is
1 00 x ,

h t
t h e s or er arm bi g
e n on t h e sid e on which th e weight x h as b ee n
a d d ed .

R e p ea t t h e ex per iment , ma k i ng t h e weight of th e wa t c h -

g la sse s

80 g rm s . ea c h .

Ri d er Th e princ iple of t h e lev er is m ade use o f in ve r

.
— y
b
d elic at e alances, t o a void t h e n ec essit of u sing v er sm a ll y y
h h
weig t s, suc as m illigram m es and frac tions of a m i lligram me ,
h h
w ic , on ac count of t eir ver sm all siz e, would be diffi c ult t o h y
handle y
Th e sm allest weig t ordinaril used is a c en tigram m e
. h
Now a c entigramme weigh t when plac ed in t h e
, ,

r ight h n d pan will c o n te bal nc e a c entigram m e plac ed in

-
a ,
u r a

t h e ot h er pan If h owe ve t h e c entigramm e weigh t i nstead

.
,
r,
,

of b ei ng plac ed in t h e p n w e e h ung on t h e b m o f t h e a ,
r ea

balan e h lfway bet ween th e m iddle and end knife edges i t

c a ,

wo ld prod c e th e s m e tu ning moment as a weig h t o f h lf

u u a r a

a c en tigram me or 5 m illigram m es plac ed in t h e pan t e a t

, , , . .

t wic e t h e d istanc e from t h e fulcrum In the sam e way wh en .

,

h ung on th e b eam at a distanc e of one tent h O f t he lengt h of -

t h e arm of th e balanc e fro m t h e c ent ral k nife e dg e t h e c en ti ,

a mm e w ill only produc e t h e sam e effec t as one m illigram m e

g r

i e on e t ent h of 1 cg ) plac ed in t h e pan T h us in st ead o f

( . .
-
. .
,

h aving separate weights for th e purpose t he m illigramme s and ,

frac tions of a milli gram me are ob ta ined by sliding a pie c e of

wir e h aving a mass of g r m e t c c alle d a r i der Fi
( g .
, .
, .
 Measu r em en t of A ng les .
79

along t he beam, whic h i s gra duated so that t h e posi ion of t h e t

rider ca n be read O ff.

EXE RC IS E 6 1 . Use of a r i d er .

App a r a t u s b alan ce with d ivid ed b eam ; set of

C h em i c al
gra m m e w e i ght s an d c e nt i g r am m e r i d er p i e c es of m et a l .

Th e b a la n c e w it h wh ic h you are prov ided for th i s ex er c ise i s m or e

sensit i v e t h an t h e one sh o wn i n Fig I 2 a nd i s i nt en d ed for d et er m in
.
,

ing th e m a ss of a sm all b ody t o w it h in on e t enth of a m illigram m e -

.

Being c ar e ful t o ob se rve t h e r ule s gi v en on p 2 2 a d d .

,

weight s t o t h e r igh t h a nd pan of t h e b ala nc e t ill t h e

-

additi on of a n ot h er c en t ig r a m m e w ould c au se t h e r i gh t

hand pan t o b e t h e h ea vier Th en c lose t h e gla ss front

.

of t h e b a la n ce c a se a n d m ov e t h e r id er by m ea n s of
,

the S li d i n g a r m pr ov id e d for t h e pu r pose t ill t h e b ala nc e ,

is in exa c t e q u il ib r ium Re a d 0 6 t h e m a ss of t h e w eigh t s

.

F 44
in t h e pa n wh ic h w i ll giv e t h e m a ss of t h e b od y t o t h e
IG . .

nearest c e n t ig r a m m e a nd obt a i n t h e m illi gr a m m e s a n d t enth s of

a mil li gr a m m e from t h e p osit ion of t h e ri d er .

Me a su r em en t of An le s g .
—
In t h e su b eqs ue n t ex erc i ses,

it will oft en be nec e ssar y to me a su re t h e inc lina tion of one lin e

to an o t h er , or t h e a ngle inc lud ed b etween t wo lines . Th e un i t

comm onl y employ ed fo r

measu ring angle s is

called a d egree, an d is
the nin e t ie t h O f a r ig ht
angle. Eac h d egre e i s
su bdivided in t o 60 x
minu tes, and eac h
minute i nto 6 0 se c on d s .

It is usu al t o i ndic at e
degrees, m inu tes, an d FIG .
45 .

seconds by ym bols
th e s
respe c t ive ly ; t hus an angle of 2 d egr ee s, 3 4 m inu tes,
"
writte n 2 34 2 1
’
w
°
2 1 sec on ds, ould be
Supp os e w e ta k e a r o d ( O M Fig p i v o t,
e d a t .o n e en d ,

t
0 and (s ar g
,
t i n w i t h i t ly i n g along t h e lin e X '
X ) t ur n i t in a n

anti c loc k w
-
ise d ir e c t io n (p 7 ) 2 t h en w. h e n t h e r o d r,e ac h es
80 Mecha ni cs .

O M , it will have
been turned through an ngle o f
'
t h e posi ion t a

90
°
i f we turning the rod th en wh en it rea h es t h e
c on t inue ,
c

O M i t will have been t urned th o g h n angle o f

"
p o si t i on ,
r u a

The r od n o wagai n lie s in t h e line XX '

, but it will b e
see n th at wh ile at fi rst t h e arrowat th e end of t h e rod pointe d
,

t o t h e righ t i t now p oi n ts t o t h e left and t h u s a r o ta t ion o f

, ,

t h e rod t hroug h a n angle of 1 80 is e quivalent t o turning it

°

end for e nd C onti nu ing t h e t urn ing wh en t h e rod reac h e s

.
,

t he posit ion O M it w ill h ave t urned through an angle of 2 7 0

"
' °

an d wh en it arri ves b ac k i n i t s origi nal posit ion O M i t wi ll , ,

have turned through

EXE RC IS E 6 2. — Measur ement cf a ng les with th e pr otr act or

Appa r at us Pr otra ctor

— 1
c ard wit h th ree let t er ed tri angle s
( q
e u i l a t er al,
i sosc eles ,
s c a le np en cil pa per a nd r uler
e) ,
.

Th e pr otr ac tor with whi c h you a re su ppli ed c on si st s of a sem i ,

c ir c ular p iec e of c ar d b oar d ( A B C Fig 46 ) wit h t h e d egr ee s m ar k ed

,
.

r ou nd t h e c urved ed ge Th e c entr e of t h e c ircle of wh ic h t h e c ur v e d

.

e d ge i s a p ar t i s a t t h e point 0 wh er e t h e line B O c ut s t h e str a igh t

,

ed ge of t h e p rot r a c tor .

FIG .
46 .

D ra w on a sheet of pa per t wo lines O X O P inclined t o one , ,

anot h er and m eeti ng a t 0

, T o m e a sure t h e a ngle X O P i n clu d ed
.

between t h e lines O X O P pla c e th e protrac tor in t h e position sh own

, ,

i n th e fig ur e wit h t h e c en tr e over t h e p oint 0 a nd t h e st r a ight ed ge ,

A C a long t h e line O X Th en t h e r eadi ng on t h e c irc ul a r ed ge

.

wh ere it is cut by th e line O P gives t h e a ngle b etween O X a nd O P .

S ui tabl e prot rac tors ca n b e b t a ined m ade of celluloid o ca n b e

W
o , r

m o f thin m illboar d by c u t t ing s d i rde d c ircle 6 inches i n d ia m e te

v , r,
 Gr aph ic R epr esen t a t ion o f For ces . 1

Measur e in t h i s wa y
h of t h e angles of th e thr ee t riangles
ea c

sup p li ed t o you For ea c h tr i an gle add t h e three a ngles t oget her

.
,

a n d see if you c an fi n d a ny gener a l r ule for givin g t h e valu e of t h e

sum of t h e thr ee an gle s of an t i a n gl e

y r .

If you ar e r eq u ir ed t o dra w t wo li ne s in clined at a gi ve n a ngl e ,

sa y 4 5 d egr ee s : dr a w a ny str ai ght lin e a n d t a k e som e po i nt 0 on it

, , , .

Pla c e t h e pr otr a c t or wi th it s centre at O and i t s straight ed ge lying ,

a lon g t h e li ne Then wit h a pin pri c k a h ole in t h e pa per exa ctly

.
, ,

o pp osi t e t h e e nd of t h e 4 5 d ivi si on line Rem ove t h e protr a c tor

°
.
,

and j oi n 0 t o t h e pi n h ole Th e t wo lines th us obta in ed will b e

-
.

incli ned a t a n a n gle of 4 D ra w st ra i h lines incli ned t o one

an ot h er a t t h e followi ng an gles 60
g t o °

Th G r a p h i c R e p r es en t a t i on o f For c e s
e Is ord er .
—

y
t o c om plet el defi ne a forc e a c ti ng on a od , we r e qu ir e t o b y
k h
no w t r ee t hi ngs : ( 1 ) t h e poi n t a t w ic t h e forc e act s , or h h
t he po i nt of a ppli ca t i on of t h e force ; ( 2 ) t h e d irec t io n in
whi c h t h e force a c s, t an d 3) t h e m agni tu de of t h e fo rce .

Th u s, in t h e case of t h e fo rce e x er ed t by the spring bala nce

DG F
( g 4 3)
i . on t h e lev er, t h e poin t of applica t ion of th e
for c e i s atwhe re t h e
B, st ri ng is a tt ac hed t o t h e le er, t h e v
d ir ec t ion i n wh ic h th e forc e act s is alo ng t his string an d

towards t h e spring wh ile , t

t h e m agni u d e of t h e forc e is gi en v
by t h e read ing on th e scale of th e sp ing balance r .

If from t h e po in t of applicat i on o f a forc e we d rawa strai g t h

h h
lin e In t h e di r ec t ion i n w ic t h e forc e ac ts, and if we ma e k
t hi s line as m an y u n i s of t lengt h long as there are units of force
in t he gi ve n forc e, t h en
th is stra ig t lin e h wi ll
com p letely r epr esen t t he

g i v e n force .

If at t he p o i n t 0
Fi
( g . th er e is a forc e F“ 41 , .

o f 1 0 unit s ac t ing in t h e

d i re c ti on O X t h en ta k i ng 1 c m t o r epresent a uni t O f forc e

,
.
,

t h e line O M will represent t h e forc e In or d er t o i n di ca te .

t h a t t h e forc e is ac ting from O t o M and not from M t o 0 , ,

a n arrow h ead i s u sua lly plac e d at t h e en d O f t h e line rept e

-

s e nt i ng t h e forc e po in ti ng i n t h e d irec ti on in w
,
hic h t h e force
G
82 Mecha ni cs .

is ac ting . Now ,
su ppose t h at i n ad di tion t o the forc e O M
th ere is ano th er forc e, ON of 7 t
u ni s also ac ting at 0, so

t h at t h e angle NO M is 4 5 Th e forc e O M t ends t o m ove

t h e poin t 0 in t h e d irec t ion O M, w ile t h e force ON t en d s t o
h
m ove t h e point 0 in t h e direc ti on ON ence , w e n ot th e h h b h
forc e s ac t si multa neousl , sinc e t h e p oin t 0 ca nnot m ove in y
tw o direc ti ons at t h e sam e t ime , if 0 were free it would m ov e ,

u n der th e i nfl u enc e of the t wo forc e s, in som e dire c tion

between O M ON Let O R be t hi s direc ti on A forc e
a nd . .

ac t ing along O R w ou ld also m ove t h e p oint 0 i n t h e d ire c ti on

O R so t h at by ta k ing t h is forc e O R of a su it able m agnitu d e

,

we c ould arrange t hat it sh ould produc e when ac ting alone t h e

sa m e eff ec t a s i s prod uc e d by t h e t wo forc es O M ON a c t ing ,

togeth er This forc e whic h would produ c e t h e same eflect on

'

O a s t h e t wo forc es O M ON is c alled th e r esultant of t h e t wo ,

forc es .

Le t O R ( Fig 4 8) repr esent t h e r esultan t of t h e two forc e s

.

O M, O N, so t at i f t h e line R0 i s produc ed t o R , O R eing

h b
' ’

e qu al t o O R t en O R '
h
R will represent a forc e
ac t ing at 0 e qual i n
magn itude t o O R bu t ,

ac ti ng i n an opposi t e
d irec tion H enc e t h e
.

tw
'
o forc es O R, OR
FLG 48
O .

tly n eu traliz e e ac h
ex ac

o t h er or ar e i n e u
,
q i li b ri u m B u t by s u pp . o si t io n O R p r o d u c e s

t h e sam e efl ec t as O
'

M a n d ON t h e r e f o r e t h,
e t h r e e fo r c e s O M ,

O N O R wil b
,
'
l e in e q u i l ib r iu m I n o r d e r .t h en t o fi n d
, by e x,

p e ri m ent t h e r e su l t a n t o f t w o g i v e n f o r c e s w e fi n d a t h
,
ir d fo r c e ,

O R w ic
’ h ,
h t o g e t h e
,
r w it h t h e t w o g i v e n f o r c es O M ON p r o , ,

q
d u ce s e u ili b r iu m t h e n t h e ,
re s u lt a n t o f t h e t w o g i ve n fo rc es i s
'
q
e u al in m agnit u de bu t O pp o si t e i n d ir e c t i o n t o t h i s fo rc e O R .

EXE RC IS E 63 .
— To fi nd th e r es ulta nt qf two f or ces act i ng a t

a oi nt.
p
Appa r a t u s — Three spring balanc es t
c ar ri d ge pa per ; pr o

t r a ct or .
84 Mecha nics .

t h r ou g h t th
t h e po in of i nt er sec t ion of t h e o er li nes T h e d ire ct ion .

of t h e resultan of t h e t wo forc es i s alon

t g this line O R ( Fig a nd .

t h e m agn itud e of t h e r e sult ant i s gi ve n by t h e r ead i ng on t h e b ala n c e .

From 0 m easure ofl th e leng th s O M O N OR proportional t o t h e

'

, , ,

t wo force s a nd t h e resultan t A c onv enient sc ale t o ad opt i s t o t ake

.
,

o ne c ent im etr e t o r epr esent a for ce equal t o t h e wei ght of 5 g rm s .

Th e t h r ee lines O M O N a nd O R w ill now represent i n m a g nitud e

, ,

and d i r ec t ion t h e t w o given for ce s a nd t h e r esult a nt Thr ough t h e .

t wo poi nt s M a nd N dr a w li nes MR a nd NR par all el t o ON a nd

" "

O M r espectively m eet ing at t h e poi nt R

"
,
If t h e ex per i m ent h as .

"
been c arefully perform ed it wi ll b e found th at R a nd R are t h e
,

sa m e poi nt F r om th is we see t h at t o gra ph ically obt ain t h e resu l

.
,

t ant of t wo forces a ct ing at a p oint str aight lines m u st be dr awn ,

t h r ou gh t h e ex trem it i es of t h e str a ight li nes r eprese nt ing t h e for ce s ,

so a s t o form w it h th ese li nes a pa r all elogr am Th en t h e d iagonal .

o f th i s p ar allelogr am d r a w n t h r ough t h e p oi nt of a ppli c a tion of t h e

for ces will represent t h e r esultant both i n m agni tud e a nd d ir ecti on .

Th is pr oposition i s called t h e pa r a llelog r a m of f or ces .

F ind by ex perim ent t h e resultant of t h e following pai rs of for ces ,

a nd c h eck y our r esult s by c onst ruc ti ng t h e parallelogr am o f for c es ,

a n d m e a sur ing t h e d iagon a l .

Fi F F Angle included be t wee n t he

rst orce . S eeond o r ce .
D i re ct i ons of t he Forces .

50 g rms .
40 g r ms

4° n

Tr i a n le g of For c e s .
— If three forc es acting at a p oint
c an be r epresen e d t in m ag nitu de and way o f ac t ion by t h e

t hree sides Of a triang le taken in order , th ey will be in

e quilib ri um .

L et A B C Fi 0triangle ; from a point 0 d raw

( g 5 ) be . a , ,

t hree straigh t lines O P parallel a nd e qual t o A B O Q paralle l ,

and e qual t o B C an d O R p arallel and eq ual t o C A

, T h en .

t h e ab ove enunc ia t ion st at es t h at t h e th ree forc es r epresen t ed

by O P O Q and O R wi ll be i n equilibri um
, , Th i s propo sition .

is c alle d t h e tr i angle ff
o or ces .
 Tr ia ng le f
o For ces . 85

EXERC IS E 6 4 — Tr i ang le of f or ces . .

Appa r a t us a s in pr evious ex er c ise .

P in heet of c ar tridge pa per d own on t h e t op of th e table and

a s
,

on i t d r a w a ny tr ia ngle A B C l
Me asur e t h e le ngt hs of t h e sid es.

of th i s t r iangle .

Through a ny point 0 on t h e pa per d ra w a line O P par allel t o

, , , ,

AB a n d in t h e sam e directi on as A B th at is t h e direction from O

, ,

t o P is t h e sam e as t h e direc t ion fr om A t o B Also dr a w li ne s .

O Q O R p ar allel t o and in t h e sa m e direc t ion as B C a nd C A

,

r e spe c ti vely Th en pa ss a pin th r ough t h e ri ng att a c hed t o t hree

.

S prin g b ala n ces a s in t h e la st ex e r c i se and fix th is i n i n t t h

, p o e ,

table at 0 Adj ust t h e three S pring b alances along t h e three lines

.

O P O Q and O R so th at th e r ea dings on th eir scales are eq ual t o

, , ,

FIG .
50 .

t h e for c es r e resen ed p
t by t h e length s of t h e corr espondi ng sid es of
t h e tri an gl e re sp ec tively Thus t h e r ea d i ng on t h e balan c e lying
.

alon g O P m ust b e eq ual t o t h e for c e r epr e sent ed by t h e S id e A B ,

a n d so on Yo u h ave nowt h r ee for c es ac t ing on t h e ri ng a t t a ch ed

.

t o t h e b ala nce s wh i c h a r e re pr ese nt ed in m agnit ude an d d ir e c

,

t i on or wa y of a ct ion by t h e th r ee S id e s of t h e t ri a ngle A B C
, , .

If t h en t h e t r i an gle of for c es i s t r ue th ese for c es ought t o be in

, , ,

equ il i b r iu m T o t est th i s r e m ov e t h e p i n wh i c h h as h eld t h e r ing

.
,

fix ed ; if t h e r ing d oes not m ove it m ean s th at t h e for ces ar e in ,

eq u il i b r i u m .

R e pea t t h e ex per im ent for t ria ngl es of va r io us sh a pes .

A lso S h ow t h a t t h e p r oposition h ol d s for ea c h p a ir of f or c es and

t h e ir r e su lt a nt r ever sed i n d ir ec t ion wh i c h w er e foun d t o g iv e equ i
li b r i um i n Ex er c ise 6 3 .

! f 1 cm i s o in. g g
t o b e t aken t o re resent a force eq ua t o t h e p l
w e ig h t o f 5 g rm s , t e n, S ince t h e s ri n
. h
a a nces on m e asu re up t o p gbl ly
y l
1 00 g r m s , i t is necessa r t h at th e ong est sid e o f t is t ria ng e s o u d b e
. h l h l
le ss t h a n 2 0 c m .
86 Mecha ni cs .

EXE RC IS E 65 .
— R esultant f
o t wo p a r a llel f or ces, when th e
f or ces act i n the sa me di r ection .

Appa r a t us —
B alan c e ; m etr e sc ale, e t c ., used in Ex er cise 5 6 .

S u spend t h e m et r e sc ale used as a lever in Ex er c ise 5 6 fr om t h e

st irru p c arryin g t h e left h and a n f t h b l n by m ean s of a
p o e a a ce
-
,

need l e p as sing thr ough t h e h ole m a d e at t h e

5 0 c m di i si on, an d . v
d ouble Ioop of cott on, in t h e m ann er h own in Fig 5 2 T o m ak e
‘

a s . .

suc h a d ouble loop ( I) d ouble a b ou t ,

6 in ch es of t h e c ott on b ac k o n it self ,

a s a t A Fi
g 5 1 ( 2 ) a g a i n d o u
,
b le .

back t hi s porti on B ; ( 3) t reat ing ,

t h ese four str a nd s of c ot t on as a

single stri ng t i e a single kn ot C a s , , ,

far fr om t h e end as possible Th e .

fini shed knot opened out i s shown , ,

at D S uc h a double kn ot will b e
.

frequently r equired wh en it i s a cc es
s ar y t o sus pend a r od sh a ped b od y -

fr om a sin gle t hr ead .

T h e r ea son t h e c otton a t t h e t op
i s not sim ply loope d over t h e h ook
wh ic h c arries t h e stirr up for t h e
sc a l e pa n i s th a t i f th i s i s d one one
-
, ,

i s v er y liable t o pull t h e b ala n c e

beam r ight over while in t h e ,

a rr a ngem ent a d o pted t h e sc a le p an -

r est in g on t h e b ase of t h e b ala n c e

prev ent s t h is h a ppening .

P la c e sh ot in t h e r ight h and pa n -

of t h e b ala n c e t ill t h e w eigh t of t h e

lever is ex actly c ounter poised Th en .

Fm s . t o h a ng a 2 0 g r m weigh t by a loop o f -
.

c ot t on a t a d ist a n c e of 30 c m fr om .

t h e fulcru m . Th e fulcru m a s before i s t h e needle b u t in stea d o f

, , , ,

b eing supported on wood en blocks i t i s i n th is ca se h ung by a ,

t h r ea d. On t h e oth er ar m of t h e lever a nd at a dista nce of 40 c m ,

.

from t h e fulcrum h a ng t h e sm all sca le pa n used in Ex erc ise 5 6 a n d

,
-
,

a d d sh ot t ill t h e le ver i s i n e uilib ri um i e h or iz on tal A p i n fi x ed

q , . . .

i n a block of w ood c a n a s b efore be used a s a n i nd ex t o S h ow

, ,

wh en th e lever is h oriz ontal .

Leavin g t h e 20 grm weight and t h e sc ale pan c ontai n ing t h e

- .
-

sh ot in pla ce add w , eight s t o t h e r ig ht h and pan of t h e b alance t ill -

88 Mecha nics .

dist an c es from t h e fulc rum , a nd , keepi ng

value of P t h e sam e t he

(t.e .n ot alt er i ng t h e q ua n t i t y of sh ot i n t h e s c ale p )

a n s h ow t h a t t h e -
,

fir st of t h e a b ove rela t ion s h old s ; c om p ar e p 7 3 ; also sh ow th at .

R i s c onst a nt .

Rep ea t t h e ex pe rim ent wi t h d i ffer ent v alues for P by u sing ,

d i fl erent q u a ntiti es of sh ot in t h e sc ale p an Ent er y our r esult s i n

'

- .

eith er c a se i n a t a ble a s b elow

W X BC . P -l- W .

C en t r e of Gr a v i t y , or Ma ss C en t r e —
In t h e pre vi ous
ex erc ise we h ave see n tha t ,
if t h e re are two p a rallel for c e s,
P
an d W ,
ac ti ng at A a nd C ( Fig . t hen t hey p rodu c e the
sa m e effec t a s a single force equal t o
P W ac ting a t a point B , suc h t ha t

P x AB = W > < B C If t h ere is a .

th ird pa rallel force Q ac ting at D th en , , ,

we can suppose t h e forc es P and W

r e lace d
p by t h e i r resulta nt P W
ac t ing a t B an d t h e n we h a ve t w
, o

p a r alle l for ce s o ne a for c —

e P W , ,

ac ting a t B a nd t h e o t h er a forc e Q
, , ,

a c t ing a t D Th e re sult an t of th e se t wo
.

forc es will be a forc e o f P W Q

w
,

V
ac ti ng at a poin t E su c h t h a t ( P , W) ,

x BE Q x ED .

We m ig ht i n th is way proc ee d for

any n um be of p
r a rallel forc es, an d oh

tain in e very case a si ngle forc e w hich wo uld be t h e r esul ant t

of all t h e pa r allel forc es .

N ow a ,
b ody m ay be c on si de red a s m ad e u p of a v ery large
nu m be tic les eac h of th ese particles b e ing pulled
r of sm a ll p a r ,

down wards by t h e attrac t ion of th e ear th Thus we ha ve a .

nu m b er of parallel forc es an d t h e sum of all t h e se forc e s i s

,
 Cen t r e of Gr a v i ty . 89

wha t we c all t h e bod weigh t

From what h as b een of t h e y
.

b b
sai d a ov e a out t h e re sultan t of a n um ber of p rallel forc es a ,

h h
i t will be e vi dent t a t t e re i s a single res lt nt t o all th e se u a

p arallel forc es Ind epende nt proof of

. thi s f t is obt ine d ac a

wh en we suspend a b ody by ing l string for in th i s ase t h e a s e ,

c

only p war du fo e i t h ll f t
rc h t i n t i n v t i lly
s e pu o e s r g a c g er ca

upw ard s and t h is si ngle forc e m ust i f t h e b od y i s in e q uili b i m

, r u
, ,

be e qual and t t t of all t h e pa rallel forc es

opposi e t o t h e re sul an

which m ak e up t h e weigh t of t h e b ody .

It i s found that not only is t h ere a si ng le resu lt ant of all

,

t h e d ownwar d par allel forc es d ue t o t h e a tt ra c t ion o f t h e eart h

o n t h e par tic les of a b ody b ut t ha t t h is re sultan t a e t h h
p s s s ,ro u g
a ce rt ai n fix ed po int n o m a tt er w ha t th e position of t h e b ody
,

m ay be This point i s called t h e centr e of g r a vity or ma ss

.

centr e of the b ody .

EXE RC IS E 6 6 .
—
To fi nd th e cent r e of g r a v i g' of a fl a t sheet

of ca r dboa r d .

A ppa r a t us P iece of t hick c ardb oar d plum b bob c ott on

- -
.

Mak e a n ea t r ound h ole with a la rge pin n ear t h e edge of t h e

s h eet of c ar d b oar d su ppli ed t o you a nd h a n g it fro m a fi n e p in ,

passed throug h t hi s h ole and fix ed h or izontally i nto th e ed ge of t h e

t a ble so t h at t h e sheet of c a rd c a n sw i ng fr eely
, .

W h en t h e c ar d is at r est t h e r esulta nt of all t h e for ces acting on

t h e p ar t icles of wh i c h t h e c ar d i s c om p osed m u st pa ss t h r ough t h e

p i n
,
b e c au se t h e only u pwar d forc e a c t ing an d k eepi ng t h e bod y

in equilibr iu m i s t h e u p war d pr essur e of t h e pin on t h e t op of t h e

h ole i n t h e c a rd S inc e t h e resultant for c e due t o t h e weight of t h e
.

b od y m u st a ct vertically d ownward s if we dra w a vert ic al line on ,

t h e c ar d thr ough t h e ce nt r e of t h e pi n th i s li ne w ill r epr esent t h e ,

d i rec t i on of t h e result ant wh en t h e car d i s in th is posit ion In or d er .

t o d r aw th i s v ert ic a l line h a ng a sm all m etal b a ll by a pi ec e of

,

c ott on fr om t h e pin for m ing a p lu m b li ne a nd m ar k on t h e lower

,
-
,

ed ge of t h e c ar d wh er e t h e plu m b lin e c ut s t h i s ed ge A s it i s
- .

d i fli c ult t o m ak e su c h a m ar k w i t h ou t i nt erfer ing w ith t h e h a ng o f

t h e c ar d a nd plu m b li ne h avi ng n ot ed t h e a ppr ox im a te p osit i on of
-
,

t h e pla ce wh er e t h e plum b lin e c ut s t h e lower ed ge m a ke a series

-
,

of m arks along t h e edge ab ou t I m m a p art th u s form i ng a sm all .

,

s c ale . Then note ex a c t ly wh ere t h e pl um b line c ut s th is sc ale

'
-
,

being p art ic ularly c ar eful t o let t h e plum b line hang qu it e c l ose t o -

90 Mecha n ics .

t h e surfa c e of t h e c ar d , a nd to pla c e t h e eye in a line pa ssing thr ough

th e plum b line -
per pend ic ular t o t h e surface of th e c ard for a
, a nd ,

s imilar r ea son t o th a t d i sc uss ed w ith r eferenc e t o t h e m ea sur em ent

of a len gth w ith a sc ale ( p Rem ove th e card fr om t h e pin an d

.
,

wi th a shar p point ed penc il dr a w a line on t h e surfa c e of t h e c ar d

-

j oining t h e point wher e t h e plum b line cuts t h e lower ed ge of th e -

c ar d an d t h e c ent re of t h e i n h ole
p
-
.

R epea t t h e proc ess h a nging t h e c ar d from fou r or fiv e di fferent

,

point s in each c ase d r aw ing a lin e on t h e surfac e of t h e c ar d t o

,

i ndi c at e t h e posit ion of t h e plum b l ine It will b e fou nd th a t all -

.

th ese lines intersect at a single poi nt If t h e card h ad no th ickness .

this point of intersection w ould b e t h e cent re of gr avity A s t he .

c a rd h a s th i ckness t h e c e nt r e of gr av ity i s i f t h e c ar d is q uit e

, ,

flat a nd unifor m i m m ed ia tely beneath th is point and h alfw a y

,

between t h e front and ba ck surfac es S upport t h e c ard on t h e .

point of a pin plac ed at t h e point of intersect ion of t h e lines ;

it w ill b e found th at t h e c ar d b alanc es in a hor iz ontal posit ion ,

sh ow in g th a t t h e c ent re of gr av ity i s i mm ed iately ab ove t h e point

Of th e p in .

EXE RC IS E 6 7 .
—
To fi nd th e centr e qf g r a vi tyfo a sheet f
o

ca r dboa r d by balancing .

Take th e sheet of car dboar d u sed i n t h e previous ex erc ise a nd , ,

lay in g i t fl at on t h e t able w i t h t h e sid e on wh ic h t h e li nes wer e

d r a wn in th e previous ex er c ise upper m ost c arefully push it over ,

t h e ed ge of t h e ta ble t ill it j ust b ala n c es on t h e ed ge H old t h e .

c a r d i n th i s posi tion and d r a w a sh a rp p oint ed p enc il along t h e

,
-

u nd er su rfa ce of t h e c ar d u si n g t h e ed ge of t h e t able a s a ruler

,
.

Whe n t h e c ard b alances on t h e edge t h e centre of g ravity m ust li e ,

v ert ic ally over t h e edge ; for t h e weight of t h e c ar d whic h by ,

d e fi ni t ion ac t s th r ough t h e c ent r e o f grav ity m ust a ct in a d ir ect io n ,

pa ssing t hr ough t h e edge oth er wise t h e weight would h ave a ,

m om ent ( see p 7 2 ) round t h e ed ge a nd c ause t h e c ar d t o t ur n

. .

N ow t ur n t h e card into som e ot h er position and r epeat t h e ex per i ,

m ent . T h e p oint wh ere t h e t wo l i n es obt a ined int er sec t will b e

t h e c en tr e of gr a vity for by wh at h a s j ust b een sai d t h e ce ntr e
, ,

of g r a v it y m ust lie i n bot h t h e lin es Repeat w it h t h e c ar d i n .

t wo or t hr ee ot h er p osi t i on s and S h ow th a t all t h e li n es pa ss

,

t hr ough a S i ngle poi nt P a ss a pin th rough t h e c ar d and see

.
,

h ow t h e p oint th us fou nd agr ees w ith tha t found in t h e pr evi ou s

ex erc i se .
92 Mecha nics .

W and P, applied t h en W x D F
at D a ndE r espec ti vely ,
Q x F C P x E F e q u ili b r i u m t h e sinc e , if t h er e i s ,

m om ent of t h e forc e W ab ou t t h e fulc rum F m ust be equal

and O pposi t e t o t h e sum of t h e mom e nt s of P and Q se e
( p .

EXE RC IS E 6 9 .
—
L ev er .

Appar a t us —
A s in Ex er c i se 5 6 .

D eter m ine by act ual weigh ing t h e weight ( Q) of t h e m etre sc ale

, ,

used a s a le v er i n t h e pr e vio u s ex er c ise s Then support t h e le ver .

on t wo wood e n blo c ks by m ea n s of a needle p a ssed th r ough t h e ,

hole at c m fr om t h e e nd . Place about 1 00 g rm s of shot in t h e . .

sc ale pa n u se d i n Ex er c i se 5 6 a nd weigh ; let t h e w

-
e ight b e W ,
.

H a ng a ao g r m we igh t ( P ) by m ea ns of a loop of c ott on on t h e

- .

longer arm and t h e sc ale pan on t h e short er arm

,
-
.

S e t t h e sc ale pa n a t a d ist a n ce of 30 c m fro m t h e fulc ru m , and

-
.

v
m o e t h e 20 gr m w ght t
ei -
v h z
ill t h e le er i s ori ont a
. l C alc ula t e t h e .

m om ent o f W a b ou t F a nd t h e sum of t h e m om ent s of P an d Q,

ab out F a nd S h ow t h at t h e se are eq ual

,
Re pea t pla c ing W a t .
,

d iff er ent d ist an ce s fr om t h e fu lc rum also u sing d i fferent values fo r ,

W Aga in suppor t t h e lever a t d ifferent d ist a nces from t h e end

.
,

a n d r e pea t Enter your r esult s in a t a ble a s b elow m ak i ng a

.
,

letter ed sketc h o f t h e arr a ngem ent em ploye d .

W . DE . FC .
Q X FC . P . FE . P X FE .
Q X FC -- P
l X FE .

EXE RC IS E 7 0 .
—
Indir ect deter mi na ti on f
o the weigh t of a

App a r a t us prev ious ex er c ise

—
A s in .

S et u p t h e leve r a s i n t h e p rev ious ex e r c ise w it h t h e fulcr um at ,

1 0 c m fr om on e e nd
. H a ng t h e sc ale pa n fr om t h e shor t er a r m
.
-

a nd a s far fr o m t h e fulc rum a s p ossible s a y a t cm Pla c e sh ot , .

in t h e sc ale pan t ill t h e lever i s h oriz ont a l

- Re move t h e sca le pa n .
-
,

an d w e igh let t h e w eigh t b e W The n .

Wx Q 4
x 0 .

where Q is t h e w eight of t h e lever ; Since t h e t urning m omen t of

 Incli ned P la ne .
93

th e weigh t W is equal t o t h e t ur ni ng m om ent of t h e weight of t h e

le ver a ct i ng at t h e c ent r e of g r av it y wh ic h i s at t h e 50 c m d ivi si on . .

40
R ep ea t t h e ex per i ment supporting t h e
,
le v er at 1 0 , 20 , 30 ,
a nd
40 cm . fr om t h e e nd r esp ec t i vely an d i n ,
ea c h c ase c alc ula t e the
we ight of t h e le er v .

Th e In c li n ed P lan e —
If a sm oo th m et a l c ylinde 0 r,

Fi
( g . is inclined plane, A B ,
suppor ed o n t an b eing k ept
from rolli ng d own t h e plane a forc e, P , a ct ing par alle l t o by
h
t h e incline d plane , t en 0 i s in e qu ili riu m un d er t h e a c tion b
h
o f t r e e forc es ( )
r t h e

h y
weig t of t h e c lin der ac t
i ng th ro g h t h e cent e f
u r o

g r a v i t y v ert i cal ly d own

wa rds ; ( 2 ) t h e forc e P
ac t i ng a long O P parallel

t o B A ; ( 3 ) t h e reac t i on

Q o f t h e p la n e whi c h ac t s

at t h e poin t wh ere O B
F 56 IG .
to u ch es t h e plane and at ,
.

rig h t a ngle s t o B A Th ese three forc es b e in g in equilibriu m

.
, ,

c a n be r epresen t ed by a tr iang le h a vi ng i t s si de s parallel t o t h e

t h ree forc es Such a triangle is ob tai ned by producing Q0 to

.

D an d drawing ED parallel t o B A
,
B u t t h e triangle AB C is .

similar t o t h e t riangle EC B ; t h at i s t h e sid es of t h e t ri angle ,

A B C are t o on e anoth er as t h e sides of t h e t riangle EO D .

H enc e t h e th ree forc es P Q and W are represent e d in , ,

m agni tu d e by t h e three sides A C B C AB of t h e triangle , ,

A BC . T h us

P AC
W AB

T h t a is, for a forc e ac ting pa rallel to th einc lined plane t h e

ra ti o of th e forc e t o t h e weigh t su pport e d o n t h e plane i s t h e

sam e as h eig h t
t
t h e r a io of t h e h t o t h e le ngt of th e inc lined

p lan e It wi.ll b e see n t h a t t h e fo c e n e c e ss y t o i se W i f r ar ra

an i n c lined plane is em ployed i s less in t h e rat io of t h e h eigh t ,

94 Meclza nics .

t o t h e leng th t h an
, y to raise W witho t any
t h e forc e n e c essa r u

incline d plane for in th is case P would h ve t o be e q al t o W

, a u .

Wh en t h e fo ce P c t pa allel t o the base B C of t h e plane

r a s r ,

t h en in t h e same way we h ave

, ,

P AC
Ot P X BC = W X AC
W
.

BC

EXERC IS E 7 1 — l nclinea pla ne, power par a llel to Me lengra

’
.

Appar a t us —
Inclined pla n e ; spring b ala nc e ; solid m e ta l
c ylind er .

You plied with a n inclined plane wh ich c an be set at

ar e su
p ,

d i ffer en t i nclinat ions t o t h e h or iz ont al At t h e u pper end of t h e .

inc lined p art one of t h e spr i ng b al a nc es u sed i n t h e pr evi ou s

,

ex e rc i se s can b e sc re we d a s s h ow n in Fig , 5 7 A soli d m et a l . .

FIG 5 7 .
( fix )

c ylinder ab out I} in long a nd I} in in dia m et er h a s a fine st eel

,
. .
,

knitt i ng needle passing th rough an ax i al h ole A U sh a p ed piec e

-
.
-

of w ir e E w ith t h e e nd s b ent r o und serv es t o c onnec t t h e c y li nd e r

, , ,

t o t h e S pr ing b alan c e At a c er ta in nu m b er of wh ole c e nt im etr es

.
,

s ay 5 0 c m fr om t h e h inge a nd a s n ear t h e low er e dge a s po ssible

.
, , ,

d ri ve a pi n A into th e pi ece of w ood form ing t h e in clin ed plan e

, , .

Fr om t h is pin suspend a sm all weight by m e ans of a piec e of c ot t on ,

t o a c t a s a plum b line Weigh t h e cylind er D toget h er wi t h th e

-
.

a x l e a nd t h e c onnect i ng p ie c e E let t h e weight b e W g r m s

-
S et .

t h e pr 0p H against t h e pa ir of n ails furthest a wa y fr om t h e h i nge ,

so that t h e plane i s i nclined a t a s small a n a n le a s po ssible T k

g a e .
 Mec/za n ics .

Th e P u lle y The m ost u sua l way of e x er ti ng a forc e i n

.
—

a g iven di rec t ion is t o em lo

, p fo r t i s p p
u r o sye t h e t e n s h
i o n o f
b
a fl ex i le str in , for t h e t ension alw
g a s a c t s i n t h e d ir e c t y
i on o f
h
t h e lengt of t he string T h e easiest way of o taining a t ensi on
. b
of a g i ven am oun t in t
a s ring is by a tta c h ing a weigh t bu t in ,

th is ca se t h e t ension always ac ts vert i

cally d ow nw ard s S uppose h owev er .
, ,

we requi red a forc e ac t ing say verti , ,

c ally up w ar d s w e m ig h t ob ta in suc h
,

a forc e by passi ng a st ri ng o ve r a

sm oot h p eg a n d a tta c h in
g a w ei h t
, g
t o t h e en d It would h owev er be
.
, ,

found t h at t h e we igh t wh ic h it wa s
n ec essar y t o hang a t on e en d t o oh
ta in an u p ward forc e of, say, I kilo .
,

would , on ac c o un t of t h e fric t ion of

t h e string agai ns t the e

p g, be m u c h
gr e a ert th a n I kilo . In orde r to
r e d uc e th i s
wh en a string i s
fric tion
m ad e use of in th is way t o alt er t h e
direc t ion of a force wh at are c alled ,

p ulleys ar e e m plo ed y . A pulle c on y

t
sis s of a c irc u lar di sc called t h e sh eaf ,

th e ou er t edge of whic h is often

g r oo e dv, an d of a fra m ework called
t he block, c arr ying a n a x le on wh ic h
t h e s ea f h t urns .

EXE RC IS E 7 3 . T/ze fi x ed p u lley .

Appa r a t ns —
S m all pulley , a b o ut
Fm 5 9
. , 3 i n i
. n di a m eter ; t wo sc ale - pan s ;
w eigh t s .

H a ng l p ulley supplied t o you from a ret ort st a nd

t h e sm al -

F
( g i . P a ss som e st r ong t h r e a d ov er t h e sh e a f a nd t o ei th er ,

end a t t a c h a sc ale p a n t h e w ei gh t of wh i c h h a s b e en m ad e equ a l

-
,

t o so m e whole num b er of gr a m m e s sa y 5 or 1 0 by t h e a d d it ion of

, ,

t i n foil
-
P ut weight s i n o ne of t h e sc a l e pan s ( W) so a s t o m ak e
.
-
,

t ogeth er w ith t h e w eigh t of t h e pan 20 g r m s Ad d sh ot or, .

weight s t o t h e pan P till it i s j ust able t o draw up t h e weight W

, .
 P u lley .
7
D eterm ine t h e we igh t of P . Repeat , m a king W ,
in suc cession , 4 ,
0
6 0 , 80 , 1 00, g r m s lts in t wo colum ns putt ing t h e
.
,
a n d en t er your r esu
,

v a l ues of W i n one a nd th ose of P in t h e oth er ,It will be fou nd . .

t h at in e ver y c a se P i s g rea t er th a n W Th e .

d iffer en c e P — W r epresent s t h e weight wh ic h

h a s t o b e add ed t o P i n o rd er t o over com e ,

t h e fr i c ti on of t h e pulley o n it s ax le It m a y .

be red u c ed by m ak ing t h e d i am et er of t h e
s heaf v ery la ge a nd t h e axle v ery fi n e a n d
r , ,

s u p or t in g i t so a s t o d imi ni sh t h e fr ic t io n
p
a s m uc h a s p ossibl e .

EX RC IS E E 74 A si ng le
. mo—
va ble p ulley .

App ar a t u s —
S a me a s i n previou s ex er
c ise, wi th t h e a dd it i on pulley of a sec o nd .

Arr a nge t wo p ull eys i n t h e m an ner sh own

i n Fig 60 o ne A b eing fix ed a nd t h e oth er
.
—
, , , ,

B m ova ble
, Place a 5 0 g rm weight i n t h e
. .

p an W a t t a c h ed t o t h e m ov a b le p u ll e y a n d ,

fi nd t h e weight P wh ic h m u st be a dd ed t o
F 6
t h e ot h er pa n so a s j ust t o r a i se W
IG 0.
This
.

.
,
“
m ay eit h er b e d one by a d di ng weight s t o P or by ad di ng Shot
”
, ,

a nd t h e n we igh in g on a b ala nce D eterm ine in t h e sa m e way t h e .

v alues of P when I00 1 5 0 a nd 200 grm s are add ed t o W Th en , ,

. .

r e m ov e B a nd i t s at t a c h ed sc al e a n n d w i gh Th i s w e ight d d e d
p a e a -
.
, ,

t o t h e w eigh t placed i n t h e p a n will gi ve t h e weight r a i sed by P in ,

e a c h c a se D ra w up a table a s below and fill i n t h e different

.
,

c olu m n s .

We igh t S c a le -pan
of
21
)
W.

a nd P u lle y .
Tota l .

It will be fo u nd th at 2P is al little greater t han W and

wa y s a ,

t W i s ab out t wic e a s gr eat as t h e differenc e

'

th a th e d i fl er enc e 2P

H
 98 Mec/za nics .

found between P and W i n t h e la st ex erc ise S i nce in th i s c ase we .

ar e d ealing w ith t wo p ulley s we sh ould ex pec t fr i c t ion t o h a v e t wic e

,

t h e efi ec t i t h ad i n t h e pre v iou s c a se a nd we m ay c on clud e t h a t t h e

'

c au se of t h e d i ff er e nc e fou nd b etween 2 P and W i s t h e fr i c t ion

of t h e t w o pulle y s a nd th at if it w ere n ot for t h i s fr i c t i on P w ould

, , ,

be h alf W H enc e by u sin g a m ova ble pulley i n th is way we c an

.
, ,

r a i se a we igh t tw i c e a s g re a t a s we c ould li ft wi t h ou t t h e pulley .

s Place t h e bott om of t h e sc ale pan W i n c ontact with t h e t op of -

t h e t a ble and m ea su r e t h e h eight of t h e b ott om of P a b ov e t h e t a ble

,
.

Th en r aise \V thr ough a di stanc e of 1 0 c m and a gain m easu re t h e .

,

dist ance of P fr om t h e t able It w ill b e found th a t P h a s m oved .

d own th rough 20 c m Th us alt hough wh en P is eq u al t o h alf W

.
,

i t i s c a pa ble of r ai sing W in d oi ng th is i t h as t o m ov e d own through

,

t wic e t h e h eight th r ough whi c h i t r a ises W .

Ti m e — tim e em ployed for sc ientific p urposes

Th e un i t of ,

a nd w hic h will be used in this book is t h e second Th e second ,

.

i s “ i n , part of a m ean solar d ay Sinc e t h e t i me whi c h .

elapses b et w e en t h e p a ssag e o f t h e su n ove r t h e m eri d ia n i e

( . .

n oon) on one day t o t h e passag e o n t h e nex t d a o r i n o th e r

y , ,

wor ds t h e length of a day vari es during t h e year t h e m ean

,
1
, ,

of all t h e in t ervals of t im e b e t w een n oo n o n one day a nd n oon

o n t h e nex t for t h e w hole year is taken an d this interval is ,

c alle d a m ea n solar day Eac h day is d iv i ded in to 2 4 .

h ours eac h h ou r into 6 0 m inutes and eac h minute into 6 0

, ,

sec on d s In o rder t o preven t c onfusion b etween m inu tes and

.

second s of t im e a nd m in u t es a nd sec on d s of ang le see

, ( p .

i t is u sual t o indicat e h ours m inutes and sec onds o f ti m e by , ,

th e le tt ers h m an d S resp e c t i vely

.
, .
, .
, .

EXE RC IS E 7 5 .
—
S inzple pendulum .

App Metr onom e t ic king sec ond s ; lead plum b b ob

a r a tus — -

ret or t st a n d a nd cla m p
-
t wo sm all pi ec es of wood
,
.

Y ou ar e su pplied with a m etr on om e wh ic h i s a piec e of clock ,

work with a gover ning m ec hanism so that it c an b e m ad e t o t ick

o n c e ev ery se con d T h e ticks of t h e m etron om e a r e very loud a nd
.

d i st inc t so t h at th ey c an b e h eard even a t som e d i st anc e

,
H an g .

t h e lea d plum b b ob by a lengt h of fin e c ot t on fr o m t wo bloc k s of

-

Th e t erm h
day is ere used t o inc ud e t h e l whole 2 4 hours , no t si m ply
the p ar t of th e 2 4 h ours d uri n ic i t is igh t g wh h l .
 Ioo Meclza n ics .

pe n d ulu m took t o m ake t h e n um ber o f osc illa t ions co unt ed by t h e

fi rst observer D ivide t h e nu m ber of oscillations into t h e ti m e
.
,

a nd th u s obta in t h e t i m e of on e osc illa ti on Repeat t h e ex perime nt .

,

st a rti ng i n t urn w ith am plitud es of 6 8 1 0 a nd 1 2 inc hes r espec , , ,

t ively e nter ing y our result s i n a t a ble as below

, ,

Ampli tu d e
b Time of one
.

Nu m er " I
1 u ne .
of O sci lla t ions . O sc illa t ion .

At sta rt . A t fi ni sh .

It will be no though t h e dist anc e th rough wh ich t h e

ticed that , al

pendulum bob h as m oved h a s b een very d iff erent in t h e a bove

ex peri m e nt s neverth eless t h e t i m e t ake n t o m ake one osc illa t ion
,

h as r em ai ned t h e sam e Thu s when th e a m plitud e of m otion of a

.
,

pendulum is not gre at er th an th ose em ployed above we m ay em ploy ,

suc h a p end ulum t o m easur e t i m e since t h e t im e of an o sc illat i on ,

d oes n ot alter a s t h e am plit ude alt er s .

'

EXERC IS E 7 6 .
—
S i mple pend ulu m .

Appa r a t us previous ex erc i se

as in .

As i n t h e previous ex er c ise d et erm ine t h e t i m e of osc illat ion and

,

t h e c or r esp ondi ng leng t h s for pend ulum s of a ppr oxi m at ely t h e

foll owi ng lengt h s I20 1 00 80 60 40 30 2 0 1 5 1 0 7 a nd 5 c m
—
, , , , , , , , , , .

In t h e c a se of t h e s h ort er len gth s it will b e necessar y t o t a ke t h e

t im e of from 50 t o 1 00 o sc illati o n s i n or d er t o obt ai n t h e ti m e of
osc ill a t i on wit h any d egr ee of a c c ur ac y C alc ulate t h e squ ar e o f .

t h e l engt h s and d ivide by t h e c orr espond ing t im es for one osc illa tion
,

a nd ob serv e th at t h e quotien t i s c onst a nt : S h ow i ng th at t h e ti m e

of o sc illa t ion of a sim ple pend ulum v ar i es a s t h e sq uar e of t h e

l engt h so that a pend ulum 2 feet long takes four ti m es a s long t o

,

m ake an osc illation a s on e I foot long Also plot y our r esult s o n .

a sh eet of curv e p a per t ak i n g t h e l e ngth s of t h e pe n d ulum

, as

a b sc i ssa a nd t h e c orres pondi ng t i m e s of one osc illat i on a s or d i n a t es

, .

D raw a c urve evenly thr ough t h e points and fr o m thi s cur ve ,

 S i mple P end u lu m .
IO I

d et er m i ne t h e length of t h e pe nd ulum wh i c h w ould m ak e one

o sc illa t i on i n t wo sec ond s S in c e suc h a pend ulu m w ill p a ss
.

t h rough i t s point of r e st on c e e ery sec ond , i t i s c alled a se c ond s v

pend ulu m T est t h e a c c ur acy of your d et erm inat ion by setti ng u p
”
.

a pend ulu m of t h e l engt h y ou h a e fou nd , a nd see ing t h at it keeps v

“
in st e p w ith t h e m et r on om e .

EX RC ISE E 77 .
—
S i mp le pendulum .

Appa r a t us as in previous ex er c ise , wi t h t h e add it i on of a wood

o r c or k b ob .

S uspend by t h rea d s of t h e sa m e l e ngth t wo pend ulum b ob s o f

t h e sa m e siz e a nd sh a pe on e c om po sed o f lea d a nd t h e oth er of
,

c ork . S et t h ese pend ulu m s i n v ib rat i on wit h a sm all a m plit u d e by , ,

d r a w i ng t h e b obs a sid e by m ea ns of a flat pi ec e of w ood a nd

r el e a si n g t h e m sim ult a neously N ot ice t h a t t h e t wo pend ulu m s
.

h a v e t h e sa m e t im e of osc illat ion so t h at th is ti m e d oes n ot ,

d e pe nd o n t h e m a ss of t h e pend ulu m b ob .

V eloc i t y .
—
T he spac e p assed o e r v by a m ov ing b od y i n
one se c ond b ody m ove t con t n t speed alled
is, if t h e s a a s a ,
c

t h e veloc it y of t h e b od y an d t h e v lo ity is s i d t o b e unifo m e c a r .

Th s u b ody wh ich m oves over 5 m in one se ond is said

a c . c

t o h ve a velo it y of 5 m pe sec Th e only

a c c . e of r . c as a

s p e i l
c a n a m e b e in g g i v e n t o n i t o f v el i t y i s t h e k nao t u oc ,

wh i h is v elo ity of n ti l mile pe ho

c a c I au ca r ur .

In t h e case whe e t h e velo it y i n ot n ifo m b t t h e b ody

r c s u r ,
u

p a ss e s o v e d i ffr
e e nt sp c es i
r n s c e s i v
a e se o n d s t h e v lo i t y
u c s c , e c

a t any in t a n t is t h e
s p c e t h e b o d y s w o lda p ss o v e if i t u a r

c on t in e d t o m ov e for on e se on d w
u it h t h e v eloc ity i t p o sesse
c s s

at t h e g iv e n i n st an t .

A c c ele r a t i on W h en th velo ity of a b ody i not

—
e c s

un i fo rm , t h e a m ou nt by whi h th e veloc ity lte i n a e on d c a rs s c

i calle d t h e cce le a ti on
s a T h s if t on e i n t n t t h e v elo i t y
r . u ,
a s a c

of abody is cm pe se ond while se ond late t h e v elo it y

IO . r c ,
a c r c

is 1 5 m pe c e
. co n d th
r e n t h s b od y h s a n,
c ele a t io n o f e a a c r

5 c m p e r.e o n d pes c
r ec on d b e a u se t h e v e lo i
s t y h s i n on e , c c a

sec on d in creased by fi e c ent im etr es pe Sec ond v Thi s i s r . a

case of a p o si t i ve a c c eler a t ion . If t h e v eloc ity h ad in a se c on d

 1 02 Meclza nics .

decreased from 1 5 c m p er sec t o I O c m er see t

p
.
,
. . he e would
r
be a nega t ive acc elerat ion of 5 c m per sec e se c
p r . . .

Falli n g B odi es When a body i s allowed t o fall freely

.
—
,

it i s seen th at i t m ov es fast er an d fa st er as i t falls ; or in o th er ,

word s it s m otion is ac c elera ted It is h owever diffi cu lt t o

, .
, ,

m ake e x p erim en ts on b odies falling freely b ecause t h e rat e ,

at w hic h they fall is so g reat H ence we hav e to make use of .

som e a rra n em ent by w h i h t h e m ot ion is reta rd e d b u t st ill

g c
,

i s of t h e sam e ch arac t er as tha t of a b ody fallin freely F r o m

g .

t h e result s w h ich we obtain in this way we shall be able t o

p r e d ic t wh a t w ill h app en w h e n a b o d y falls fr eely T h e fi rs t .

m eth od wh ic h will be used for th is purpose is t o allowt h e b ody ,

in th e form of a c ylinde r, t o roll down an inc lined plane ..

EXE R C IS E 7 8 .
—
Motion on an i ncli ned pla ne .

Appa r a t u s —
S m ooth boar d ab out 6 feet long and 6 or 8
, ,

i nc h e s w ide a long wed ge a b out 3 i nch es th i ck at t h e wid e e nd

,

m et al cylind er u sed i n Ex er c ise 7 1 m et ronom e m etr e sc ale .

Y ou ar e supplied w it h a long sm ooth board and a wedg e P lac e .

t h e w ed g e u nd er one end of t h e b oar d so th a t th i s end i s a bou t on e ,

i nc h h igh er th a n t h e oth er At a bo ut t wo inc h es from t h e h igh er

.

e nd d ra w a line acr oss t h e b oa rd a t r ight a ngles t o t he lengt h

,
.

Place t h e m etal cylinder u sed in Ex erc i se 7 1 so a s t o touc h t h e

boar d along t h is line h oldi ng i t in pla c e with a sm all block of wood
,

r e st i n g on t h e inclined b oard S et t h e m etronom e t o t i ck second s

.
,

a n d st ar t t h e cylind er r olli ng by r em ov ing t h e block ex a ctly o n a

t ick Then place a series of m at ches or sm all pieces of w ood along

.
, ,

t h e ed ge of t h e b oar d so th at t h e c ylind er p asses t h e end of ea c h

,

of th ese ex a ctly on a t ic k Get t h e m a t c h e s r oughly in pl a ce fir st :

.

t h e n a s t h e c ylinder r olls d ow
,
n not e wh eth er a t t h e m om e n t of
,

e a c h t i ck i t i s ex a ctly opp osit e e a c h m at c h ; if not m ove t h e ,

m a t c h i n t h e pr ope r d ir ec t ion a nd a ga in allowt h e cylind er t o r oll

,

d ow n .A ft er a lit tle pra ct i c e if t h e m at c h e s ar e alway s la id a t

,

r ight a ngle s t o t h e le ngth of t h e b o ar d a nd a s t h e c ylind er p asse s ,

y o u l ook a l o n g t h e m a t c h you w ill soo,

n fi n d th a t you c a n a dj u st
t h e po sit ion s w it h con sid era ble a c cu ra c y Mea sure t h e d ist an c e s .

fr om t h e st a r t i ng p oint th r ough wh ic h t h e cylin d er h a s p a ssed a t

-

t h e e nd of e a c h sec ond It w i ll b e n ot ic ed th at t h e spa c e p a ssed

.

ov er i n a se c ond i ncr ea se s so t h at t h e m ot ion of t h e c yli nd er i s

,
1 04 Meclza nics .

it sweight a nd a p ie c e of ela stic ,

K is ra pidly pulled d own

, .

A fine c ord p asse s ov e r t h e

pu lle y and h a s t wo we ight s P
, ,

a nd W a tt a c h e d on e a t e a c h
, ,

e nd .

If t h e W ar e
weights P an d

ex a c tly eq ual th ey will st o p ,

wherever th ey ar e plac e d .

S in ce h owev er it is im p ossible
, ,

t o obt ai n a pulley w it h out fr i c

t ion a dd s m all di sc s o f t i nfo il
,

t o P t ill i t is j u st o n t h e poi n t
‘

of m ov ing W When th i s a d .

j ustm ent h a s been m a de P will ,

r e m a in at r e st in an y po siti on ;

b ut if st arted downwa rd s it wi ll
c ont in ue t o m ove d own war d s a s ,

fa r a s it c a n go with a c on st a n t ,

veloc ity .

In ord er t o set t h e m a sses P

an d W i n m ot ion a s m all a d ,

d it ional weight S h own a t M ,

Fig . 63 , a nd c a lled a rider , is

em ploy ed Th is weight i s of.

su c h a length th at it wi ll n ot
pa ss through t h e h ole in t h e

Ra ise P and set it on t h e,

t op of t h e plat for m B On the .

t op of P lay t h e r id er so t h a t ,

t h e str ing pa sse s t h r ough t h e

m id dle of t h e h ole S t art a .

m e t r onom e t icking sec ond s a n d , ,

a ll ow i ng t h e str i ng b etw een t h e

pulley a nd W t o r un l igh t ly
be tween t h e finger s pull t h e ,

st r ing E ex a ctly a t a t i ck a nd ,

a t t h e n ex t t i c k sto p P a nd W

by clut ch ing t h e pull ey c or d .

Pl ace t h e platform C on a l eve l

w ith th e t op of P Th en st art .

a g a in bu t d o not t ou c h t h e pulle y
,

FIG 6 2
. . c o rd a nd see wh e th e r t h e cli c k
,
 A t wood
’
s Machi ne . 105

wh ic h heard when t h e r id er st rike s t h e r ing C oc curs ex a ct ly

is
a t t h e se c ond t i c k th at is ex a ct ly a fter one second from t h e st ar t
—
,
.

Move C t ill t h e ti ck and t h e Click a ppe ar si m ult a neous Now m ove .

t h e pl a t for m D t ill t h e we igh t P st r ike s it ex a c tly on t h e th i rd t ic k ,

i e t wo se c on d s from t h e st art
. . T h e posit ion of D c a n a s befor e
.
, ,

be roughly fou n d by st o ppi ng t h e we igh t s by c lu t c h ing t h e p ulley

FIG 63 . .
( ii )

c or d . Mea sure t
betwee n t h e t op of t h e pl atfor m s C
t h e dis a nc e
a n d D a nd fro m th i s d i st a n c e subt r a c t t h e l e ngt h of t h e w e ight P
,
.

Yo u w ill th u s obt a in t h e s pa c e p a ssed o v er by P a nd W i n t h e fi rst

se c on d a ft er th e r e m ov al of t h e r id e r wh i c h h as se t t h e m i n m ot i on .

In t h e sam e wa y set t h e pla t for m D so t h a t t h e we igh t P st ri ke s i t

,

ex a c t ly 2 3 a nd 4 sec ond s a ft e r t h e r em oval of t h e r id er

, ,
.

C ou nt i ng t h e t im e a nd d i st a n c e m ov ed over from t h e m om ent

wh en t h e rid er was re m oved dr a w u p a t a ble a s follows ,

Ti m e t 3
S p p Vd l
a ce a sse ov e r in o ne S ec o nd
e oc i t y ( o)
.

z: .

will be found t h a t in eac h sec ond P a nd “i h a ve pa ssed

It o v er

e q u a l s p a c es or t h e v eloc it y h a s b ee n constan t an d t h at
, ,

s vt .

H en ce , a ft er t h e r em o a v l of th e r id e r , t h e m a sses P a nd W m ove
wi th u ni for m vel oc ity t ill t h ey a re stopped by c ont a ct wit h D .

EXE RC IS E 8 0 A twood
’
.
—
s ma ch i ne (
cont i n ued
) .

previo u s ex er c ise t h e m ot ion of t h e m a sses P and W h a s

In t h e
b een st udied aft er t h e for c e wh ic h set th em in m oti on h ad c ea sed
t o a c t n am ely a fter t h e r em ov al of t h e r id er
, , We ha ve now t o .

ex a m i n e t h e c onnect ion b etw een t h e spa c e pa ssed ov er a n d t h e ,

t i m e d ur i ng wh i ch t h e m oving fo r c e h a s b ee n a c ti ng A s in t h e .
1 06 Mecha nics .

pr eviou s exer c i se, ad us j t th

g C so t h at start ing at one ti ck
e r in , ,

t h e r id er m a y be r e o e m v d
ex a c t ly a t t h e n ex t t i c k Mea sure t h e .

d ist a nc e b et ween t h e t op of t h e plat form s B a n d C a nd ad d t h e ,

leng t h of t h e w eight P T h e su m w ill be t h e S pa ce pa s sed t h r ough

.

i n t h e fi rst sec ond N ex t lower C so t h a t t h e c lick m ade when

.

t h e r id er str ikes t h e r ing m ay oc c ur a t t h e sec ond t i c k a ft er t h e

star t a nd a g a i n m ea sur e t h e d ist a n ce
,
P r oc eed i n t h is m anner for
.

a s m a ny sec ond s a s t h e h eigh t of t h e i nstr u m e nt will allow It w ill .

b e fo u nd th at a s i n Ex erc i se 7 8 t h e s pac e p a ssed ov er i n a second

, ,

i nc r ea ses a s P m oves d own so t h at t h e m ot i on i s a c cel er at ed

, D ra w .

up a t a bl e sim il ar t o th a t on p 1 0 3 gi v ing t h e v alu es of t s a n d

s

$
0
.
, 2 ,

It will be found th at t h e n um b ers i n t h e la st c ol u m n a re c on stant ,

sh ow in g th a t wh en a c onst a nt fo r c e (t h e we ight of t h e r id er r)

a c t s on a c on st a nt m a ss (W P r ) t h e sp ac e pa ssed over i s ,

pr oporti onal t o t h e sq uare of t h e ti m e fr o m t h e sta rt .

EXE RC IS E 8 1 A twood s ma ch i ne
’
.
—
conti n ued
( ) .

In t h e pr evious ex er c ises t h e m a sses and W u nd er t h e act ion P ,

of t h e for c e r m oved w it h i n c r ea si ng veloc ity

, we now req uir e t o
fin d t h e v el oc it y at t h e end of eac h second A dj ust t h e posit i on o f .

C t ill t h e r i d er i s r e m ov ed exa ct ly a t t h e fi r st ti c k a ft er t h e st ar t ,

th en pl a ce t h e pl atform D so t h at P st ri kes it ex a c tly at t h e n ex t

ti ck Mea sure t h e d ist an ce b etween C and D and subtrac t t h e
.
,

lengt h of P th u s obt a in ing t h e dist a n ce m oved t h r ough i n a sec ond

,

by P a nd W wh en m oving with t h e veloc ity wh ich t hey possessed

,

a t t h e i n st a nt wh en t h e r id er wa s r em ov ed ; for t h e e x p er i m ent s

m ad e in Ex er ci se 7 9 h a v e sh own th a t a ft er t h e r em ov al of t h e rid er, ,

P a nd W c ontinue t o m ove w it h unifor m veloc it y Repeat t h e .

e x per i m e nt pla ci ng C so a s t o r e m ov e t h e r id er a ft er 2 3 and 4

, , ,

se c ond s i n e a c h c a se a dj u st i ng t h e po sit i on of D so t h a t P st r ik e s
,

i t on e se con d a ft er t h e r e m oval of t h e r i d er In th i s wa y t h e .

velocit y a fter I 2 3 and 4 second s will be obt ained Ent er t h e

, , .

resu lt s i n a t able a s b el ow ,

V e loc i t y a t e nd of
In c rea se of V e lo c i t yi n o ne Se c ond
Ac ce le ra t ion .

0 Cm p er sec .
1 0 cm.
.

p er 8 6 0.
per sec .

1°
11
21
10
3 1
m
_ 41
1 08 Mecha nics .

be ca use in one c ase th e

m oving for c e a nd a c c eler a
t ion ar e r a nd a wh ile in t h e ,

oth er c ase t h e m ovin g fo rc e

a nd a c c elera ti on a r e M an d

g t h e
, m a s s m o v e d b e i ng t h e

sam e i n b oth c a ses .

C alc ula t e i n t h i s wa y
from y our r esult s t h e value
of t h e a c c eler a t ion g wh e n , ,

a b od y falls fre ely Will t h e .

value of g be t h e sam e for

all m a sses ? Give rea son s
for y our a nsw er rem em b er ,

i ng t h a t t h e for c e w ith wh i c h
t h e e ar th a ttr a c t s a b od y i s
pr oport ional t o it s m ass .

EXE RC IS E 85 . Mo
men t u m .

Appa r a t us -
C ub e of

wood w it h 3 in ed ge ; t wo .

lea d b ullet s IOO g r ms a nd , .

5 g
0 r m s i n w ei ght ;
. t wo

m et r e sc ale s .

D r ive four s m a ll l
nai s

i nt o be of wood and
a cu ,

su spe nd it by st r ong th r ea d ,

i n t h e m a nner sh own i n
Fig 64 . T h e su sp en d i ng
.

t h re a d s ou ght t o b e fr om

4 t o 5 f ee t lo ng a nd a r e fi x e
,
d
a t t h e t op t o a fl a t p iec e of

w ood B h eld i n a r et ort

, ,

st an d s t a nd i ng on t h e e d ge

of t h e t a ble Fr om a second
.

r et or t st a nd susp end t w o l ea d

bullets in t h e m anner u sed

i n Ex erc i se 7 5 so th at wh en ,

t h ey a r e a t r est t h ey j u st
t ou c h t h e c e ntr e of t h e fa c e
of t h e block A Th e bl oc k .

FIG . 64 .
A sh oul d b e su spend ed so
 rll ome fi t u m . 1 09

t h at b ullet s will str ike t h e end of t h e g ra in of t h e wood S upp or t

t he .

t wo m e t r e sc al es a s i n t h e fig u r e so t h at t h e c u b e wi ll j ust swi ng,

bet ween t he m w it h ou t t ouc h i ng Lay a piec e of split str aw C .

,

a g ai n st t h e fa c e of t h e c u b e .

H av ing b r ough t t h e c ub e t o r est a nd pl ac ed t h e 5 0 g r m ,

-
,

bullet on one sid e d ra w t h e ot h er b ack th rough 1 0 c m a nd let it

,
.
,

go . It w ill st rike t h e c u be wh ic h will b e d r iv en b ac k t h e d i st a nce

, ,

t h r ough wh ic h it i s d r ive n b e ing i nd i c a t ed by t h e st r a w C Repea t .

t h e e x pe rim e nt sever al t im e s i n e ac h c a se st art ing wit h t h e c ub e a t

,

r est a nd t a k e t h e m ean of t h e dist ance s t h r ough wh i c h t h e c ub e h a s

,

been d ri ven .

N ex t r epeat using t h e 50 g rm b ullet in t h e pla ce of t h e

,
-
.

1 00 g rm one
-
. It wi ll b e fou nd t h a t t h e c ube i s n ow d r iven ba c k
.

t h r ough a sm aller d ist an c e th an b efor e Th e v eloc it y with wh i c h .

t h e b ullet str ik es t h e c u b e i s t h e s a m e a s b efore s inc e t h e t wo ,

bullet s ar e su spend ed by st ri ngs of eq ual l ength Th e blow stru ck .

t h e bloc k i s h oweve r less t h an b e for e so th a t t h e m a ss of t h e

, , ,

m ov ing b od y evid ent ly a ffec t s t h e i nt ensit y of t h e bl ow Now .

gr ad ually incr e a se t h e d ist anc e t hr ough whi c h t h e 5 0 g rm bullet i s -

.

d eflec t ed t ill t h e c u be i s d r iv en t h rough t h e sam e d ist an ce a s it wa s

,

wh en t h e 1 00 g rm b ullet h a d b een defl ec t ed t h rough 1 0 cm

-
.

su ppo se t h e d ist an ce i s found t o b e x c m .

Fr om t h e ex per im ent s m ad e on t h e sim ple pend ulum it follow s

t h a t t h e t im e wh ic h el a pses b e tw een t h e r el e ase of t h e b ul let a nd
t h e i nst an t wh en it str ikes t h e c u b e i s t h e sam e wh a tev er t h e am ou nt
of d e fl ec t i on so l ong a s t h i s i s not t oo great
, Fr om t h is it c a n .

be pr oved th a t t h e v el oc it y w ith wh i c h t h e b ullet st rikes t h e c u be

is pr o por t ion a l t o t h e d i sta n c e thr ough wh ic h t h e form er h a s been
d i spl a c ed H e nce we m ay t a ke t h e displ a c em ent s a s re present i ng
.

t h e v el oc i t y w it h wh i c h t h e b u ll et str ik e s t h e c ub e Also since .

,

t h e t im e of o sc ill a t i on o f a pe nd ulu m i s i nd e pe nd ent of t h e m a s s

of t h e b ob ( p it foll ow s t h a t t h e v el oc it y w it h wh i c h t h e
.

t wo b u llet s str ike t h e c u b e i s t h e sam e if t h e d i spla c e m ent s a r e

eq u al

Therefo re a m a ss of 1 00 g rm s m oving w it h a velocit y repr e .

,

se nt ed by 10 st ri ke s t h e cu b e a blow wh i c h pr od uce s t h e sa m e
,

e ffe c t a s th a t st r u c k by a m a ss o f 50 g r m s m ov i ng w it h a v el oc ity .

r e pr e sent ed by x .

Re pea t t h e ex p er im ent m ak i ng t h e d i spla c em ent of t h e 1 00 g n u

,
-
.

b ullet 1 5 and 20 cm respec t ively a nd in ea c h c ase d eter m ine t h e

.
,

d i st a nce t h ro ugh wh ic h t h e 5 0 g rm b ull et m ust b e d i s plac ed i n - .

o r d er t h a t t h e c u b e m a y b e dr iv en t h r ough an eq u al dist anc e .

1 10 Mecha n ics .

Ent er your r e su lt s in a table , as b elow filling ,

i n t h e d i fl e r e nt
'

l
c o u m ns .

1 00 -k . B LL U ET .
so-G RM. B LLU ET .

M ass .
D IS la c e me n t
e loc rt y .
M ass X V e loc it y M .
a ss.
D Isp lac em e n t
V
e loci t y M a ss x V e loc i t y .

It will be fou nd th at t h e nu m bers obtained in th e th ir d a nd

six th c ol u m ns ar e eq u al .

Mom en t u m .
—In t h e pr ec eding e x erc ise it h as been found
th at wh en two b
,
odies of di fferen t m ass, m o ving w
r it h diffe ent
veloc ities i m pinge on t h e sam e b ody an d c ommunicate t h e
, ,

sam e m o tion t o t h is b ody t hen t h e prod uc t ob tained by,

m ult iplying t h e m ass of eac h b ody by it s v eloc it y will be t h e

sam e for t h e tw o b od ies Th is p rod uc t o f t h e m ass of a
.

m oving b ody into it s veloc ity is c alled it s momentu m Thus .

,

if a m ass of M g ram m es i s m oving wi t h a v eloc i t y of V

c ent i m et res p er se c ond t h en it s m o m e nt um w
, ill b e MV u nit s .

Th e unit of m om e nt u m is t h e m om entu m of u ni t m ass I grm ) .

m ovi ng wit h u ni t veloc it y I c m per se c on d) . .

E
EX R C IS E 86 .
—
B allistic p endu lu m .

Appa r a t u s — H i ck s
b allisti c balan ce
’
.

For ex per im ents on m om entu m t h e m ost c onv enien t form of

a pp a r a t u s i s th a t d ev i sed by P r ofessor H i c k s a n d c alled t h e b alli st i c ,

b ala n c e T wo light wood en platform s A a nd B ( Fig

. a re , .

su s pend ed by a n u mb er of st rong th r e a d s from so m e cr o ss p ie ce s C , ,

fix ed t o a wood en fra m ework Th e lengt h s of t h e t hr ea d s and t h e

.

posit ion of t h e cross pieces C ar e so a dj u sted t h at wh en t h e t wo

, ,

pl at form s ar e at rest th ey j ust touch and when th ey ar e pulled t o ,

 1 12 Mecha ni cs .

e nd , an d hen brought one on eit her sid e of t h e pi n D B y

ar e t .

holding t h e t wo t hrea ds a t C between t h e finger a nd t hu m b of t h e

sa m e h a nd t h e t wo pen dulum s c an b e r el e a sed a t t h e sam e i n sta n t
, .

Th e d ist a nces t h r ough wh i c h t h e pe nd ul u m s h a ve b een pulled a si d e

ar e r e a d off on a sc ale EF t w o poi nt er s fi x ed t o t h e pl a t for m s ser v ing
, ,

for t h is p ur pose .

P ut a pou nd w eight in ea c h of t h e platform s a nd d raw ing th e m , ,

a sid e t h r ough e q u a l d ist an ce s le t t h e m g o It will b e found t h a t

,
.

t h ey m eet at t h e z er o of t h e sc ale and ar e by t h e i m p ac t b o th b r ough t

,

i m m ed iat ely t o re st Thu s t h e m om enta ar e equal Now displa c e

. .

one pe ndu l u m th rough 5 c m a nd t h e oth er t h r ough 1 0 c m

. It .

will be fou nd th at th ey m eet as be for e a t th e c entr e of t h e sc ale ,

b ut ar e not b rough t t o r est T h e pend ulum wh i c h wa s d efl ec t ed

.

t h r o ugh 1 0 c m s n ot only Ch eck s t h e m otion of t h e oth er b u t d r iv es

.
,

i t b a c k c ont i nu ing i t self t o m ove on in t h e sam e d irect i on b ut

, ,

with d im inished v elocit y .

Pla ce t wo pound weight s on t h e righ t hand pl a tform and -

, ,

displ a c ing it ea c h t i m e 5 c m s a dj u st t h e di spla c em ent of t h e .

,

left h a nd pe nd ul u m t ill wh en t h ey m eet th ey ar e both br ought

-

ex a c tly t o r est A S in t h e pr evi ou s ex erc ise t h e veloc it ies

.
,

w it h whic h t h e pl atfor m s m eet ar e pr oport ional t o t h e d ist an c es

t h r ough wh ic h t h ey h a ve b een d i spl a c e d so t h at t h ese d i st a n c es a s , ,

m e a sur ed on t h e sc ales EF c an b e t ak en a s t h e v el oc it ies wi t h

,

wh ic h t h e b od ies m eet C a l c ul at e t h e m om enta a nd ent er in a t a ble

.
, ,

a s b el ow

P END U L M A
U . PE N L DU U M B .

M ass . M a ss .

Rep eat t h e perim ent d ispl ac ing B t o d iffe rent ext ents It will
ex , .

a lw ay s be fou nd t h at wh en t h e p end u l u m s ar e b ot h b r ou ght t o r e st

,

by t h e im pa c t t h eir m oment a are eq ual

, .
 Vi br a t i ons of a L a th . 1 13

EXE RCIS E 8 7 .
— B a llisti c pend ulu m .

Appa r a t u s —
B alli st ic balance ; l um p of lead weigh ing about
1 ; lb .

ballist ic pendulum m ay be em ployed t o m ea sur e t h e m a ss

Th e
of a b o d y Pla c e t h e bod y on t h e left h a nd plat form a nd a
.
-
,

I lb we igh t on t h e r ight
-
. A dj u st t h e d i spl a cem en t s t ill wh en t h e
.

bod ies c ollid e t h ey are b oth br ought t o r est Le t a l and d2 b e t h e .

’

d ispla c em ent s o f t h e b od y a nd I lb we ight respect iv ely 71 , a nd 71

-
.
, 2

t h e vel oc i t ies at t h e m o m e nt of c ont a c t a nd let M b e t h e m a ss of ,

t h e b od y .Th e n
m o m e nt u m of b o d y
_
Mn ,

m om e nt u m of I lb w eight 1 x 7/
-
.

Th er efore since t h e m om enta a r e eq ua l

,

Md = l x d l z

(1
M l lb
s
or z .

Re pea t , u si n g d ifferent vl a u es of d1 a nd d, .

EXE RC IS E 8 8 . Vi br a tions f
o a th in la th .

Appa r a t u s —
l k spr ing 2 feet long m etr onom e
Vic e ; c oc -
.

C la m p one end of a pi ec e of c l ock spr ing in a v ic e so th a t t h e -

,

fr ee p art pr oj ec t s a b out 60 c m i n a h or i z ont al direc t ion

. D eter .

m in e t h e t im e of osci lla t ion o f t h e sprin g for di fferent a m plit ud e s ,

by t h e m eth od u sed i n Ex erci se 7 5 It will be found th a t t h e t im e

.

of osc illa t i on is i nd e pend ent of t h e am pli t u d e Also m ea su re t h e .

lengt h of t h e free pa r t of t h e spr ing .

Repea t t h e ex per im ent for l engt h s of 5 0 40 a nd 30 c m , , .

,

c a l c u l a t i ng in e a c h c a se t h e v alu e of t h e q uoti ent of t h e t i m e of

o sc ill a t i o n by t h e sq ua r e of t h e l engt h an d en t er i ng t h e r e sult s i n a

,

t a bl e sim il ar t o th a t used i n Ex er c i se 7 5 It will b e fo u nd th at a s .

,

i n t h e c a se of t h e sim ple pend ul u m t h e t im e of a n osc illat ion w ill

,

var y a s t h e sq uare of t h e lengt h .

Gradu ally shorten t h e spring and not ic e th a t t h e vibrat ions

,

b ec om e fast er a nd fa st er t ill fi nally a d eep mu sic al n ot e i s obt ained

, .
 P A RT V .
—
S O U ND .

EXE RC IS E 8 9 .
— To pr ove tha t sou ndi ng bod ies are in a sta t e

f
o v ibr a t i on .

Appa r a t us — kni tt ing needle v ice

S t ee l -

Ta ke a steel knit ti ng needle or piece of clock S pri ng a nd clam p

- -
,

i t betw een t h e j a w s of a v i c e so th at a b o ut 6 i nc he s pr oj ect D r a w .

t h e e nd t o one sid e and let g o A low d e ep n ot e i s gi ven out a nd

.
,

ou c a n se e th a t t h e e n d of t h e ne edl e i s vi br a ting B r ing y ou r

y .

fi ng er na il u p t o t h e end of t h e n eedle a nd you wi ll feel th at it is

-
,

in v ibr a t ion while t h e sound dies out a s t h e vi br at i ons of t h e

,

n e edle a re st o pped by c ont a c t wi th y our finger S hort en t h e .

lengt h of t h e needl e pr oj e cting from t h e v ice and again set it in ,

vibrat ion Is t h ere any difference and if so what in t he c ha racter

.
, , ,

of t h e no t e you now obta i n a nd tha t obtai ned wi th a g rea t er l e ngt h

of nee d l e ? Sinc e h er e a s i n Ex erc i se 88 you ar e d ealing w it h t h e

, ,

vi brations of a rod h eld a t one end t o what c onclusions d o you ,

a rr i v e a s t o t h e c on ne c t ion b et w een t h e ra te of v i b ra t ion of t h e

knitting need le and t h e pit ch or highne ss of t h e not e given out ?

-

EXE RC IS E 90 .
—
The t u ni ng f or h .

App a r a t us -
Two t un ing fork s i n -
u ni son, a nd a fork g i ving
bout four b eat s per second wit h eit h er of t h ese ; st r i p of gla ss ;
1
a

bristles a nd soft r ed wax .

S ound on e of t h e t uning for k s su ppl ied t o you by sh ar ply

-

st r iki ng t h e e nd of o ne of t h e pr ong s a ga in st a bloc k of w ood .

T h e blow ou ght t o b e a r ap n ot a ste ad y bl ow , N ote by holding .

,

a p i ece of p a p er a ga inst t h e e nd th a t t h e p r ongs ar e i n vi br a t i on

,
.

At t a c h a p iece of bri stle a bout on e c entim et r e l ong t o one of t h e

prongs of t h e tuning fork by m ea ns of a sma ll piece of soft re d
-

Such a fork can easily be p p a

rere d by sl igh t ly fi l i ng a fork which is
in u niso n wit h t h e o t h er s .
1 16 Sou nd .

EXE RC IS E 91 - To compa r e thef r equency f

o t wo t uni ng f or hs .

App ar a t us S t and-
an d slid eh wn in Fig 67 ; sm a ll
as s o .

t u ni ng fork s, A , C ,
- G cello bow st rip of glass
’
.

Take t wo t uning forks of d ifferent p it c h and at t ac h a sm a ll

-
,

length of th in b r i stle t o t h e end of one pr ong of eac h Clam p t h e .

h andle s of th ese fork s fir m ly on t h e bevelled edge of t h e u pr igh t

block A ( Fig 6 7 ) by m ea ns of t h e c r oss b ar s and scr ews T h e
.
-
.

fork s m u st b e a rr a nged so t h a t t h e,

bristle s are t urn ed t owar d s t h e u pright

sl id e a nd a r e o n t h e t w
,
o i nsid e pr on g s

of t h e for k s b ei ng ab out h a lf an i n c h ,

a p art S m ok e t h e surfa ce of a st r i p
.

of gl a ss of su c h a siz e a s t o m ov e

ea sily i n t h e u pr ight sli d e Plac e t h e .

sm oked gla ss in t h e sli d e and pr o p i t

u p w ith a pi ec e of w ood B t o wh i c h , ,

a p ie c e of c ot t on i s a tt a c h e d so t h a t ,

by p ulling t h is c otton t h e pr op will b e

r em ov e d a nd t h e gl a ss a l low ed t o fa ll .

Loosen t h e scr ew by which t he sli d e

i s c l am ped t o t h e ba se a nd m ov e t h e ,

sl i d e for w ar d t ill t h e e nd s of t h e b r i stle s

on b ot h fork s j u st t ou c h t h e sm ok ed

surfa c e a nd cl a m p t h e slid e i n t h i s
,

posit ion H old i ng t h e end of t h e

.

c ot t on a t t a c h ed t o t h e pr0 i n y
p our

left h and or gi ving it t o a sec ond oh ,

server t o h ol d h ow b oth of t h e for k s ,

s im ulta neou sly w it h a lar ge V iol on c ello

b ow In b owi ng t h e for ks d ra w t h e
F (i )
,
.
IG . 67
b ow fa irly q u ic kly a nd w it h a st e a d y
.

pressure over t h e e dges of all four pr ongs Go on bowing ti ll bot h .

fork s a r e sound i ng l ou dly Y ou c a n e a si ly t ell fr om t h e fa c t th a t t h e

.
,

n ot e s a r e di ffe rent wh e t h er b ot h for k s a r e sou n di n g

,
When t h i s i s .

so allow t h e sm ok ed gla ss t o fa ll
,
B efor e r em ov i ng t he g la ss m ov e
.
,

t h e slid e a w ay fr om t h e fork s If t h e ex p er i m ent h as b een su c

.

c e ssfully per for m ed you w ill h a v e t wo w a vy l in es t r a c e d sid e b y

,

sid e on t h e sm ok ed sur fa c e D o not b e d i sc our a ged if you d o n o t

.

su c c ee d in obt ai ni ng good t r a c es a t t h e fi r st t w o or t h r ee a tt e m pt s

y o u w i ll fin d th a t a lit t le p ra c t i ce w i ll e n a ble y ou t o o v er c o m e all

d i ffi c ulties. A ft er rem ovi ng t h e sm ok ed g la ss m ar k O pp osit e e ac h ,

of t h e t r a c es t h e n a m e of t h e for k ; A C or G as t h e c a se m a , y
, ,
 Monochor d
. .

be . ked gl a ss fl at on t h e t a ble and pl a c e t wo m et r e

Lay t h e sm o ,

sc ale s one on e ith er si d e

, on t h ese r e st a set Sq u a r e br id g ing o v er ,

t h e gla ss a nd with a need l e poi nt d r aw t wo fi ne line s

,
-

r i ght a c r oss t h e pl at e ne a r t h e end s of t h e t wo t r a c e s

a nd a t r ight a ngl e s t o th e se t r a c es C ou nt t h e num b er .

of wa v es b et w een t h e cr oss l i ne s i n eac h of t h e t r a c e s

- .

Th en t h e nu m b er of oscilla t ion s per sec ond or t h e ,

fr equ en c ies of t h e fork s a r e t o on e an ot h e r a s th ese

,

nu m b er s R epe a t t h e ex p er im ent u sing a n oth er pa ir

.
,

o f for ks a n d c a lc ulat e t he r a ti o o f t h e n u m b er s of
,

osc illa t ions per se c ond m a d e by t h e G a nd A fo rk s

t o t h e n um b er m a d e by t h e C for k .

EXE RC IS E 92 . To ma ke a monoch or d .

Take a b oar d 3 ft x 4 in x i i n a nd bevel off one . . .

,

en d a t a n a ngle of a b out a nd on t h e b ev elled

ed ge fi x t wo r ou nd h e a d e d sc r ew s 1 1 2 i n
-
c h a p ar t A t .

t h e oppo sit e en d t o th ese sc re w s let in a b loc k A ,

F
( g i . o f som e h ard w oo d s u c h as m a h o g a ny or ,

b eec h 1 ; i n x I% in x I in m aking it a t igh t fit a nd

, . . .
,

gl ueing i t in pla c e so th a t t h e cen tre of t hi s block i s

,

on a l i ne wit h t h e r igh t h an d sc r ew Fix a wrest pin

-
.
-

i nto t h is block so t h at i t i s inc li ned at a n a ngle of Fm 68 ( in ) . .

wit h it s h ea d lean ing aw ay fr om t h e scr ews C ut t wo .

brid ges 3 inc he s long a nd 1 } inc h high of t h e sh a pe sh own in

Fig 69 ; a lso out t wo of t h e sa m e h eight b ut only 1 5 inc h long
.
,
.

O n t h e t op of eac h of t h ese br id ges fa st en a piec e of thi c k br a ss

wir e by be nding t h e wire t wic e at righ t
,

a n gles a nd d r iv in g t h e e nd s i n t o t h e w ood .

Glu e t h e t wo longer b ridges on t o t h e boar d

a t B a nd C so t h a t th ey ar e a t eq u al d is
,

t a nc es fr om t h e end s an d t h e br a ss w ir es
on t h e t op a r e ex a c tly 30 in ch es a p a r t Gl ue F 69
(i ) .
‘G ' °

a piec e o f t h i n c ar d b oar d on t o t h e b ot t o m

o f e a c h of t h e sm a ll b ri dg e s so th at th ey a r e sl igh t ly h igh er t h an
,

t h e ot h er t wo Ta ke a p iec e of st eel piano wir e ( No 2 2

.
- .

a n d twi st a loo p a t on e e nd pla c e it ov er one o f t h e sc r ew s p a ss

, ,

t h e oth er e nd th rough t h e h ol e i n t h e wr est pin a nd t igh t e n t h e -

,

w ir e by t urning t h e pin T ake a sim ilar p iece of wir e and m a ke

.

loop s a t both e nd s a nd p a ss o ne ov er t h e ot h er sc rew

,
Th is wire .

will be st ret c h ed by h a ng ing weigh t s on t h e e nd .

1 18 Sou nd .

EXERCIS E 93 . The vibr a ti ons f

o a st r etch ed str i ng . ( The

r ela ti on bet ween the p i tch a nd th e leng th .

)
Appa r a t us — Monochord ; tuning forks - C, G , and A ; m etr e
sc ale .

P luck t h e keyed string of t h e m onoch ord and notic e th at you ,

obta i n a not e S h ow th at t h e wi re is vi br a ti ng by pla c ing a sm all

.

piece of folded p a per over t h e wire .

S et one of t h e m ova ble b rid ges at 1 0 inc h es fr om on e end so ,

th at th e wire is d ivi ded int o two port ions one ex actly double t h e ,

l engt h of t h e ot h er P luck e ac h portion and not ic e th at t h e note

.
,

given by t h e sh ort er i s t h e oct ave of th at given by t h e longer

portion .

Place t h e t wo m ovable bridges und er t h e keyed string and ,

a dj u st t h eir posi t ion t ill of t h e th r ee t i n i n t w hi h th ey d iv id e

p or o, s o c
t h e wi r e t h e t wo e nd ones a re i n unison w ith t wo of t h e g iven
,

t uning fork s sa t h e C and A M t h l n gth of t h e se t wo

y e sur e e e
-
, a .

portions with a m illim etre sc ale t ak ing t h e d istance between t h e ,

points wh ere th e str etched wire touch es th e bras s wi res on t h e t op

of t h e brid ges D etermi ne t h e r at io of th ese leng ths by d ividing
.

one by t h e ot h er and c om par e wi th t h e r a tio of t h e frequenc ies of

,

t h e fork s as obta i ned in Ex er c i se 91 It will be foun d th a t t h e .

r a t i o of t h e len gt h s of w ire in uni son with t h e fork s will be i n v er sely

a s t h e fr equenc ies Th us if t h e frequenc ies are as 3 t o 4 t h e
.
, ,

le ngth s will be as 4 t o 3 .

Make use of th is m eth od t o d eterm ine th e frequen cy of a fork

of u nknow n pit c h b eing gi v en th a t t h e C for k m akes 5 2 8 v i bra
,

ti ons per second You m ust determ ine t h e lengt h s of t h e wire

.

i n u ni son w i t h t h e fork of u nk nown pit c h a n d with t h e C fork , .

length in uni son with given fork

EXE R C IS E 94 .
— Th e v i br a ti ons f
o a st r etched str i ng .
( Th e

r ela ti on bet ween th e p itch a nd t h e str etch ing f or ce .

)
Appa r a t us Monoc h ord weight s
— .

F a st en t h e m onoch ord i n a vertic al p osition against t h e wall or

t ab le and h a ng weight s on t h e sec ond wi r e so a s t o str etc h it
,
.

S t ar t with a b out 5 kilos or 1 1 lb s Adj u st t h e positi o n of on e

, .

of t h e m ova bl e b ri dges ti ll t h e u pper port ion o f t h e w ir e i s i n uni son

w it h a t uning fork or with a c er tain lengt h of t h e keyed st ring

-
,
.

Me asure t h e l ength of t h e wire Incr ea se t h e stret ch ing weight t o .

 I2 0 Sou n d .

( Fig 7 0 )
. i s a n od e,
1
a nd t h e ope n end i s a loo p , a nd th ere
ar e no loops or nod es be tween . Th e distan c e b et ween two

n eig hbo uring n odes a n d loops is quarter of th e wa ve leng th

a -

of t h e n o te , a nd th erefore t h e leng th of a c olu m n o f ai r ,

c on ta ine d i n a t u b e c lose d at o ne
“CZ ”
e nd, wh en soun ding i t s fund a

S
m e nta l, is a quart er of t h e wa ve
I 8
Fm 7 0 . .
leng t h of t h e n ote prod uc ed .

If t h e a ir- c olu m n is sou nd in g

it s fi rst th ere will be n odes at A and N a nd loops

v t
o er on e,
’ ’

so t h at t h e leng t h of t h e c olu m n o f air i s e q u a l t o

'
a t L an d B ,

th ree tim es a qua rte r wave length or t o three quar ters of a - -

wa ve lengt h If N i s t h e nu mb er of vibration s per sec on d

-
.

c orrespon d ing t o any n o te and V a n d L are t h e veloc it y a n d ,

wave lengt h of sou nd in t h e ma t erial in whic h th e n ote i s

b eing propagated then V N L H ence if we can m easure
, .
,

t he w av e leng th in air of t h e note

-
i v e n o ut b t n i
g y a u n g
fork of k nown pi tc h we c an calc ulat e t h e v eloc i ty of sou n d
,

in air.

EXERC IS E 96 . Vi br a ti ons of a colu m n o f a ir.

8

Appa r a tu s —
Reson an c e t ub e an d t uning fork -
.

Take a glass tu be 60 cm s long a nd 3 c m s in d iam et er a nd a . .

,

t all gl a ss j ar i nto wh ic h t h e tube will fit Th is j ar m a y c onsist of

,
.

a l en gt h of a b out 5 0 c m s of gla ss t ub e closed a t one e nd w i t h a

.
,

c ork a nd h eld i n a r et or t c l a m p F ill t h e j ar with water a nd .

, ,

h olding th e t ub e vertical wi t h one end dipping i n t h e water b ring ,

your v ibrat ing tuning for k over t h e ot her end Ra ise or l ower t h e
-
.

tube in t h e water till t h e resonanc e i s a m ax im um Mea sure t h e .

lengt h of t ub e a b ove t h e surfa ce of t h e wa t er th u s obt a ini ng t h e ,

1
Th e nod es ar e t h e
ex pa n si ons o f t h e ai r a r e a m ax im um
t h e ai r i s not com p ressed o e
o in t s p wh
er e t h e a t erna t e c om ressi ons a nd l p
Th e oo s are t h e oi n t s w ere
. l p p h
r x a de ,
n d b ut w e r p
e t h e t o a n d fro m ot io n
-
h o

p l
o f t h e a ir - art i c es i s a m a x i m u m
v
.

Th e o e r t ones of a soundi n bod ar e t ose no t es of i er i t cg y h h gh p h

h
t an t h e fund am ent a w i c l h h
m ay u nder c er tai n c ircu m st an ces be p r o
d uc ed .

p l h
It i s im ossib e t o perform t is e x e ri m en t sa t isfac to ri p i n a room i n ly
wh h h l p
ic ot er a c oust ic a ex eri m en t s are be ing ca rri ed on A q u ie t r o o m .

Is necessary.
 Vi br a t i ons f
o R od .

le ngth of wh ic h r esound s t o t h e fork C ontinue

t h e c olu m n of a i r .

r a ising t h e t ub e t ill a sec ond p osit i o n i s obt a i ned i n wh ic h t h e

reson a n c e i s a m a x i m u m A ga in m easur e t h e lengt h In t h e . .

fi rst c ase t h e c olum n of air enclosed i n t h e tub e wa s sound ing it s

fun d am ent al n ot e i n wh i c h t h er e i s only one nod e a nd th at a t t h e ,

su rfa ce of t h e w a t er In t h e se c ond c a se ther e a r e t wo nod es a nd

.
,

t h e c olum n of air i s sou nd ing i t s fi r s t o v er tone H e nc e if L i s t h e .

,

w ave length in air of t h e not e g ive n out by t h e fork t h e lengt h s of

-
,

t u b e for wh ic h t h e re sonan c e wa s a m ax i m u m a r e i L a n d i L
r e sp ec t i v e ly C alc ula t e fr om y our ob serva t i ons t h e va l u e o f L ;
.

th en give n th a t t h e fork m akes

, v ibr ations in a sec ond c al ,

c ula te t h e vel o c i t y of so und i n a i r .

gi t u d i n al V i b r a t i on s of a R od In ddition t o
L on .
—
a

t h e tran v se v ib t ions s er l e dy st died a od m y b e se t

ra a r a u ,
r a .

i n long it din l vi b t ion u Th s

a od h e ld a t t h e m idd le
ra . u a r

and t h en bb ed in t he d i e tion of it s length m y be set in

ru r c a

longi t d inal vi b ratio n and g iv e o t a m sical not e

u If th e
, u u .

r o d i s so n d ing i t s fu n d m en t l t h e m id dle po in t
u t wh ic h a a , ,
a

th e od i s h eld
r i a node wh ile t h e t wo en d a e loop s
, s ,
s r .

T h s t h e od lt e n t ely h o t en
u r and lengt h en s t h e t w
r o ends
a s r s a ,

m ov i ng i n t owards o aw y f o m t h e m i d dle t t h e sam e t im e r a r a .

Sin ce t h e e i a loop at eith e end of t h e rod and

r s n o de r a

between the length of t h od is eq al t o two q arte wave

,
e r u u r

le ng th that i h lf s, wav lengt h of t h e note p odu ed It

s, a a e- r c .

m st be
u e f lly note d t h at i t is t h e w
ca r u av e lengt h of t h e so nd -
u

t v lling in t h e m te ial of wh i h t h e od i om posed whi h

ra e a r c r s c ,
c

i e qual t o t wic e t he leng th o f t h e od not t h w v lengt h

s r , e a e -

in i a rIf N i t h e f eq e n y of t h e ot e p od ed V t h e
. s r u c n r uc ,

v elo i ty f so n d in t he m t e i l of wh i h t h e od i om po ed
c o u a r a c r s c s ,

a n d L t h e len gt h of t h e o d t h e n V NL r , 2 .

EXE R C IS E 97 .
—
l ong i t ud i na l v ibr a t i ons o f a r od .

App ara tus —

Mah og any r od s 5 a nd 6 feet long a nd
Qi n c h i n

d iam et er ; c aml
p for r od ; m onoc h or d tu ning fork -
.

Mea sur e t h e lengt h of t h e w ood e n rod supplied t o you a nd fix ,

it i n t h e c l a m p ( Fig 7 1 ) so th a t t h e length pr oj ecti ng on eith er sid e

.

is t h e sa m e a nd fa sten t h e cla m p t o t h e t abl e eith er wi t h scr ews or

,

with a n ir on scr ew cl a m p Rub one end of t h e r od wi th a piece

-
.
 I2 2 Sound .

of c lo th h
or s ee s i n p k o n wh i c h a li tt le p o w d e r ed r e s i n h a s b e en

pla c ed Th e best note will be obtained if star ting near t h e mi d dle

. ,

o f t h e r od you drawt h e rubb er w ,

ith
a slo w and st e a d y m oti on r ight t o t h e

en d and do not gr as p t h e r od ver y

,

t i ghtly Adj ust t h e positi on of t h e

.

m ov a ble bri dge on t h e m on o ch or d t ill

t h e n ote given by t h e wir e i s i n uni son

F 7 IG . Q) 1 . .
w i th th at giv en by t h e r od M ea sure .

t h e lengt h of t h e w ir e Then find .

wh at length of t h e wire i s in unison wi t h t h e t uni ng fork and -

, ,

g i v en t h e p it c h o f t h e for k c a lc u la t e,
t h e p it c h o f t h e n o t e g i v en by
t h e r od from t h e r elati on ( Ex erc ise 93)

freq u enc y of rod length of wir e i n uni son wit h for k

y k g h w w th
'

freq ue c o o
n f f r len t of ir e i n u n i s o n i r o d

Re pe a t t h e m ea sur em ent usi ng a rod of t h e sam e m at eri a l b ut

,
.

5 fee t lo n g E. n t e r y ou r r esult s i n a t a ble a s b e l ow

Le n t gh o f Ro d L . Fre q ue nc y of Not e N
. L X N .

It will
be found t h at t h e num b ers in t h e la st c olumn ar e t h e
sa m e , sh owi n g th a t , as in t h e c a se of a st r et c h ed wir e, t h e p i tc h
or freq uenc y of t h e not es ar e i n er sely a s t h e length s v .

T h e wa ve length b eing e qu al t o twi c e t h e len gth of t h e rod , t h e

-

vl
e o c it y of sound i n the r od is 2L x N . C alc ulat e fr om your
r esul s t veloc ity of sound in t h e given r od s To d o this you
th e .

h a ve only t o m ultiply t he num b er s in th e la st c olum n of t h e a bove

t a ble by t wo .

If an y d iffi cult y is fou nd i n t u ning t h e w ir e t o u nison with t h e

r od t ake t h e r od out of t h e c l am p a nd
,
h olding it wit h o ne h and
, ,

with it s m iddle p ressed firmly aga inst one of t h e fix ed bri dges of

t h e m onoc h ord ru b it wit h t h e ot h er h a nd
,
Then adj ust t h e le ng th .

of t h e w ir e t ill on sound ing t h e ro d t h e wir e i s set i n v iolen t v ib r a

, ,

tion In ord er t o see when th is oc cur s pla ce a sm all pa per rid er

.
,

on t h e w ir e Wh en unison is r eac hed t h e r id er will be violently

.
,

t h rown ofl ea c h t im e t h e r od i s sound ed
’

.
 1 24 Sou nd .

loops of th e vi b t i
ra ons set u
p i n t h e c ol um n of a ir enc losed in t h e
tube by t h e t o and fro m ov
- - e m ent s of t h e end
of t h e r od Mea su re .

t h e di stanc e b etween a s m any loop s a s p ossibl e and d ivid in g by , ,

t h e nu m b er of i n ter v a ls g et t h e d i st an c e between t w
, o a dj a c e n t

loo ps . This d i sta nc e will b e h alf t h e w ave l engt h in air of t h e -

not e g iv en by t h e r od t h e le ngt h of t h e rod b e ing h alf t h e w av e

length of t h e sam e note in t h e wood of wh ich t h e r od i s com posed .

Let 1 be t h e wa ve lengt h in a ir a nd L t h e w av e len gt h i n t h e w ood

-
,
-

of t h e n ot e gi v e n by t h e r od a nd le t N b e th e nu m b er of vi bra t io n s
,

e r c n d o fr eq u en c y of th i s n ot e Th n
p se o r e .

T h e ve loc ity of sound in a ir N1 ,

veloc ity of sound in t h e wood NL

the .

O bt ain th e value of N by com p aring t h e pitch of t h e note given

by t h e r od wit h a t uning fork of known pitch by m eans of a m on o
-

c h or d a s i n t h e pr evi ous ex er c i se
, Th en knowing N and I c alc ula te
.
, ,

t h e v eloc ity o f sound i n air If you h av e n o for k of kn own pitc h yo u

.
,

c an only fi nd t h e r a t io of t h e v eloc it y of sound in t h e r od a nd i n

air , t h is ra tio being equal to

 P A RT V I .
—
L IGHT .

EXERC IS E —
The sh adowp h otomet er .

Appa r a t us — Rod fix ed t o sm a l s l ta nd ; wh ite sc re e n ; c a nd le

and l am p m etr e sc ale .

To c om par e th e illu m i na ting power of a lam p a nd a c andle ta ke ,

a bl oc k of w ood a b o ut 1 2 i nc h es by 8 i nc h es a nd str et c h a sh eet ,

of c lean wh it e blot t i ng pap er ov er on e sid e -

fa st eni ng it wi th ,

d r a win g p i n s
-
S t an d th i s bl oc k u pr ight t o for m a wh i t e sc r een
.
,

an d a b ou t t wo i n c h e s i n fr ont pla c e an u pr igh t r od of w ood a b out

1 2 i nc h es h igh a nd 1 i n c h i n d i am et er S et t h e l am p a t a d ist an ce
.

o f a b o ut 3 feet fr om t h e scr ee n and m ov e t h e c an dle a b ou t t il l t h e

,

t wo sh a d ow s of t h e r od on t h e sc re en one c a st by t h e l am p and ,

t h e ot h er by t h e c a n dle ar e of eq ual d ar k ne ss
,
It will b e fo und .

t h a t t h e a dj u st m en t c a n b e b est m a d e if t h e light s ar e so plac ed

t h a t t h e t wo sh a d ows on t h e scr een t ouc h but d o n ot overl a p ,
.

Mea sur e t h e d ist anc e of t h e c andle flam e and l am p fl a m e from t h e

- -

Re pea t t h e ex p er im ent wi th t h e la m p pl a c ed a t 4 and 5 feet

fr om t h e sc r een D raw up a ta ble a s sh own bel ow, in wh ic h are
.

e n t ered t h e d ist an c es of t h e l a m p an d c an dle fr om t h e sc r e en,

t h e sq uar e s of th ese d i st a nc e s, a nd t h e r at i o of t h e sq uar e s (t e . .

t h e sq u ar e of t h e d ist a n c e of t h e l a m p d ivid e d by t h e squar e of t h e

d i st an c e of t h e c and l e) .

Dis t a n ce o f
S cr e e n
p
La m
D f rom Di st a n ce o f C a n d le from
. Sc re e n d .

1
Thi s ex pe ri m en t m ust be p erform ed in a d a rkened room .
1 26 L i gh t .

It will be that th e num ber s in t h e la st c ol um n are approx i

found
m a tely constant S inc e t h e a m ou nt of light give n out by t h e la m p
.

a nd c andl e i s t h e sam e at t h e d i ffer ent d i st an c es t h e r at io of t h e ,

illu min at ing powe r of t h e lam p t o th at of t h e c an dle i s c onsta n t

wh atever t h e d i sta nc e of t h e scr een on wh ic h we c om pare th e se
illumina ti ng po wer s B ut t h e ra t io of t h e sq u ares of t h e distan c e s
.

of t h e t w o sour ce s of light from a s c r een w h i ch th ey illum inate

equally ( a s sh ow n by t h e e q u ality i n t h e d a rk ne ss of t h e sh a d ow s

c a st by t h e r od ) i s also fou nd t o b e c onst a nt H en ce t h e illu m i.

na t i ng power s of t h e t wo sour c es of light ( lam p a nd c a nd l e) a r e

a s t h e squ ar e s of th e ir dist a n c es from t h e scr een wh en t h e sh a d o w s

ar e eq u ally d ar k so t h at t h e la st c olu m n of t h e foregoing t able

,

re prese nt s t h e r at i o o f t h e illumi nat i ng power of t h e lam p t o th a t

of t h e c and le .

g
R e fl ec t i on of L i h t a t a P la n e S u r fa c e W en a ray — h
h
o f lig t, c alled th e i nc i den t ray, travelling in a ny m ed iu m ,

m eets t h e polis ed surfac e of som e h

d ifferent m edi um , a portion of t h e r ay,
called t h e reflec te d ray, is r e flec t e d ,

a nd t h e d irec t ion o f t is re fl ec t ed ray h

o e s c ertain law by
s, called th e la w s of

reflec t ion T e are . hy

I T h e inc iden t ray, t h e reflec te d
.

ray, an d t h e norm al
1
t o t h e surfac e at
t h e poin t of inc i d enc e ; all lie in a
2
.

pla n e .

p m 73
, ,
2 . Th e angle between t h e inc ident
ray and t h e nor mal, called t h e ang le

of incid enc e, is equal t o t h e ang le et ween t h e reflected b ray

an d th e n orm al, c a lled t h e angle o f refl ec t ion .

In Fig 7 3, if A B repre sent s a refl ec ting surfac e, IO a

. ray

of lig ht
inc ident at 0, O R t h e reflec ted ray, and ON t h e
normal t o t h e surfac e at O ; t en t h e fi rst law st at es t a t h h
h
t h e straig t lin es IO , ON , and O R all lie in a plan e, w ile t h e h
h
sec on d law sta tes t at t h e angle IO N i s equ al t o t h e a ngle

NO R .

Th e l t o a surface at any point is a line d rawn through t he

norma
'

point erpendicular to th e surface

phe point o f incidence is the point where the incid ent ray meets th e
.

' ‘

reflec t ing surfa ce .

 1 28 L ig h t .

EXE RC IS E I n
o — R efl ecti on at a p la ne su r ace.f

In or d er t o S h ow t h at t h e inc id ent
flec ted r a y a n d r a y, the re ,

t h e nor m al all li e in t h e sam e plane h a v i ng arr a n ge d t h e t h r e e ,

pi ns D C an d E as i n t h e pr ev ious ex ercise adj us t C a n d D s o

, , , , ,

t h a t t h e t ops of th ei r h ea d s m ay b e a t t h e sa m e h ei gh t a b o v e t h e
sur fa c e of t h e pa per Th en adj u st t h e h eigh t of E and of a n o t h e r
.

i pl a c ed a t F t ill w h h i pl d R h f he
p n e n t e
, e ye s a c e a t t e t op s o t ,

h ead s of t h e four pins ap pea r in a line Mea sur e t h e h eight o f t h e .

t op of E a nd of F a bove t h e surfa c e of t h e p a pe r It will b e fo u n d .

t h a t t h e top s of E a nd F ar e a t t h e sa m e h e ight as t h os e o f D a n d
C. T h e i nc ident r ay fr om t h e t op of D pa s t t h e t o p o f C S i n c e ,

D and C proj ec t equally ab ove t h e pa pe r i s par allel t o t h e s u r f a c e ,

of t h e p a pe r Th e re flec ted r a y wh i c h gra z e s t h e t op of F a n d E

.

i s for t h e sam e reason also par allel t o t h e surfac e of t h e p a p e r

, , .

S in c e t h e m irr or is a t ri gh t angles t o t h e surfa c e of t h e pa pe r t h e ,

nor m al a t 0 m ust also lie in a pla n e p a r allel t o t h e sur fa c e o f t h e

a per B ut t h e thr ee l in es IO ON O R all m e e t a t a S i n gle i t

p .
, , p o , n

0 and ea c h separ at ely lies i n a pla ne p arallel t o t h e sur fa c e o f t h e

,

pa per Henc e th ey m ust all h e in t h e sa m e plane Th i s fa c t m a y

. .

also b e t e sted by r est ing som e pl a n e sur fa ce su c h a s a se t sq u a r e ,

-
,

on t h e t ops of t h e p in s ; it wi ll b e found t o t o uc h a ll t h e i n t
p s a

t h e sa m e t im e a nd also t o b e par allel t o t h e su rfa c e o f t h e p a pe r

, .

Im a In t h e t wo pre viou s ex erc i ses, w e n lo o i n

ge s —
h k
g
.

along t h e direc t ion RO , t h e pi n C wa s se en r e flec t ed i n t h e

m irror AB ; and if we h a d n ot now k

n t at t h e m irr o r e x is t e d
,
h
h h
we s ould h ave im agined t at t h e pi n wa s sit ua t ed som e w e r e h
b ehind A B, along t he line R O prod u c e d. If t h e mi r r o r
were re m o ed,v a pi
be plac ed at a c er tai n
n c ou ld i
p n t on
o
'
RO produ c ed, say at R , so as t o g ive t h e sam e a p p ea ra n c e
t o an eye plac ed a t R, a s d o es t h e pin a t C w e n t h e m ir r o r h
i s in pla ce . h
T us t h e penc il of ra s of lig t w i c
p r o c ee d
y h h h
h h
from t h e p in C, a nd w ic after re flec t ion re ac t h e e e a n d
y ,
h
by h h
m eans of w ic we see t h e p in, proce ed a fter r e fl e c t i o n
j ust as if t e c am e from R Wh enevei a p en c il of ra s,
hy '
. y
p r oc eedi ng from a poin t su c as C a ft er r efl ec t i o n h
e i th e r ,

a pp ear diverge from or c on verg e on some ot e r oi nt t i s

to
p ,
h h
sec on d point i s called t h e i mag e of t h e first T us t h e p o in t . h
R would be th e i m age o f C form ed
’
r e fl e c t i on in t h e by
 R eflect ion at a P la ne Su rf a ce . I2 9

m irror AB . If t h e y
r a s of lig ht fte a r r efl e c t i on a c uallt y pas s

h
t roug h th e imag e thi i mage i said t o be l ; if as in t h e
, s s rea ,

a b ov e a se ct h e ays n ever
, t lly pass th ough t h e imag e
r ac u a r ,

b t only t avel aft e efle t ion s i f th ey ca m e f om t h e im ag

u r r r c a r e,

t h e i ma ge is said t o be vir t ua l .

EXE RC IS E 1 0 2 .
-
R ef1ection at a p la ne sur a ce. f
Appa r a t us pr evious ex erc i se
as in .

A s i n Ex er c i se 1 00 d ra w a line A B ( Fig an d a l ine ON

, , .
, ,

p erpendi cular t o A B Place t h e m irr or with t h e edge of t h e refl ec t

.

i ng surfa c e over A B a nd a t a p oi nt P on ON ab out 6 i nc h es

, , , ,

fr om t h e m irr or pl a c e a pi n ,
Also pla c e pins at Q1 Q2 Q3 et c .
, , , .
,

a t i nt er v als of a b out a n i n c h Th en as in t h e preced ing ex erc ises

.
, ,

FIG .
74 .

place pi ns at R1 R2 R3 et c t o m ar k th e dir ections of t h e r e flect ed

, , , .
,

r a y s c orre spo nd ing t o t h e i nc id ent r ay s P Ql P Q2 et c R e m ov e , , .

t h e m irr or a n d j oi n P Q, P Q et c a nd Ql R Q2 2
,
R e t c These 2, .
, l, , .

lat ter will be t h e re flect ed ra ys prod uc e the m b a ckward s a nd it ,

will b e found t h at t h ey all m eet a t a point P Th us t h e r efl ec t ed ,

'
.

r a y s Q l Rl Q2R2 e t c
, all pr oc eed a s i f th ey c a m e fr om t h e po int
,
.
,

P a nd P i s th e i m age of P form ed by r efl ec t ion in t h e m irror

’
,
'

Sinc e t h e r ay s d o n ot r eally p a ss th r ough P t h e i m age i s

'
AB .
,

v ir tu a l It will b e fou nd th a t P lies on P O prod u c ed a nd th at

'
.
,

O P i s equ al t o O P Th us t h e im age of P lies on t h e perpen

'
.

d i c ula r dra wn fr om P t o t h e r e flec t i ng surfa ce a nd is a s far ,

behind t h e surfa c e a s P is in fr ont of t h e surface Repea t t h e .

ex peri m ent pla c i ng P a t v ar i ou s di stan c es fr om t h e m irr or

,
.

K
I30 L ig h t .

P ar allax — If we have two pins ,

P an d F
Q ( g
i .

fi xed u prig t h on the table and pl c e

, a our eye at B on the

p rolonga t i on of t h e lin e j oining t h e two pin s, t h en one p i n

will hide t he o ther , or, at a ny ra e , appear t im m ediat el y in

fron t of i t . If ou r eye, h owever , i s a t A, t h e p i n Q wi ll app e a r

t o t h e left of P ; wh ile if our eye i s at C, Q will a pp ear to th e

rig h t of P . T h us as we m ov e
, fr om A t o C , t
our eyeh e p i n

Q will appear to travel from left t o rig t, passing e ind P h b h

a nd a ppearing on t h e o t er side It is i m h .

p or a n t t t o rem em er b t h at t h e m ore d i sta n t

of th e t wo p i n s a ppea rs t o m o v e i n t h e sa m e

direc ti on h
as t a t i n w ic h h
t h e e ye is m o ve d,
while t h e nea re r appea rs t o m o e i n t h e v
O pposi e t d ire c t ion . T h us i f, on m o ving o ur

t eye, the rela tive posi ti on o f t wo O bj ec ts ap

FIG
p ear s h
t o c ang e , t en, of t h e t wo, h t hat whi h c
.
75 .

a ppears t o m ove i n t h e sam e di rec ti on a s ou r

eye i s t h e m ore distant A S an e x a m ple of a case w ere t i s

. h h
t e st h
m ay be applied, t ere are g enerall , at a panoram a, a seri e s y
Of r eal O bj e ts c plac e d b etween th e p i c t ure a ndt h e plac e
where t h e audienc e si s, an d t very t t j it i s o f en diffi c ul t o u d ge
m erely by look ing wh ere t h e real obj ec t s end and t h e pic t u r e
b egins If h owever we move ab ou t t hen all th e real O bj ec ts
.
, , ,

will appear t o m ove wit h referenc e t o one anot h er wh i le ,

t h e painted obj ec t s w ill always appear i n t h e sam e rela t i v e

p o si t io n s T hi s m et h od of t est ing t h e r ela ti ve p ositi o n O f t wo
.

O bj ec ts ca lled t h e m eth od of p a r a llax

,
will be fre q u en t ly ,

m ade use of in t h e sub seq uent ex erc i se s .

EXERCIS E 1 0 3. To fi nd t he p osi t i on f
o
'
an i mag e by t h e
pa r alla x met h od .

App a r a t us previou s ex erci se

as in .

D r aw t wo lines A B and O P ( Fig ,

a t r ight an gles pla c e .
,

t h e m irr or with t h e r e flec t in g sur face over A B an d fix a p i n i n t o ,

t h e p a per at P Th is pin sh ould b e Of su ch a siz e th at t h e h ea d

.

i s a b out a q ua rter of an i nch h igher th an t h e t op of t h e m irr or .

Th en looking in t h e direction P O so th at P and it s im ag e a ppe ar ,

im m ed iately one b eh i nd t h e oth er plac e a pin som ewh er e b eh in d ,

I3 2 L ig h t .

b et ween these two , so that t h ere is a c one O f ra s en er ing t h e y t

eye, t h e a pex of t h e c on e being at P, an d t he base of th e one c

being e q ual in siz e t o th e pu pil o f t h e eye . If t h e y RQra s , 2

an d R, Q, are p rodu c e d b k they will in terse t at

ac , P, t h e im age
c

Of P, and y
it is alwa s at t h e poin t of in t ersec tion of t h e r a s y
which ,
c om i ng from a n y lum in ous p oin t , e n er t t h e eye, at
whic h t h e eye sees t h e lu m inou s p o in t T . hus , t h e posit ion in
whi ch we see any lu m in ou s point, and h enc e e v er O y bj e t c ,

d epends solel y on th e dire c t ion o f t h e ra s j ust efore y b th y e

t
en er our eye.

EXE RC IS E 1 04 — L ater al i nver sion of i mage i n a

mi r r or .

App a r a t us in prec ed i ng ex er c i ses

as .

Cu t a small arrow h ead , P Q ( Fig -

. from c ar d board, stic k
a p in th r ough e ith e r e n d , a n d fix t h e s e pin s upright on a sh eet of
p aper P lace a m ir r or as at A B ,
.

an d by t h e p ara llax m et h od d e

t er m ine t h e p osition, P Q , of t h e
’ ’

im ag es of t h e ends of P Q Mea .

s ur e t h e siz e of P
Q a n d of th e
i m ag e P Q It will be fou nd
' ’
.

t h at t h e im age an d b ec t a r e Oj
of t h e sam e siz e It w ill also .

be noted th at t h e posit ion o f

t h e arr ow in t h e i m a ge i s l at e
r ally i n er ted v
Th us, t o an eye
.

placed at E, t h e point of t h e
a rr oww ill a ppear t ur ned t o t h e
Fm .
78
. left, wh il e t h e p oint of t h e im a g e
will appear turned t o t h e r ight .

D r aw on t h e pa per t h e pat h of t h e sm all c ones of r ay s pr oc eed

i ng from ei th er end of th e arr ow wh i c h w ould enter a n eye pl a c ed

at E .

Im a for m ed b y t wo P lan e Mi rr ors i n c li n ed a t

g es
a n An le
—
gLet O A, O B ( Fig
. be t wo pla ne m irrors, and
.

b
le t P be an O j ec t , say a pin, plac ed wit in t he ang le i ncluded h
b e twe en t h e m irrors . F
rom P dra wP R, per pend ic u lar t o t h e

k
mirror O A, and ma e N , R1 equ al t o N , P T en R, will be t h e . h
 Imag es f or m ed i n Two P la ne Mir r or s . I33

i mage of P i n t h e m irror O A . In t h e sa me way Q, will be

t h e im age O f P i n t h e m irror O B . In ad d i t ion to th ese t wo

FIG 7 9 . .

i m ag es, which are form ed by ra s y wh ic h h ave been reflec ted

o nc e a t one or o th er of the t wo mi rrors, t h e e will be ot h e
r r

i mage s formed by y s wh ich h ve been

ra a re flec ed t t wic e , o nc e

a t eac h
m irror T fi n d t h e posit ion of s c h im ages c onside
. o u ,
r

th e ray s w h ic h st ting f om P a e reflec ted at th e m i o

,
ar r ,
r rr r

A O aft e eflec tion th ey tr avel s if th ey c am e f o m R h e nc e

r r a r

a ny ray s c hu a s P D ft e re fle c t io n,
wi l
al t a v e lr lo n g D C , r a as

i f i t ca m e f o m R rT hi s ay D C will be efle t ed t t h e
,. r , , r c a

mi rr o r O B T fi nd t he d i e t ion i n wh ic h it wi ll be re flec t ed
. o r c ,

we m ay s ppose t h e m i o O A emoved nd the O bj ec t P

u rr r r ,
a

p la c e d t
a R F o m R d a w R Q p e p en d i
, . r , lar t o O B a nd , 2 r cu r ,

m ake N Q e q l t o R N
3 , ua Th en Q will be t h e im ag e o f R
, 3. , ,

form e d in t h e m i o O B Th e efo e t h e
rr r y D
. C a ft e re fle r r ra , r c

t io n at will travel as if it cam e from Q, i e along C E

O B, , . . .

T h u s an eye at E will see an im age O f P a t Q, t h is im ag e ,

being formed by reflec tion first i n AO then in O B In , .

e x ac tly t h e sam e w ay th ere will be an i m ag e a t R, wh ere Q, R,

I34 L ig h t .

is perpendicular t o O A and NR, is e qual t o T is h

i mag e is form ed by reflec tion, fi rst in O B, th en in O A T he .

tw o i mag es, Q, and R, , ma in a si milar w

y ayg iv e o t er i m ag es h
for med by y
ra s of lig ht reflec ed t three tim es . Th u s Q will ,

gi v e an image
R, form ed in th e m irror O A
at ,, , . R h owever
c ann o t form an ima e i n th e m irror O B sinc e R, lies beh i nd
g ,

h h
t is m irror ; nei t er can R, produc e anot er im age, for a sim ilar h
reason If a ci rc le is drawn wit c ent re 0 and radi us O P ,
. h
it will b e fou nd t o pass throug all t h e im ag es h .

EXE RCIS E 1 05 . —
Imag es f or med i n t wo pla ne mirr or s i n
cli ned a t a n a n le
g .

Appar at us as in Ex ercise 1 04, wi th t h e addi tion of a sec ond

m irror, a protr a c t or , and a pai r of c om pa sses with penc il -

poi n t .

On a s h eet t p a p
of c ar r idg ee r d r a w t w o l in e s O A O B i n cli n e
,
d , ,

a t an ang le of Place t wo m irr ors with th eir silver ed surfac es

j ust over th e lines O A O B and at a point such as P ( Fig
, ,
fix .

a pin u prig ht in t h e p T h n by t h m t h d f ll x u sed

p a er e . e e o
, o p ar a a

i n t h e pr evious ex er cise pla c e pins at t h e point s wh er e t h e fiv e

,

i m a ges form ed ar e S itua ted .

T o trac e ou t t h e path of one of t h e r ay s for m ing t h e i m a ge Q, ,

fix a pin at E and looking in t h e d irect ion EQ, plac e a pin at K

, , ,

so th a t t h e t wo i n E n d K n d t h i m g Q, ll p p ear
p s a a e a e a a

ex a c tly one beh ind t h e oth er N ext place pins at L and M so

.
,

th at th ese pins also a ppear i n line with t h e pins E K and t h e i m a ge

Q, when you look along EK Rem ove t h e m irr or s an d pla c e a .
,

s m all cr oss a t t h e poi nt s w h er e t h e pins a re i nserted letteri ng t h ese ,

c r osses a s in t h e di a gr am i E K d p r od uc e th is lin e t o c ut
J o n . an , ,

O B at C Jo
. in C L a n d ,
p r od ,u c e t o m ee t O A a t D Th e n t h e .

l ine j oining D a nd P will pa ss through M Thu s P D C E will .

r e pr esent t h e p a th of one of t h e r ay s form ing t h e ima e Q2

g .

Wi th c entre 0 and r ad iu s O P d escr ibe a c ircle : it will be found

t o pa ss th r ough all t h e im ages Also trac e t h e c our se of one of t h e
.

r a ys form i ng ea c h of t h e i m a g es w h ich would enter an eye plac ed ,

at E .

In t h e sa m e way, find by t h e par allax m eth od t h e positi on s of

g for m ed in t wo m irr ors in clined at 60 and 30 also, for
°
t h e i m a es
°

t h e first c ase , fi nd t h e po sit i on o f t h e i m a g es by g eom etr y , by th e

m eth od given on p 1 33 . P ar t ic ular ly not e t h e positions
. of t he
i m ag es Q, a nd R3 , for m ed by r ay s r efl ec t ed th re e tim es .
 I36 L ig h t .

Suc h mi rrors are in o t wo

divid ed
t c la ss e s ( )
1 t h o se i n w h i c h
t
t h e refl ec ing surfac e i s c on c a v e i e t h e sp h e
,
r i c.al su .r fa c e i s

p o li sh e d o r s i lv ered on t e h i n sid e ; a n d ( )
2 t h o s e i n w h i c h
t
t h e r eflec ing surfac e i s o c n v e x i e t h e s p,h e r i ca.
l su .
rf a c e i s

p o li s h e d or sil v e red on t h e out sid e .

R efl e c t i on a t a C on c a v e S u r f ac e — L et A O B F
( g i 8 1 ) .

t
repre sen t h e e s c t ion o f a c o n ca v e m irr o r so t h a t t h e r e fl e c t i n ,g
su rface i s t u rne d t o the
righ t A li ne O X d r a wn .
, ,

thr oug h t h e c entre o f t h e

m i rror, 0, and t he c e n t r e ,
C , of t h e sp er e of wh i c h h
t h e m irror i s a p ar t , i s ca lle d
t h e a x is O f t h e m irro r , a nd

C is c alled the c en re t of

FIG 8 1 c ur a ure v t . Sup po se a r a y

h t in
Of lig t h e d irec t i o n P D
falls on the mirror at D; t he n ,
t o fi nd t h e pa t h O f t h e refl ec t e d

ray, we h ve t o d w t h e
a ra n orm a l t o t h e sur fa c e at D, and

h
t en ma k e t h e angle O f reflec t ion e qual to the an g le of

inc idenc e , as in t h e case Of r efl e c t io n at a pla n e m i rr o r .

Since A B is a p or ti on of a sp he e r ,
a nd C is the t
c e n re ,

C D is th e n ormal a t D H enc e if we m a. a ng le R D C
.
k e th e

e q u al t o t h e angle FD C, D R w ill be t h e refl ec te d ra y If t h e .

i nc ide nt rays are pa rallel t o t h e a x is O C , t e n , aft e r re fl e c t i o n , h

t h ey all pa ss th rough a p oi n t , F h
,
a lf -
way b tween
e 0 an d C .

h
T is point is c alled t h e pri nc ipal foc us m irro r S up Of t h e .

p ose a lu m i no u s p oi n t i s pla c e d a t c en t r e o f t h e m i rr o r
t h e

h y
C , t en all t h e ra s proceedi ng from C will stri e t h e m i r r or k
y
n ormall and be refl ec t e d ac to C b k
for i f C D i s su c a r a y, h
th en C D is t h e n orm al at D, and t h e angle of in cide nc e is
b ecause t h e angle O f i nc id en c e i s t h e an le
g e t we e n th e b
in cid ent ray a nd t h e n orm al, a nd he e C D r is b ot h t h e i n c i d e n t
ray an d t h e n orm al . H enc e t h e r efle c ted ray m u st a lso b e
incli ned at 0
°
to CD —
t hat is, t h e ray will be r efl ec t e d ba c k
a long DC . T h
u s, if an O bj e i s plac ed a t C , a n i m a e will
ct
g
b e prod uc ed r efl ec t ion by along sid e i t We c an ma e u se o f . k
y
thi s propert t o fi nd t h e c en r e t Of c urv a ure t C ; for i f we
 Conca v e Mi r r or . I 37

arra ng e t
t he posi ion of a n o bj ec t so that th e image formed is
a lo n g side the O bj ec t th en t h i s O bj ec t will be at t h e c entr e
, of

v t
c ur a u r e.

EXERC IS E —
Conca ve m ir r or .

App a r a t us —
C onc a ve m ir r or and s an d t sm all scr een c andle .

P la c e t h e c onc ave m irr or su pplied

h old er on t h e t o you in t h e
ta ble a nd i n fr ont of i t place a
, c a nd le lighted
A r r ange t h e h eight .

of t h e c a nd l e S O th a t t h e fl am e i s on a level w it h t h e cent r e of t h e

m irr or O n a n oth er st an d fix a small sc r een m a d e by gum m ing a

.
,

p iec e of wh it e tr ac ing pa per or th in tissue pa per about h alf an inc h

s q u ar e on a w ir e fr a m e and a dj u st t h e h eight of th i s sc r ee n so t h at
,

it i s also on t h e sa m e level a s t h e c entr e of t h e m irror P la c e th e .

c a n dle a b ou t 5 fe e t fr om t h e m irr or an d m ov e t h e scr een a b out t ill

,

y o u o bt ai n a sh a r p i m a g e o f t h e c a nd le C ar efu l ly n ot e wh eth er .

t h e i m a ge i s er ec t or invert ed a lso wh et h er it i s la rg er or sm a ller

,

t h an t h e obj ec t Is t h e im a ge form ed r e al or v irt u al ? Gr a du ally

.

bri ng t h e c andle near er and n ea rer t o t h e mirr or for eac h position ,

n ot i n g t h e siz e et c of t h e i m age
,
.
,
A s y ou m ove t h e c an d le .

tow ar d s t h e m irr or i n wh ic h d irect ion d oes t h e i m a ge m ove ?

,

C ar efully d et erm ine t h e posit i on wh ere t h e i m a ge an d obj ec t a re

alon g side one a n oth er a nd m ea s ur e t h e d i st an c e of t h e i m ag e or
,

O bj ec t from t h e c ent re of th e m ir ror This dist an ce will be eq ua l .

t o t h e r a d iu s of t h e sph er e of wh ic h t h e m irr or i s a par t a n d i s ,

c alle d t h e r a d i us of c ur v a t ur e of t h e m ir r or T h e d ir ec t light of .

t h e c a ndle m a y b e k ept fr om t h e sc r een by h old ing a pi ec e O f c ar d

b oar d betw een .

N ex t place t h e c andle b etween t h e c ent re of c urvat ure and t h e

m ir r or a nd a gain fi nd t h e p osit ion of t h e i m a ge
,
A l a rger sc r een .

m ay w ith a dva nt a ge b e now used A gai n n ot e t h e posit i on siz e

.
, ,

etc . of t h e i m a g e
, .

P la ce t h e c a n d l e Close t o t h e surfa c e of t h e m ir r or b eing , ,

h owever careful n ot t o pla c e it so close a s t o ru n a ny c ha nc e of

,

cr a c k in g t h e gla ss C an you now obta in a ny r e al i m age on a

.

sc r e en ? Looking at t h e m irror you will see a n im age of t h e c andle .

Is th i s i m a ge r e al or v irt ual ? G iv e r ea sons for y our an sw er .

R efl e c t i on a t a C on v e x S u r fa c e In t h e c ase of a ray —

r e fl ec t ed a t a con ve x surfac e, t h e c onst ruc t ion for t h e r e fle c t e d

ray i s simi lar t o t a t em plo e d w h y

it t h e c oncav e surfac e Th e h .

This ex periment m ust be performed in a da kened room r .

I 38 L ig h t .

c e n t re Of cur a ure v t an d th e pr i nc i pal foc us ar e, however ,

behind th e m irror, so that t h e cen tre of c urva ture c an no t be

found by pl c ing l m inous point in s ch a position th at
a a u u th e
image an d O bj e t lie alongsid e one anot he
c r.

EXE RC IS E Convex mir r or .

Appar at us -
C onvex m i rror on s and t c andle .

Plac e a candle i n fr ont of a convex m irror and find for d i ffer en t ,

positi ons of t h e c andle wheth er t h e i ma ge is real or vir tu al m ag ,

n i fied or d imi nish ed er ec t or i nver ted

, Enter in your n ot e b o o k .
-

a d escri pt i on of t h e ex p er i m ent s ou m k e an d wh t c on c lu s i on s
y a a ,

yo u d r a w fr om t h e m .

R efr ac t i on —
We h av e seen
i n t he pre vious ex erc ises h ow,
wh en h
a ray of lig t , t rav elling in one me diu m ai
( ),r str i e s a k
p olish h
ed surfac e of anot er m ed iu m ( silver) , t h e d ire c t ion i n

whi c h t h e ray is travelling i s a lt er ed and t urned ac in t o t h e b k

fi rst m ed ium . We have n ow t o study what happens t o t h at
port i on of a ray o f lig h t which striking a polish ed surfac e of
,

som e transparen t m at erial i n st e a d ,

6 M” of b eing refl ec te d b ac k in t o t h e fi r st

m edium travels on in t h e sec on d

,

m edium . Suppose A B ( Fig 8 2 ) t o .

be t h e surfa c e O f a loc o f glass, b k

so t h at h
on t h e rig t of A B we av e h
as the m ed ium air, an d on t h e le ft

g lass . L et P O be a lig ht ray in c i

den t bliq ely at 0 then a p ort ion
o u ,

of t h e ligh t will be eflec t e d alon g r

FIG 82
O R, ac c ord ing t o th e laws gi ven on
. .

p . 1 26 . T h e rest O f t h e lig t w i h
ll en t er t h e gla ss, but wi ll
n ot c on tin ue t o t ravel i n t h e sa m e direc t ion as P O , b ut w ill
be be n t,
o r r f
e r a ct ed ,
a t t h e p o in t 0 ,
w er e i t e n t e h
rs t h e

g lass , so t a th t h e r a y in t h e gla ss—

t h e r e fra c t ed ra y,
a s i t i s

c alled — w i ll t ra v e l a lo n g O T T h e. r e fra ct ed ray, o w e v e r ,

h
lies in t h e sam e pla ne as t h e in c iden t ray, t h e refl ec t ed ra y
an d t h e n o r m a l a t t h e p oi n t of i n c i d e nc e If N O N '
.i s t h e

This experiment must be performed in a darkened room .

 1 40 L ig h t .

fig ure . With 0 as bout 4 inc h es

c en r e t and a r ad i us of a ,

descr i be a c ir cle A t 0 dr ive a pin upri ght i nto t h e p a per and a t

.
,

a bout 5 i nc h es fr om 0 along O N fix anoth er pin Looking

, ,
.

th rough t h e glass place a pi n Q against t h e edge D C of t h e

, , , , ,

glass so th at this pin and t h e other t wo pin s a ppe ar ex a ctly one

,

beh ind t h e other Th en t h e direct ion of t h e inc id ent r ay is alon g

.

N 0 while t h e refra cted ray is along O Q It will be found th a t

, .

Q lie s on t h e norm al so th at wh e n th e in c ide nt r ay i s n or m al t o

,

t h e surfa c e th ere i s no r e fr a c t ion .

N ex t place a pin ( P , ) at a point about 5 inches from 0 along ,

t h e l in e O P , a nd a s b efor e fi x a noth er pin Q, aga in st t h e ed ge

, , , , , ,

D C so th a t t h e th r ee p ins Q 0 a nd P , all a ppear on e beh i n d

, , ,, , ,

t h e oth er Rem ove t h e gl ass and j oin O Q, a nd pr oduce th is lin e

.
,

t o c ut t h e c ir cle a t R, Then P , O i s t h e in c ident ray and O Q,

.
,

i s th e c orr e sp on di ng r e fr a c ted r ay Fr om t h e point M, where .

O P , c uts t h e circle dr aw M, T, per pe nd icular t o N N and fr om '

,

R , dr aw R, S , also per pen d icular t o NN

,
Measure t h e length s of '
.

M, T, and of R, S , a nd divid e M, T, by R, S , enteri ng your result s

, ,

i n a t a bl e a s in t h e ex am ple g iv en b elow
, Proc eed in t h e sam e .

way for t h e other incid ent r a ys P20 P 3 0 an d P O , , , , .

Ex am ple

It will be foun d t h a t t h e n um ber s in t h e la st c olu mn of th e

table ar e t h e sa m e, wh a te er t h e a ngle o f i n c id enc e v Th e se.

nu m b ers ar e t h e r efra c tive i nd ex Of the gla ss ,

of wh ic h t h e bloc k
i s c om p osed .

EXE RC IS E 1 1 o — .
q r a cti on a t t wo pa r a llel p la ne s urf a ces .

Appa r a t us previous ex er c ise

as in .

A s in Ex er c i se 1 09 pl a c e t h e bl ock of glass fl a t on a sh eet of

,

pa per and tr a ce t h e out line A B C D ( Fig

,
At a poi nt 0 d r a w .
, ,

t h e nor m al N ON and als o a r a y P O i n c id ent a t a b ou t Fix -

, ,

pi ns upr ight at P and 0 Repla ce t h e glass a nd looki ng t hroug h .

, ,

i t pla c e a pin at Q in c ont ac t w ith t h e fa ce C D of t h e glass so

, , , , ,
 R ef r ac t ion . 14 1

t h at P O and Q a ppear on e b eh ind t h e ot her Also plac e a pin at .

R a b out 5 i nc h es fr om Q so th a t it also a pp ear s i n line wi th t h e

, ,

oth er thr ee Rem ove t h e gl ass and

.

j oin O Q and QR Th en a r ay inc i .

d en t along P O wh en i t e nt er s t h e ,

gla ss i s refra ct ed towar ds t h e norm al

, ,

a lon g O Q A t Q wh er e t h e r a y pa sses
.
,

fr om gl a ss t o a ir t h e r a y i s a ga in re ,

fra c ted b ut t h i s t im e a wa y fr o m t h e
,

n orm al M Q M a n d proceed s i n t h e
’
,

d ir ec ti on QR Pr od u c e t h e line P 0
.

to S . It w i ll b e found th a t P S is
par allel t o QR Th us a r ay of light .
, ,

a ft er p assing th r ough su c h a sla b of

glas s t h e faces at whic h t h e r ay enters

,

and lea ves t h e gla ss b eing p arallel ,

tra vels i n a d irec t ion par allel t o t h e

in c id ent r a y b ut i s shifted t o one sid e
,
.

Measur e t h e di stance b etween P S F 84 IG. .

a nd Q R .

Re pea t t h e perim ent with ra ys for wh i ch t h e angle of incidenc e

ex

is and in eac h c a se m ea sur ing t h e a m ount of t h e la ter al

sh ift of t h e r a y Th en turn t h e block of gla ss r ound so tha t
.
,

t h e r a y ent er s a t t h e fa c e A D a nd lea ve s a t t h e fa c e B C an d , ,

m ea sur e t h e lat er al S h ift for ra y s inc id ent a t an gles O f a nd

D r a w u p a table giving t h e angle of inc idenc e t h e d istance ,

betwee n t h e fa c es of t h e block at wh ic h t h e r ay enters a nd l eaves ,

a nd t h e lat er al sh ift S tat e t o wh a t c onclusions a s t o t h e c onnec

.
,

t ion betw een th ese thr ee quantit ies your result s lead you th at , ,

i s a nsw er t h e foll owi ng quest ion s : ( I) H ow d oes t h e am ount of

,

t h e la t er al sh ift alter a s t h e an gle of inc id en ce i ncr e a se s ? ( 2 ) H o w

d oe s t h e a m ount of t h e la t er al S h ift a lt er a s k ee pi ng t h e angl e of ,

i nc id en ce th e sam e t h e th ickness of t h e sl ab i s in c rea sed ? ( 3) Is

,

th er e any a ngle of inc id ence and if S O wh at for wh ic h t h e am ou nt , , , ,

of t h e la t er al sh ift i s t h e sam e wh at ever th e th i ck ness of t h e

block ?

EXE RC IS E 1 1 1. —
P a th f
o a r ay qf lig h t t h r oug h a p r i sm.

App a r a t us — Gl ass pri sm with an an gle of a bout pins ,

pa pe r , et c .

In t h e prec ed ing exerc ise t h e path of a ray of light h as been

t r aced th rough a block of t ransparent m aterial (glass) , of wh ich
 142 L ig h t .

t h e fa c es a t which t h e r ay ent ered and left t h e block were par allel .

We h ave now t o tr ac e t h e path of t h e r ay when t h ese fa ces ar e n ot

parallel but are i nc l ined at a n angle In ord er t o Investi gat e th i s
,
.

q u e st i o n y o u ar e su ppli e d w i th a r i ght p r i s m o n a t r i a n gu la r b ase ,

m a d e of gla ss whi ch in opt i c s i s gen era lly c all ed sim ply a pr i sm

, .

Lay th i s pr i sm on a sh eet of pa p er w i th one of t h e tri an gul ar end s ,

u pp er m ost a n d h old , ,

i ng t h e pr i sm in pla ce ,

t r a c e t h e o ut l in e of t h e
pri sm A B C ( Fig 85 ) .

on t h e pa per w ith a

c h i sel poi nt ed p e nc i l -
.

A t a point 0 a l ong , ,

8 one of t h e fa c es whi c h
e n c l ose the a c ute

F 85 IG . .
( s h a r p ) a n g le o f t h e

prism fix a pin upright ,

i n t h e p a p er Fix anoth er pin at a point P a b out 5 in c h es from 0

’

. .
, ,

Th en l ooki ng t hrough t h e pri sm fix t wo oth er pins R and S so

, , , ,

th at t hey a ppe ar in lin e wit h t h e t wo pin s P a nd 0 Rem ove t h e .

prism and j oin S and R prod uc ing t h e line t o cut t h e pri sm a t Q

, ,
.

J o i n O a n d Q Th en t
. h e r a y i n c id e n t al o n g O P i s o n e n t er i n g t h e ,

prism refracted along O Q At Q t h is r ay leaves t h e pri sm a nd i s

,
.
,

a gain r efr a ct ed pa ssin g a long QS

, It w i ll b e fou nd th a t QS i s no t
.

par allel t o P O so th at wh en a r ay of light passes th rough a pri sm

,

it s c our se i s d ev ia ted t owar d s t h e th ick end or b a se of t h e pr i sm .

Pr od uce S Q t o M a nd P 0 t o N then t h e r ay h as been t urned

, ,

through t h e angle O NM Thi s angle i s c a lled t h e an gl e of dev i

.

a t i on .

Keeping t h e pin P fix ed pla c e t h e pi n 0 at diff erent p oint s

,

along A C a nd i n ea c h c a se fi n d t h e d ir ec t ion of t h e r a y a ft er
,

leavi ng t h e pri sm P r od uce all these ra ys b ack t owar d s M a n d

.
,

i t will be fou nd th a t t h ey m eet at one point P Thu s we h ave th e '

.
,

r a ys fr om P wh i c h ar e d ev iat ed by t h e pr i sm pr oceed ing a ft er ,

th ey leave t h e pri sm as if th ey c a m e from P Hence P i s t h e

,
'
.
'

i m age of P ( see p Pr ove t h at th is i s so by pl a cin g a pin a t

.

t h e i m age of P by t h e pa rallax m eth od ( see p Tha t i s .

,

a dj u st t h e p osit ion of a pi n a t P so th a t t h e t op of th is pi n see n

'
, ,

over t h e top of t h e p ri sm see m s wh en you m ove y our eye fr om

, ,

sid e t o sid e t o b e alwa y s a c ont inu a ti on of t h e lower p ar t o f t h e

,

p i n P s e en t h r oug h t h e pr i sm .
 1 44 L ig h t .

EXE RC IS E 1 1 3
. Comp osi te na t ur e qf w h i te lig h t .

App a r at us prev ious ex er cise

as in ,
with t h e addit ion
of a b a t s
’

wing b ur ner an d a piec e of c ar d board .

Take a piece of c ardboar d a bout 4 inch es squar e and in it c ut ,

a sli t 1 i nc h long an d a t enth of an i nch w i de Fix thi s c ar d i n .

a r etor t c la m p b efore a b a t s w i ng g a s burner so th at t h e s lit i s

’-
-
,

vertic al Then standing at a di stance of about 5 yard s from th e

.
,

sli t look a t it thr ough t h e pr i sm u sed i n t h e last ex erc i se h oldi n g

, ,

t h e pri sm with t h e r e fra c ti ng ed ge par allel t o t h e slit ( t e v er t i c al) . . .

In stea d of seein g a sh ar p wh i t e i m a ge of t h e slit you wi ll see a ,

band of light sh owing t h e c olours of t h e r ainbow D r a w u p a .

ta ble of those colour s you see th at you can name arranging th em ,

i n order st art ing with t h e c olour wh ic h is m ost d evia t ed

, .

In thi s ex per im ent t h e r a ys of wh ite light wh ich com ing fr o m ,

t h e g a s fl am e str ike t h e pr ism ar e split u p in to a n um b er o f

, ,

di ffer en t c olour ed r ay s so t ha t wh a t we c all wh ite light i s r ea lly

,

a mi x t ur e of light of all th ese d i fferent c olour s .

S p ec t r um a n d S p ec t r osc op e Th e and of c olou rs .

—
b
h h h h b k
int o w ic w ite lig t i s ro en w en it passes t roug a h h h
pri sm i s c alled a sp ec trum T o st ud
. t h e spec t ru m u se is y

FIG 86 . .

m ade of an instrum en t c alle d a spec troscope, and s own i n h

h
Fig 8 6 It c onsist s O f a slit, A , t roug wh ic t he lig t e n t e rs
. . h h h
t h e in strum ent . h
T is slit is fi x ed at one end of a tu e , A B , b
ca lled t h e c ollima t or, a lens b
eing fix ed at t h e o t er en d , B h .
 A bsorpt i on .
5

T h e prism C is plac ed on a sm all t a le fi x ed t o t h e in stru . b

m ent , and t h e spec trum is ex am ined m eans O f a t elesc ope , by
h h
ED , w ic c an be t urned so t a t th e lig t ra s, after eing h h y b
d e via t ed by
t h e prism, m ay en t er .

EXERC IS E 1 1 4. —
f g li A bsorpt ion
h t by co lour ed bodi es o .

App a r a t u s —
S pec tr oscop e ; b a t s wi ng b ur ner ; colour ed glass ;
’ -

t est tu be ; c opper ; and nitr ic a c id

-
.

Plac e a b at s win g burner in fr ont of t h e slit Of th e spect ro

’ -

sc o pe so th a t t h e ed ge of t h e fl am e i s t ur ned t oward s t h e slit

, .

Move t h e telescope till t h e spectrum i s seen t hen clam p it in t his ,

i t i n P la c e a p iec e of c oloured gla ss b etw e n t h fl am e and

p o s o . e e

t h e sli t a nd i t w
, i ll b e foun d th a t part of t h e spectrum i s c ut off .

U se g las s of var ious colour s ruby gr een bl ue et c a nd i n eac h

, , , , .
,

c a se m ak e a n ote of t h e c olour s whi c h ar e ab sent from t h e s pe c

t r um . Th ese c olours have been absorbed by t h e pa ssa ge of t h e

lig ht thr ough t h e c olour ed glass .

P la c e a dee p r uby red glass in fr ont of t he sli t only a r ed band

-
,

will b e s een ; now place a piece of c ob alt blue glass between t h e

ey e pi e c e a n d y our eye or i n fr on t of t h e r ed gla ss
, NO light n ow .

e s t h e r ed gla ss ab sorb s a ll t h e ray s ex c ept t h e r ed wh ile t h e

p a ss ,

blue gla ss absorb s t h e red r ays ; th us n o light can pass thr ough ,

th em b oth .

P lac e a few copper t urni ngs in a test tube and add a litt le nitr ic -
,

a c id ; close t h e end of t h e t est t ub e w ith a plug of c ott on w -

ool -
.

B r own i sh c olour ed fu m es w ill b e gi ven off and fill t h e tub e

-
Plac e .

t h e tu be in fr on t of t h e slit of t h e spec tr osc ope an d notic e th a t ,

ther e ar e a num ber of blac k ban ds a cross t h e spec trum T h e .

light of t h e colour corr esp onding t o eac h of th ese b and s h as b een

a b sor b ed by t h e b r ow n va p our .

EXE RC IS E Br igh t li nes f metals

’

—
1 1 5 . . o .

App a r a t us S pect rosc op e ; B u nsen s

-
’
burner ; plat i num wire ;
sa lt s of v
a r i ou s m et al s .

Re pla c e t h e b at s wing b ur n er in t h e la st ex erc ise by a B unsen

’ -

b ur n er T ake a p iece of platinum wir e a few inch es long, an d fu se

.

one e n d i nt o a pi ec e of glass t ub e t o form a h a ndle D ip th i s wir e .

i nto a str ong solut i on of c om m on salt Fix t h e glass h and le in .

a r e tor t c lam p , so th at t h e wi r e i s in t h e fla m e of t h e B un sen

bur n er . N
ot i ce t h e br ig ht y ellow c olour of t h e fl a m e Ex a m ine it .

thr ough t h e spectroscope It will be found th at, in plac e of a long

.

dra w n -
ou t spec tr um , a sh ar p n arr ow y ellow li ne a lone i s for m ed .

L
 1 46 L ig h t .

Th is line is t h e image of t h e sli t and Since it is not drawn out we,

see t h a t t h e lig ht Obt ai ned wh en c om m on salt ( sod i um c hlori d e) i s

placed in a B unsen flam e con sist s of light of one colour only .

C ar efully wash t h e wir e and th en dip i t i nt o a solut io n o f

,

washing soda ( sodium c arbon at e) th e sam e yellowline will a gai n ,

b e found . Thus we c onclud e th at whatever it i s tha t c au ses t h e

yellowline occur s in com m on salt and in wash ing sod a It would .
,

in t h e sa me way b e found th at all com p ounds contai ning t h e m et al

,

sod iu m sh ow th i s y ellow line ; and h en c e w e c onclud e t h a t wh en ,

ev er t h is y ellowline i s fou nd sod ium m u st for m p ar t of t h e bo d y

,

pla ced in t h e fl am e .

Re pea t th e ex perim ent u sing solutions of c alc ium c hlorid e

, ,

str onti u m c hlorid e th alli um c hl ori d e li th ium c hlor id e an d m a g n e

, , ,

s ium c hlorid e {,
in each c a se m aki ng a not e of t h e num b er a n d
c olour of t h e br igh t lines Ob ser ved B e car eful t o well wash t h e .

wire before using a fr esh salt .

EXERC IS E 1 1 6 .
— D a r h li nes i n t he sola r s ect r um
p .

Appa r at u s — D irect vi sion spec troscope li me light

-
,
-
.

Look at th e sun through a direct vision spectroscope or arr ange -

,

a p iec e of looking gla ss so th at sunlight is reflect ed in th r o ugh t h e

-

slit of t h e spec tr osc ope u sed in t h e la st ex erc ise A b ri ght spe c tru m .

will be Obta ined but if t h e slit i s m ade suffi cient ly n arrow i t will
, , ,

b e O b ser ved th at t h is spe ctr um i s crosse d by a large num ber of fin e

d ark lin es .

Pla c e a large B unsen burner in front of t h e lim e of an ox y .

hydrogen burner S O that t h e flam e of t h e B unsen is bet ween t h e li m e

,

a nd t h e slit of t h e spec t rosco pe While you wat ch t h e spec tr um

.

let an oth er Observer h old a sm a ll piece of m etallic sodi um held i n ,

a sm all m et al spoon in t h e fl am e of t h e B unsen

,
Th e fl a m e will .

b e c olour ed a ver y brilliant yellow an d t h e observer at t h e s pec tr o

,

sc ope w ill see a d ar k line a p pe ar c r ossing t h e spe ctrum i n t h e

y ellow Withou t d isturbing a nyth ing place a card b etween t h e

.
,

lim e light and t h e B unsen so a s t o cu t O ff t h e light fr om t h e for m er

-
,

a br ight y ellow line im m ed i at ely a ppe ar s a t t h e pla c e wh er e t h e

d ar k lin e previously ex isted Th u s wh en a b eam of wh ite ligh t

.
,

i s p assed through a fl am e c olour ed y ellowby sod i um t h e light O f ,

t h a t c olour whi c h t h e s od i um va pour i t self g ives out i s a b s or b ed ,

a nd th us a d ark li ne i s form ed i n t h e spec tru m Kee ping thi s .

ex per im ent i n m ind t o w h at c onclusions do you com e as t o t h e

,

c ause of t h e d ark lines O b ser ved w hen sunligh t was ex am in ed

thr ough t h e spec troscope ?
1 48 H ea t .

will b ecom e h eated , and t h e wax will m elt When th e wax h a s .

m elted as far as i t will, whi c h w ill take a t lea st t en m inut es,

m easure th e d i stanc e from t h e t op of t h e wood t o t h e h igh est poin t
on each r od a t w h ich t h e wax h a s m elt ed Then m easur e th e .

dist ance fr om t h e t Op of t h e w ood t o t h e sur fa c e of t h e wat er , an d

a dd th i s leng th t o th ose pr evi ously m ea sur ed, i n or d er t o btain t h e O
leng th along e ac h r od, count ed fr om t h e pla c e wh er e t h e h eat wa s
a pplied , th r ough wh i ch t h e wax h a s m elt ed Rep ea t t h e ex per i .

m ent t h ree or four t im es, and t ake t h e m ean Th e sq u ares of .

t h e length s obtained are propor tion al t o t h e c ond uc tiv i ti es O f t h e

m etals ; henc e c alc ulat e t h e rat io of t h e c onduc ti i ty of copper t o v
that Of ir on and of brass .

It will be found an a ssi st anc e, wh en not ing t h e ex t ent t o wh ic h

t h e wax h a s been m elt ed , t o put t h e instrum ent i n a good light ,
a nd wat c h t h e r e fl ect i on of t h e light on t h e r od s For th is reason .

t h e rod s ough t t o b e poli sh ed , t h ough not lac q uer ed .

EXE RC IS E 1 1 9. —
Cond uction f
o hea t i n li qui ds .

App a r a t us — L g
w test tube m erc ury
on , narr o -
.

F ill a long narrow test tube w ith c old wat er and holding t h e
,
-
, ,

t ube by th e closed end boil t h e water at th e upper end Over a

,

B unsen fl am e It will b e foun d th a t th is can b e d one without t h e

.

lower end be c omi ng h ot Wa t er i s t h us seen t o b e a b a d conduc tor

.

of h ea t. Repla c e t h e w ater by m er c ury a nd a gain gently h eat ,

near th e t op T h e low er end wi ll b e found t o g et h ot m ercur y

.
,

b eing a good cond uc t or of h eat All li quid s with th e ex ception of.

,

m ercur y a re ver y b ad c ond uc tor s O f h eat

,
.

EXE RC IS E I2 0 .
—
Method of filli ng a n alcoh ol ther mometer .

Afl a r a t us Th ermom eter t ubing ; alcoh ol coloured wi th ,

a niline m a gent a foot blowpi pe -

.

Take a piece of therm om eter tubing with a fair ly wide bore

( a b out i nc h ) and a t one end bl ow a str ong b ulb a b out 2 i nch i n

d iam eter ( see p Connect t h e oth er e nd w ith a small gla ss

.

funnel by m ean s of a sh or t lengt h of indi arubb er t ub e Fix t h e t u b e .

u p right i n a r et ort st and w ith t h e b ulb at t h e b ott om an d put som e

-
,

c olour ed alc oh ol in t h e funnel P lace a sm all t in contai ning boil

.
,

i ng wa ter so t h a t t h e bulb i s su rr ounded by t h e h ot wa ter

,
Th e .

air insid e t h e b ulb w i ll expand and some will esca pe in b ub bles ,

t h rough t h e alc oh ol in t h e funnel Rem ove t h e h ot water a nd .

,

a llow t h e b ulb t o cool S om e of t h e alcoh ol w ill b e sucked in t o

.
 Ther m ometer . 1 49

t he bulb Replac e t h e h ot w a t er so a s t o m ake t h e alcoh ol con

.

t ai ned in t h e b ulb b oil ; a nd wh en i t h a s all b oiled a w ay, a gain

c ool t h e b ulb Th e alc oh ol ought now t o com pletely fi ll t h e b ulb
. .

If th er e i s a sm all b ubble of air left , t h e alc oh ol i n t h e b ulb m ust

aga i n be all boiled a wa y .

Wh en th e bulb i s quite full rem o e t h e funnel, a nd notic e th at , v

as th e bulb c ools t h e alc oh ol c ontra c ts War m th e b ulb by h old
, .

i ng i t i n y our h and and notic e th e ex pa nsion t h e alc oh ol ri sing i n ,

the t u be .

Th e T h erm om e t er .
— Th e m ost c ommonl y used inst ru
m en t for m easuring tem pera ture i s th e th ermometer . A form
Of t h erm om eter t
sui a ble for t h e tem perature measurem ents in
these ex erc ise s is h wn
s o i n Fig 8 7 . . It c onsists of a bulb , B,

Fro 87
. .
Q) .

t
con a ini ng m ercur y and c onnec ed t with a fin e -
bo ed ste n
r r , CA .

The b lb is made cylindrical and of th e same diameter as th e

u

st e m so th t t h e b ulb of t h e t h e m omet e
,
a may if neé essary r r , ,

be passe d t h ough a hole in c o k r It i s advisable howeve

a r .
, r,

whenever it is possi ble not t o try and push t he b ulb t h ough

,
r

a cork bu t t o t hread th e c o k over t h e en d A

,
Th e eason
r . r

being t h t th e bulb is made of ve y thin glass in orde th t t he

a r ,
r a

h eat m y pass easily to th e me c y fo i t will be emembe ed

a r ur , r r r

th t gl s s was found t o be a b d c o nduc to of h eat H enc e

a a a r .

neve u se t h e t h erm om et e
r t o stir t h e liquid in a v essel
r ,

as n
a c c iden tal b low ag ai n st t h e
a id e would prob ab ly c ack s r

t h e b lb u .

T h e sc le O f t h e th e m om e te is et ch ed on t he o t side of
a r r u

t h e ste m an d is suc h t h at wh en t h e b ulb of t h e t h erm om e t er

, ,

i s pl c ed in m elt ing i c e th e end of t he m erc u y colum n stan ds

a ,
r

a t t h e di vision m a ked Wh en t h e bulb and t h e stem are

r 0.

p lac e d i n t h e st ea m g i v e n O f
f fr om w a t er b oili ng w h e n t h e

b a om et ic heigh t i s 7 6 ent im et es th e end of th e m e ury

r r c r ,
rc

c olum n st ands at t h e d ivi sion m ark ed 1 00 The pac e . s

between th ese t wo m ark s i s di vided into a hund red equal

1 5 0 H ea t .

p ar s t . Th e ri se y t o cause th e end O f
of temperat ure n ec essar

t h e m ercury c olumn t o pass t h roug h one of t h ese divi sion s i s

c alled a degree c e nt ig a de an d is a h nd edt h of t h e diffe enc e
r , u r r

i n t m pe a t e b etween m elting ic e and w t er b oiling u n d e

e r ur a r

t h e c onditions g iv en a b ove D eg ees of t em perat re a e . r u r

g e n erally i nd ica t e d i n t h e sa me w y a s d eg ees o f an l

g (
e se e a r

p . with , in t h e case O f d egrees C entigrade, th e let ter C

p lac e d a ft er —
th u s
tem perature Of five and a half d egrees
, a

C entigrade would be written C .

B esides th e C entig rade scale th ere i s anoth er in c omm on ,

u se i n En land c alled t h e Fahrenh eit scale O t h i l t h

g , n s sc a e e .

i nterv al be tween t he t e m peratu re O f m elti ng ic e a nd t ha t o f

b oiling water i s divided into 1 80 part s The tempera ture O f .

m elti ng ic e i nstead of b e ing called

, i s called so t h a t

t h e t empera ture of b oiling w at er i s on t h e Fa hrenh ei t sc ale , ,

D egrees Fahrenh ei t are d ist inguish ed by hav ing t h e

lett er F plac ed a fter so t h at t h e b oiling point of wa t er i s
.
,
-

written 2 1 2 F °
.

EXE RC IS E 12I To test th e cor rect ness qf the f r eez i ng p oi nt

-

( 0
°
C ) qf
. a t her mometer .

A ppa r a t us —
L g
ar e fu nn el ; i c e ; m er c ury th erm om et er , r ea d .

i ng fr o m 5
°
C to .
°
1 05 C .

P lac e t h e funnel su ppli ed t o you on t h e r ing of a r etort stand -

,

a nd a tt a c h a sh or t p iec e of i nd i arubb er t u b i ng t o t h e neck C lose .

th is tu bing with a pinch c ock a nd fill t h e funnel with finely pou nded
,

ice .T h e i c e m ay b e pou nd ed by wra pp ing it i n a pi ec e of fl a nne l ,

a nd h a m m er i ng w it h a w ood en m allet P our som e distilled w at er .

over t h e i ce Then m ake a h ole t h rou gh t h e ice with a pencil a nd

.
,

i n sert t h e bu lb of t h e t h er m om et er i n th is h ole so t h a t t h e 0
°
,

d i vi sion i s j u st level wit h t h e t op of t h e i c e If n ec essar y fix t h e .

th erm om et er in t h i s position by m ean s of a t h r ead fastened t o t h e

,

r in g a t t h e t op of t h e th erm om et er a nd t o t h e r et ort st a nd All w -

. o

t h e th erm om et er t o st an d in t h e i c e t ill t h e r ea di ng b ecom e s

c on st a nt It m u st b e l eft i n for at least t en m inutes
. Then c are .

fully t ake t h e r ead i ng esti ma ting t o t h e near est t ent h of a d eg ree ,

and b ein g c a r eful t o not e wh eth er t h e the r m om et er r ea d s h igh er or

low er t h a n
I5 2 H ea t .

S inc e t h e t emperature O f th e b oili ng wat er increases 3 6 for a n

incr ease of 1 c m in t h e b ar om et ric h eight , t h e increa se in t em p er a
.

tur e for 0 8 c m will be .

H ence t h e tem perature Of t h e steam at t h e time of t h e ex per im ent

was T h e th er m om et er h owev er r ead an d th er e , ,

for e i t r ead s or o 3 t oo h igh at t h e b oil ing

°'

oint
p .

EX RC ISE 1 2 3
E .
— Efi2ct of '
sa lt on f
the f r eez i ng poi nt o -
wa ter .

Appa r a t us — Th er m om eter , r ea di n g b t
t o a ou 20
°
C . t est
t ub e an d beaker ic e ; salt .

P ound up som e ice or u se snow a nd m ix with it a bout a thir d ,

O f i t s b ulk of pow d er ed comm on salt Plunge th e b ulb of a th er .

m om et er graduat ed t o a b ou t 2 0 below zero i n t h e mixt ur e and

,
°
, ,

r e ad t h e lowest t em pera t ur e r eac h ed It will b e found th at by .

,

m ean s of suc h a m ixt ur e of i c e an d s alt called a freezing mix tur e , ,

a t em per atur e of ab out 1 5 C c an b e O bt ained

°
. .

P lace som e water i n a test tub e and plunge it in t h e m ix tur e of

-
,

i c e and salt Place t h e bulb of t h e t herm om eter i n t h e water and

.
,

keep it c ontinually m ovi ng up and down th rough about a n i nc h .

N ot ice t h at th e temper ature gr ad ually falls and as soon a s any ic e , ,

for m s r ea d t h e th erm om eter a nd im m ed i ately r em ove it

, , .

Melt t h e i ce in th e t est tube and th en add t wo or th ree pinch es

-
,

of c om m on salt t o t h e wa t er an d agai n set i t t o c ool Note t h e

, .

t em per a tu re wh en ic e b egi ns t o for m .

Re pe a t t h e ex perim en t gr ad ually increasi ng th e quant ity of salt

,

a d d ed To wh at c onclu sion d o you r result s lead you as t o t h e

.

effec t of d i ssolved salt o n t h e fr eez ing p oint of w at er ? Will it -

r eq uir e a low er or h igh er t em p er a tur e th an 0 C t o fr eeze sea °

.

w at er ?
EX ERC IS E 1 2 4. -
Efi ct of sa lt on th e boi li ng poi nt -
f
o

Appar a tus Wurtz flask ( or ord in ary flask wi th a long n eck)

—

of a b ou t 1 0 ounc es cap ac ity ; t h erm om et er .

Fit a c ork t o a fl ask of t h e sh ap e sh own i n Fig 89 a nd th r ou gh .

,

this cork bore a h ole so that t h e stem Of t h e th erm om eter m ay fi t

1
,

fair ly t ightly Fill th e flask abou t h alf full of water a nd h ea t over

.
,

1
If a n ordinary fl ask is used t wo holes must be bored In t h e cork ,
on e for t h e t h ermomet er th e o ther for a p iece of b ent
, gl ass t ube .
 Expa ns ion of Solid s . 1 53

a B un sen burner placing a pi ece of wire gauze between th e fl ask

,

a nd t h e fl am e a s sh ow n i n Fig 98
,
When t h e water boils n otic e . .
,

th at t h e th erm om eter steadily r eg ister s 1 00 C wh en t h e bulb i s in °

.

t h e ste am b ut wh en i t i s pu sh ed d own
,

i nt o t h e wa ter t h at t h e r ead in g is O ften

,

c on sid er ably h igh er t h an an d

d oes not r em ai n st ead y A d d a b out .

5 g r m .s of co m m on s alt t o t h e w a t e r ,

a nd a gai n b oil F ir st pla c e t h e bulb

.

O f t h e t h erm om et er i n t h e li q u i d ; it

will b e found that t h e tem perat ur e is

over 1 00
°
C .Then r em ove th e t her
m omet er a nd wip e t h e bu lb r epla c ing ,

it so th a t t h e b ulb i s i n t h e st ea m
gi ven O ff by t h e boiling salt solut ion .

A g a in r e ad t h e t em pe r a t ur e S t at e i n .

your not e book wh at i s t h e effect of

-

a dd i ng som e c o mm on salt on t h e b oil

i ng poin t of w at er an d wh a t is t h e
-
,
F 89 (i ) IG

e ffe c t on t h e t em per a t ur e of t h e st eam

given O ff Fr om t h e r esults of t h e se ex per im ents state wh at are ,

t h e r ea sons for plac ing t h e t h erm om eter in t h e st eam giv en o ff by

boiling wat er a nd not i n t h e wat er i t self wh en t est ing t h e b oiling ,

poi nt of a t herm om et er .

EX E RC IS E 1 2 5 .
—
Expa nsion of solids.

Appar at us —
Zinc r od an d iron gauge piec e ; c an t o c onta i n
boiling wat er .

Y ou ar e supplied with a z inc r od A B ( Fig with ac cur at ely , .

squ ar ed e nd s Wh en cold t h is r od
.
,

ex a c t ly fi t s i nsid e t h e j a w s o f t h e

pl ate o f ir on C Rem ove A B and .

,

h eat i t by plunging in boiling wa ter .

It w ill b e fou nd i m possibl e t o pl a c e

A B b etw een t h e j aws O f C a s i t i s ,

now t oo l ong H enc e t h e r od h a s

.
,

ex p an d ed ow i ng t o t h e h eat i n g N ex t .

h eat both A B a nd C in b oil ing w at er ( id ,

a nd see i f n ow t h at bot h A B an d C
,

a re a g a in a t t h e s am e t em p era tur e it i s po ssibl e t o pla c e A B ,

between t h e j aws of C To wh at c onc lusion as t o t h e relative .

ex p an si ons of z inc a nd i r on d oes thi s exp er i m ent lea d you ?

 1 54 H ea t .

C oe mc i en t of E p an si on
x — Wh en a solid b ody is
h eated it expands in all di ec tions and if there are any t wo r ,

ma ks or points in t he b ody exac tly unit leng th apart t h en

r ,

t he mount by whi h t h e distanc e b etween th ese poin ts ia

a c

c reases w hen the body is hea ted through 1 C is called t h e °

.

c o
fi
-
icient of li nea r e p a nsi n of th e b ody x o .

Suppose t h e c oeffic ie n t of linear ex pansion of a solid is a

,

and we av e a h cu be of t hi s solid, eac h edg e being 1 c m.

long ; th en , if t h is cu be is h eated through 1

°
C .
, eac h e dg e
wi ll ex pand and ( b ecome
) v 1olum e will a cm . and t he
It ca n be sh own by alg ebra th at if as is
be ( 1 “
a
) c c . .
,

t he case a is a v ery sm all quant it y t h en 1

( )
8
, . at 1 3 a , .

Now t h e volume of t h e b ody when heated t hroug h 1 C

, ,
°
.

h as increased from 1 c c t o ( 1 3 )a c c . H. e n ce t h e i n c re as e . .

of v olume i s T h i n i n t h ol m O f n i t
3 0 c c e cr
. e.a s e . e v u e u

volu me of a b ody wh en it is h eat ed through 1 C i s c alled °

.

t h e coqfi cient of cu bi cal ex p a ns i on o f t h e b o d y I t t h er e fo r e .

follows th at t h e c oeffic i en t of c ub ical ex pansion of a ny b ody

is t hr ee times t h e coeffi cien t O f li near ex pansion In t he case .

of li qui d s and
g ase s t h e c o e ffi c i e n t O
, f c u b ic al ex pansi on i s

t h e only one w i t h wh ic h we h ave t o deal .

EXE RCIS E I 6.
2 — Expa nsion of liquids .

A ppa r a t us P iece of therm om eter t ube 1 0 i nch es long a nd

—

inc h bor e with a b ulb a b out 1 inc h i n d ia m eter a t o ne end

, .

F ill t h e bulb supplied t o you with alcohol ( m ethylated spirit) by

t h e m eth od u sed in Ex er c ise 1 2 0 Allow t h e b ulb t o c ool befo re .

r em ov i ng t h e funnel ; a nd r em ov e a ny sm all b ubble t h a t m a y b e

left by sh aking it up t h e t ub e
,
Then plunge th e b ulb and a s .
,

m uc h of t h e t ube as possible i nto a vessel filled wi t h wat er a t ,

a b out 60 C °
Keep this wat er w ell st irred for about t en m in ute s
.
,

t h en m eas u r e t h e t em pe rat ur e w i th a t h ermom et er an d r e m ove ,

a ll e x c ess of liquid fr om t h e o pen end of t h e t ube If t h e liq u id .

d oes not ent ir ely fill t h e t u b e m ea sur e t h e d i st anc e of t h e sur fac e

,

of t h e l iquid fr om t h e end of t h e t ub e Place t h e bulb in wa ter .

at a nd i n i c e in ea c h c a se k eepi ng t h e wa t e r ,

w ell sti rr ed for several m inutes b efor e tak ing a r eading and r ec or d ,

t h e t em p er at ur e and t h e d i st a nc e of t h e end of t h e liqu id c olum n

fr om t h e end O f t h e tub e .
I5 6 H ea t .

and tube suc h as was used i n t h e la st ex erc ise We m ay

, .
,

however m ake u se of th e fac t th at if a body of water i s at

, ,

difl erent t emperat ures a t d i fferent par ts th en th ose portion s

'

O f th e w ate r w hic h are of greatest density will sink t o t he

b ottom while t he ligh ter water will float on t he top t o det er
, ,

m ine t h e point Of m ax im u m d ensity .

A piec e of apparatu s ( c alled H ope s apparat us) suit able fo r

’

de term ining t h e point of m ax im um d ensity of wat er o n t h i s

pr in c iple i s sh ow n i n se c ti on i n Fig 9 1 , I t c o nsi st s of a t
. a ll .

m etal c ylinder A B wit h a troug h , , ,

C a t t h e c ent re an d t wo t h erm o
, ,

m et ers D and E one n ear e ac h , ,

en d T h is m etal c ylinder i s fi lle d

.

wi th wa t er at a t emperat ure O f
ab ou t 6 C a n d t h en a freez ing
°
,

m ix ture c onsi sti ng O f snow o r ,

o u nd ed i ce and c ryst alliz ed c al

p
c i um c hlo ide r , is plac ed in t h e
t rough C h . B y t is m ean s t h e
water at t h e m iddle O f th e cylin der
is c oole d and will ei t h er asc en d
,

or d esc end, ac c ord ing a s i n c ool

b
ing i t ec om es lig ter or d en se r h .

As a m atter Of fac t it wi ll b ec om e
d en ser an d S i n k ,
an d t h i s will b e
s o h by the tempe at e egi
wn r ur r s

t e ed by t h e lowe t h e m om et e
r r r r,

E sink ing pi dly wh il t h e u ppe

,
ra , e r

th erm om e t r D will c onti n e t o e , ,

u

F 9 IG . 1 .
indic ate t h e
t em p e ra t u r e sam e .

Th e tem peratur e at th e b o tto m

will C ontinue t o fall till t h e th erm om e ter E registers a t em
p e ra t ure o f 4 C w h°
en i t will r e
,
m a i n st a t ion ar y T h e u pp er .

t h erm om eter D wh ic h u p t o now h as not in dicate d any

, , , ,

fall of t em perat ure th e n b eg ins t o fall ,

Th i s therm om e t e r .

c on tin u es t o fa ll t ill a t em perat ure of 0 C i s reac h e d We °

. .

th us see that t h e water at 4 C i s denser t han wat er a t any

°
.

oth er t em p era t ure for alt h oug h t h e tem peratu re of t h e upp er

 Expa ns i on of C a ses . 1 57

wat er h as sunk t o yet i t h a s n ot b een able t o d i splac e t h e

water at t h e b ottom whic h is at 4
°

EXE RC IS E 1 2 7. —
H ope s
’
p
ex er i ment .

App a r at us —
H op e s ’
a pparat u s ; cr ystallized c alc i um c hlorid e ;
s no w or ic e .

tube F ( Fig 91 ) by m ean s of a shor t lengt h

C lose t h e d r a in -
.

of ru bb er t ub ing a nd a cli p an d fi ll t h e a pp a r a t u s w it h w a t er
,

wh ic h h as been c ooled t o 6 C Then pla ce a fre ezing m ix tur e

°
.
,

obt a i ned by m ix i ng pound e d i c e or snow w i t h h alf i t s weigh t o f

c r y st alli z ed c alc ium c hl or id e i n t h e tr ou gh C an d r e ad t h e t wo ,

t h erm om et er s at in t erv als e nt er ing t h e te m perat ur e s in t wo p ar allel

,

c olum n s Conti nu e r eading t ill t h e t h er m om eter D falls t o 1 or

°
.

°
2 C .

U nless t h e wat er i s c ooled t o 6 befor e being introd uc ed into °

t h e a pparat u s i t w i ll be a long t i m e ( a n h our or m ore) b efore t h e

t o p t h er m om et er b eg i ns t o fall Th i s is d ue t o t h e water at .

t h e t op b ei ng less d en se t h an w at er at and h ence t h e c ooling

h as t o g o o n by c ond uct ion only c onvec t i on curr ents n ot bei ng ,

set u p .

It i s n ec essar y th at
wh ole in strum ent S h ould be pa cked
t he
r oun d wi th som e n onc ond u c t ing m at er i al su c h a s felt or c ott on
,

wool a pad bein g also pl ac ed over t h e t op an d u nd ernea th i n

, ,

o r d er t o pr ev ent t h e w at er b e ing h ea t ed by t h e ai r of t h e r oo m .

Ent er i n your n ot e b ook a n a c c ou nt of t h e ex perim ent gi ving

-
,

( )
1 t h e O bj ec t o f t h e ex per i m ent ; ( 2 ) t h e m eth od of c ar r y i ng ou t

t h e ex per im ent ; an d ( 3) t h e c onclu sion s t o wh i c h y our r esult s

le a d .

C oe mc i en t of Ex p an si on of G a ses Th e ex p eri —

m en t s m ad e in t h e sec ti on on B o le s law ave s own t a t a ir

’
y h h h
is i gh hy
l c om pr e ssi le—
a p p
r o e rbt w i c i t s a res w i t a lly h h h h
h
o t er ga ses H e nc e, i n t h e ca se o f gase s, we m ay eit er
. h
m e asu re t h e am ount by h h
w ic t h e v olum e of a g iven mass o f
g a s i n c r ea se s w e n ea t e d , tah i n g h ca rek t o e ep t h e p r e ssu r e k
c on s a n t t , or we m ay inc re ase t h e pr essu re as t h e t em pera ture
ri se s, so t h at t h e volum e o f t h e gas re main s u na lt ere d , an d
t he n m ea sure h h
t h e in c rease of p re ssu re T ere are, t er efore, .

t wo c oeffi c ien t s of ex pan sion i n t he case of gases on e t he —

c oe ffi c i e n t of in c re ase of pressure at c onstan t volume an d t h e ,

1 5 8 H ea t .

th er th e c oefli c ient of increase of volum e at constant pressure

'

o .

Li quid s and solid s are so v ery inc ompressib le t hat t h e c o

effi c ient of i ncrease of v olum e at c onstan t pressure is th e only

on e than c an be O b serv ed .

Again since gases expan d so very considerab ly wh e n

,

h eated it is necessary to amplify th e definition of th e c o

,

e flic ient O f c ub i c al ex pa nsion i n th e cas e o f t h ese sub sta nc es ,

and say t h at t h e c oeffi ci ent of e x pansi on is t h e ra t io of th e

inc rease i n volu m e or pressure as t he c ase m ay be for a rise , ,

° °
Of 1 C t o t he v olu me or pressure at 0 C
. .

Suppose t h e v olum e of a c erta i n m ass of ga s at a pre ssure

P o an d at a t em perat ur e o f 0 C i s V, a nd t ha t th e i nc rease
°
.
,

in v olum e wh en t h e gas is h eated t o 1 C

°
th e pr essure .
,

remaining c onstan t i s v ; t hen t h e c oeffi c ien t of incr ea se o f

7}
volum e a t c onst an t pre ssur e is If, wh en t h e gas is at
0

t h e pressure is in creased by an amount p so that the volum e , ,

i s again reduc ed t o V 0, t h en by Boy le l w ( p 6 )

,
’
s a . 0

V
( 0 )
7’ Po V0 ( P0 + P )
Vop o l “ “
71 P O VbPo + o “

”P 0 V
P o
7’ P
Vo Po
1’
—
i s the coeffi c ien t of i ncrease of pre s sure at c ons an t t
P0
volum e . H ence we see t h at ,
for a g a s wh ic h o bey s y
B o le
’
s

la w, t h e t wo t
c oeffi c ie n s o f ex pan si on are e qual .

It is fou nd t h at all g a se s,
a s long as t hey are su ffi ci ently
rem oved th eir liquefyi ng poin t h ave t h e same
from -
, c oeffi c ie n t

o f ex pansion and th a t t h is c oe ffi c ien t i s t h e sa m e a t all

,

tem peratures so th a t th ey d iffer in t hese respec ts in a mark ed

,

m anner from b oth liq uids an d solid s .

EXE RC IS E 1 28 .
—
Coqflicient f
o f
i ncr ease o volu me o f a ir at

consta nt p r essu r e .

Appa r a t u s —
Th e ar ra ngem ent Sh own i n Fig 92 . m etr e sc ale .

Th e a pparatu s for th i s ex perim ent c onsist s of a narro w g la ss

1 60 H ea t .

Ri se in t em per at ure
Increa se i n volum e 1 90 .

Inc r ea se of volum e for 1

°

31
;
volum e at 0
°
5 7 6 x
°
2 o

c oeffi ci en t i ncrea se of volu m e at c onst ant

of pressure
v
incr ease of olum e for 1 C °
.

volum e at 0
°
C .
55 6
.

EXERC IS E 1 2 9. — Coeflici en t f
o i ncr ea se o fp r essur e o f a ir at

consta nt volu me.

Appa r a t us as in pr evi ous ex erc i se, !with t h e a dd it ion of a

m er c ur y m anom eter of t h e form s h own
i n Fig 93 . .

In a d dition t o t h e a ppar atu s used

in t h e la st ex erc ise, you ar e suppl i ed
with an arr angement Shown i n Fig , .

93 by m ean s of whi c h t h e p ressur e

,

a c t ing on t h e a ir i n t h e n ar r ow t u b e

c an b e inc r eased a n d th is i n c r e a se ,

m ea sur ed It consist s of t wo gla ss

.

tubes ab out 8 inch es long an d 2 i nc h ,

i n d iam eter t h e low er ends b eing ,

d r a wn d own SO th at a pi ec e of i nd i a ,

r ubb er t ub e a bout 1 8 in c h e s lon g c an

b e a tt a c hed Th e t op end of on e o f .

t h e tub es A B i s also d r a w n d ow
, n , .
,

a nd c a n b e c onnec t ed by a pi e c e o f

r ubb er tu b in g t o t h e e nd B
( Fig 92 ) .

o f t h e t ub e c ont ai ni ng t h e air wh i c h

i s b eing ex perim ented u p on En ou gh .

m er cur y t o fill t h e r ubb er c on nec t in g

t ub e a nd one of t h e gla ss t ub e s i s
pl ac ed in th e instrum ent so th at by ,

r a i s in g C D or loweri ng A B t h e pr e s
F G 93 ( fr)
I

sur e of t h e a i r i n A B a n d h e nc e o f ,

t h e air i n t h e h eated tu b e c an b e i ncr eased t h e diff ere nc e i n level

, ,

of t h e su rfac e of t h e m er c ur y in t h e two t ub es gi vin g t h e am ou nt

by whi ch t h e pressure i s incr eased .

 Qua n t i ty of H ea t . 16 1

P ass cold wat er t hrough th e j acket C D (Fig a n d wh en t h e .

tem perat ur e h as b ec om e c onst ant r ead t h e th erm om eter a nd t h e ,

position of t h e m erc ury index a s in t h e pr evious ex er c ise Then

, .

em pty t h e j ac ket a nd c onnec t t h e open en d O f t h e tu b e w

,
it h A
F
( g 93)
i . by a p iec e o f ru bb er t u b i ng b i n d i n g a p i ec e of th i n c
, o pp er

wir e r ound eac h j unc t ion P ass steam t h r ough t h e j acket and
.
,

when t h e tem perat ure becomes st eady r aise t h e tube C D ( Fig 93) .

till t h e m ercury ind ex com es b ack t o i t s origi nal position ; th en

m ea sure t h e d iffer enc e of level b etween t h e m er c ury i n t h e tubes
A B and C D an d also read t h e b a rom etr ic h eight
,
Th e pr essure .

t o wh ic h t h e a ir wa s subj ec ted a t t h e lower tem peratur e is given by

t h e b arom etri c h ei ght wh ile t h e pr essur e a t th e h igh er t em per a tur e
,

i s equal t o t h e b ar ometri c h eigh t t oget h er w ith t h e d iffer enc e in

le vel in t h e t ube s A B a nd C D C alculat e t h e c oeffi cient of i nc r ease
.

o f pr e ssur e a t c on st a nt v olum e enter in g y our r esult s a s i n t h e

,

foll owing ex a m ple

Inde x
g
Rea din for l B H migh i
a ro
e
etr c
t .
To ta l
cm . o
P
f M
r e ssu re

e rc u r y
in
.

65 8 cm cm

Rise i n t em perat ur e
Increase in pressure 25 5 cm of m er c ur y
°
. .

22 5
Incr ease of pressure for °
0

1 cm .

9 2
P ressure at 0
°
78 0 x

cm .

Th e c oeffic ient of inc rease of pre ssure at c ons a n t t volum e

i ncrease of pressure for 1
°
C .

pressu re at 0
°
C .
7

Q u an t i t y of H eat —
In t he p rec ed in g ex erc ises t he
t perform ed h av e h ad t o d o wit h th ose propert ies
e x p eri men s

o f bodi e s w h ic h depend on th eir temperature We h ave now .

t o c o nsid er t h e m ea sure ment of qu an t i t y of h ea t .

T h e uni t e mployed for measurin g quant it y of h ea t is t he

a m ount of h ea t nec essary t o rai se o ne gr amm e of w ater from

C t o 1 C or t h e amount of h eat given out by one gram me

° °
0 . .
,

M
162 H ea t .

of water in c ooling from quantit y

0
°
C to . 1
°
C . T ish uni t of

of h ea t i s called t h e ca lor i e We sh all find t hat t o within th e .

a cc ura c y w it h whic h all t h e ob servat ions in t h e following

e x erc ises can b e made i t re quires t he sam e a m oun t of h ea t t o
,

rai se a gram m e of w a t er t hrough 1

°
C at any t em p era tur e .

bet ween 0 and SO th at as far a s we are c onc erned th e

°
, ,

calori e m ay be defi ned as t h e qua nt it y of h eat necessary t o

raise a gram me of w at er t hroug h 1

°
C .

EXE RCIS E 1 3 0. — Ther ma l p

ca a ci ty f
o wa ter at dif erent
t emper a tur es .

Appa r a t us k
th erm om eter b alanc e and weights
B ea er s .

Take t wo thin glass b eaker s of t h e sam e S iz e and each c a pable ,

of h oldi ng ab ou t 300 c c Pl ac e th ese on opposite p an s of a

. .

balance and ad d S h ot t o one pan t ill th ey ar e i n equilibriu m Then

,
.

fill one b eak er n early h al f full of c old wat er and into t h e oth er ,

beaker pour an eq ual weight of wat er at a t em per ature of a b ou t

4 0
°
C R e.m o v e t h e t w o b e a ker s and st and th em on a sh ee t of felt,

o r c ott on w ool Well stir t h e c old w ater a nd r ead th e tem per at ur e

.
,

( )
t,
w ith a th er m o m e t er T h e n st ir t h e h ot w a t er r ead t h e t em
.
,

e a t ur e an d im m ed i a t ely p our all t h e h ot w a ter i nt o t h e

p r

b eaker contai n ing t h e c old w ater S t ir t h e m ix ture well and aga in .

,

r ea d t e h t em p e r a tu r e Th e n i s
— t , i s t h e r i se of t em per a t ur e

of t h e c old w at er a nd t z — t , t h e fall of t em per at ur e of t h e h ot

,

water Th e h eat lost by t h e h ot wat er h as not only raised t h e

.

t em per at ur e of t h e cold w at er t h r ough t 3 t d egr ees but h a s also , ,

r a i sed t h e t em per at ur e of t h e gl a ss of t h e b e ak er th r ough t h e sam e

i nt erval To el im inat e thi s e ffec t re pea t t h e ex per iment using t h e

.
,

sa m e quanti ti e s of w at er a t a s n early a s possi ble t h e sam e t em

t u r es b ut pour t h e c old w a ter i nt o t h e b e ak er c ont a ining t h e

p e r a ,

h ot w at er In th i s c ase t h e t em per at ure of t h e c old w at er i s r a i sed

.
,

n ot only by t h e lo ss of h eat of t h e h ot wat er b u t also by t h e loss O f ,

h eat Of th e gla ss of th e beaker Th e tem perature of t h e m ixt ur e .

will th erefore b e j ust as m uc h t oo h igh a s it was b efore t oo low

, , ,

so t h at by t a kin g t h e m ean of t h e t wo ex p er i m e nt s t h e i nfl uen c e O f

t h e b e aker will b e eli m in at ed Take t h e m ean of t h e t wo r ises of

.

t e m perat ure of t h e c old w ater ( t and t h e m e an of t h e t wo falls

,

of t em per a t ur e of t h e h ot w a t er ( t , It w ill b e fou nd i f t h e ,

e x per i m ent s h a v e b e en carefully perfor m ed th a t th ey ar e pr a c ti c ally ,

t h e same H ence a s t h e m ass of t h e h ot a nd c old water was t h e

.
,

sam e j u st a s m u ch h eat i s give n out w

, hen one gramm e of w at er
 1 64 H ea t .

weigh Place t h e copp er i n a lar ge t est tu be which h angs from

. -
,
t h e wood en lid O f a t i n vessel i n wh ic h water i s b oi led or h a n g
;
t h e c o pper in sid e t h e st e am h e a t er sh own i n
Fig 94 Th e tub e A i s connected by m ea n s
. .

O f a S h or t lengt h of r u bb er t u b i ng t o a c a n

i n wh i c h st ea m i s gen er ated t h e st eam an d ,

a n y w a t er wh i c h c on d enses esc a p ing th r ou gh

t h e t ub e B T h e end of t h e c ott on em ploy ed

.

t o t i e t h e wir e t ogeth er sh ould p roj e c t ou t

sid e so th a t t h e c opper m a y b e ea sily w
, i th
d r a wn Place a th erm om et er wit h i t s bu lb
.

alon gsid e t h e c o pp er a nd lightly pl u g t h e ,

O pen end of t h e inner t ube w it h c ot ton wool .

B oil t h e w at er i n t h e c an a nd i n t h e m e a n ,

tim e car efully d r y and weigh a sm all c yli n

d ri c al vessel ab out 3 in c h es h igh a n d 2 §
,

i n c h es in d i am et er m a d e of v ery th in c o pper, .

S uc h a vessel is c alled a c alori m et er F ill t h e c alori m et er a li ttl e

.

m ore th an h alf full Of c old w a t er a nd a ga in weigh , Th e d i ff er en c e .

i n t h e t wo weight s will give t h e weight O f t h e w ater Wh en t h e .

t em perature Of t h e c opp er h as b ecom e st eady it wi ll be ver y n e ar ,

take t h e r ead ing of th e therm om eter Rem ove t h e th er .

m om et er a nd allowing it t o cool 2 lit t le fir st for fear of b r ea k a ge

, , ,

plac e it in t h e w at er i n t h e c alor im eter well stir t h e wa t er a nd n ot e , ,

t h e t em per a t ur e Th en rem ove t h e Copper from t h e h ea ter a nd a s

.
, ,

q u i c kl y a s p os s i bl e pl unge i t int o t h e w a t er c onta ined in t h e c alor i

,

m eter S t ir t h e wa t er well an d not e t h e h igh est tem per at ur e r ea c h ed

.
, .

Now t h e h eat given out by t h e c opper wire i n c ool ing h a s r a i sed

t h e t em per a tur e of t h e wat er a nd of t h e c op per c alor im et er Le t .

S b e t h e s pec i fi c h ea t of t h e c op per and M i t s m a ss w t h e m a s s ,

of t h e c alori m et er an d W t h e m ass O f t h e w a t er t , t h e i n i ti al ,

t em per a t ur e of t h e w a t er t , t h e i nit ial tem p er ature O f t h e c o p pe r

,

wir e and t t h e fi nal tem p era t ure Of t h e wat er a nd c opper T h e

, 3
.

q ua n t i t y o f h e a t g i v en o u t by I g rm o f c opp e r c o ol i n
. g th r ou gh 1
°

i s by d efi n it ion ( p 1 6 3) S c al or ies
. H en c e t h e h ea t given ou t b y
.

° i s M x S calori es an d t h e h
M g r m s in c ooli ng th rough 1
. ea t ,

given out in c ooling t hrough t, t , d egrees is M x S x ( t, t ) s

c alori e s . T h e h ea t r ec eived by t h e w at er i s W( t 8 t , ) c al o r i e s ,

a nd t h e h ea t r e c ei v ed by t h e C opper c a l ori m eter i s wS ( t ,, t ) ,

c alor i es .B ut t h e h ea t g iven ou t by t h e c o pper wir e i s eq ua l t o t h e

heat r ec eived by t h e | wat er and t h e calor im eter Therefore .

MS ( t, t , ) W( t, t , ) wS ( t 8
 Cha ng e f
o Sta te . 16 5

S inc e in t h is eq u at i on all t h e q uant i t ies, with t h e ex c ept ion of S, a re

known, we c an calc ulate 8 .

D eterm i ne in t h e sam e wa y t h e speci fic h ea t of lea d . In t h is

c ase u se the v alue Ob t previ ous ex per im ent for t h e
a i ned in t h e
spec i fic h e a t of c opper t o O bt a in t h e h ea t r ece ived by t h e c alor i

m et er . Enter your r esult s a s ia t h e followin g ex a m ple

In it ial t em per a t u r e of copper w i re C .

F inal 22 I C
°°
.

F all of t em per at ure C .

Init ial t em per a t ure of wa ter an d c alor im et er C .

F inal 22 I C
°°
.

Ri se of te m per a t ur e
°
6 8C .

Ma ss of c opper wir e 1 56 gr m s .

Ma ss of c alorim eter
Ma ss of c alorim eter water 2 1 5
Mass of wa t er I6 2 5 °

H eat lost by c opper m m MS( t,, i s)

1 56 x S x 76 4 c alor i e s .

H eat r ec ei ved by wat er W( t ,, t,)

x c alor ies .

H ea t v
r ecei ed by l
c a or im e er t wS ( t 3 t,)
x S x c alor ies .

B ut hea t lost h eat r ec eived .

1 1 900 81
1 1 10 35 7 S .

1 1 500 S 1 1 10

3
11 0
1 1 06

EXE RC IS E 1 33 . Ch a ng e f
o S t a te
.

Appa r a t us —
C a lor im et er
ther m om eter ic e cl ock or watc h .

F ill t h e c alorim eter supplied you wi th pound ed ic e a nd plac e it ,

ov er som e wi r e gau z e on t h e r i n g of a r et or t st a nd Fix a t h erm om et er

-
.

so th a t t h e b ulb i s a t ab ou t t h e m id d le of t h e i c e T urn a B unsen .

h um er d own fair ly low a nd pl ace it b elow t h e c a lor i m et er for one

,

m i nut e . Th en well st ir t h e c ontent s of t h e c a lor im eter a nd r ead ,

t h e t e m per a tur e A ga i n h ea t for on e m inut e a nd r ead t h e t em p era

.

t ur e P r oc eed i n th is way till all t h e i ce h as m elted T h e fl a m e

. .

m ay t h en b e l eft c ont inuou sly u nd er t h e c al or i m et er a n d t h e ,

tem perature r ead at t h e end of eac h m inut e t ill th e water h as boiled

for t h re e or four m i nut es .

T aking t h e t i me c ount ed fr om t he in st ant wh en you st arted

Th e m ul t iplica ti ons et c need only be carrie d ou t t o t h e thi d sig ni f
, .
,
r i

c a n t fi g ure si nc e t h e rise i n t e m pe ra t ure has only bee n mea su red t o I In 6 8

,
.
1 66 H ea t .

heatin g as abscissa and t h e corr esponding tem perature a s ord inate

, ,

plot your results on a c urve It will be found th at th is c urve c on .

si st s of th r ee d istinc t p art s p t i t wh th
( )
1 a fl a t or on at t h e s ar t en er e ,

was ice present a nd wh en t h e tem per a t u re r em a ined a t 0 C ( 2 ) a n °

.

i n c lined p ort i on wh ile t h e t em per at ure r ose from 0 t o 1 00 C ( 3)

° °
.

a noth er fl at p ort i on wh ile t h e t em per at ur e re m a i ned c onst a nt a t

1 00 a nd t h e w a t er b oiled a w a y a s st ea m
°
.

L a t en t H e a t In t h e e x perim en t m ad e in t h e prec e d in g
—

e x erc ise h ea t was, duri ng t h e w ole t i m e, ei ng put i nt o t h e h b

c alori m e e r t t wo
t em p erat ures nam ely 0 and °
; but at , ,

alt h ough t h is supply of h eat w a s g oing on t h e t e m pera t ure d id ,

n ot rise . In ea c h case wh en t h e t emperat ure r em ai ne d ,

sta t i onary i n t his w ay som e c h ange of sta te w as g oing on

,
In .

t he fi rst ca se a solid ( ice) w as b eing c on v ert e d i nt o a li qu id

( wat er) wh ile in t h e sec ond c ase a li quid ( water) was b ei n g

,

c on vert ed in t o a g as
( st e a m) T h i s h ea t wh i c h i s e m ploy e d .
,

n ot i n r a ising t h e t em perat ure of a b ody but i n c ha n in i t

g g ,

from a solid t o a liqu id or from a li qu id t o a gas i s sai d t o be

, ,

latent . It is fou nd t hat wh en a gas c onde nses int o a li q u id ,

or a liquid solidifi es t h e la t e n t h eat is li be ra t ed

,
T h e q ua n t i t y .

of h eat r e q u ired t o c on ver t 1 grm of ic e a t 0 C in t o wa t e r

°
. .

also a t 0 C
°
.or w
,
h at am ounts t o t h e same thing t h e quant it y
, ,

of h eat g i ve n out w h en 1 grm of wat er at 0 C is c onv er ted °

. .

i nto ic e a t 0 C i s c alled t h e lat e nt h eat of fu sion of ic e

°
,
In .

t h e sam e w ay t h e quant it y of h ea t r e q ui red t o c onver t r g r m

,
.

of w a t e r a t 1 0 0 C i nt o st ea m at t h e sa m e t em pera t ure or t h e
°
. ,

q ua n tity of h ea t g iven ou t by r g rm of st eam at 1 0 0 wh e n .

°

c on verte d i nt o w ate r a t is c alled t h e lat e nt h ea t o f

vaporiz ation of water or t h e lat ent heat of steam .

EX ERC I S E 1 34 .
—
L a tent nea t ff
e usi on qf zee.
’

App a r a t u s as i n Ex er c ise 1 3 2, w it h th e a dd it ion of som e i ce .

Weigh the th en fill it ab out t wo t h ir d s full of

c al or im et er , an d -

wat er at ab ou t 40 C an d a gain weigh Rem ove t h e c alori m e te r

°
. .
,

a nd w r a p i t r ound wit h c ot t on w ool t o prevent l oss of h ea t S t ir .

well and r ead t h e te m per atur e Th en pla c e in t h e wa ter som e

, .

sm all l u m p s of d r i e t i ll wh en t h e i c e i s all m elt ed t h e te m p er a

y c , , ,

ture falls t o ab out 1 0 C Th e w ater m ust be kept well sti rr ed

°
.

d ur ing t h e m elt ing of t h e i c e T h e i c e m ay b e d r i ed by r a p id ly

.
168 H ea t .

EXE RC IS E 1 35 .
-
L at ent !tea t f
o stea m.

” A a r a t ns —
Cal or i m eter
th er m o m e t er ca n f or g en e r a t io n of
st e am an d tr a p balanc e and weights .

In ord er t o d et er m i ne t h e lat ent h eat of steam you ar e supplie d ,

with a t in fl ask in whic h water c an b e boiled A glass tube bent .

a t r ig ht a n gle s i s fitt ed by m ean s of a c ork i nt o t h e n e c k of t h e fl a sk .

A
Th is tu be i s connec t ed by ab out 1 0 inc h es of r ubber tu b ing
t o t h e inlet tub e A ( Fig 95 ) of a tra p whi c h ser ves t o
.
,

c at c h a n y wa t er wh i c h m a y b e c ond ensed in t h e tub e A .

slw r t a nd t hi n gl ass t u b e B lead s o ut from t h e t r a p

, ,
.

Weigh t h e c alor im eter e m pty and th en ab out thr ee qua r ,

-

ter s full of c old water S urr ou nd th e c alor im eter with

.

c ott on w ool a nd a ft er st irri ng w ell t ak e t h e t em perat u re

, ,
.

Then im m ed iately d i p t h e end of t h e st eam d eliver y t ube -

,

B i nt o t h e w a ter a nd k eepin g t h e water well st i rred

, , ,

a llow t h e st e am t o p ass t ill t h e t em per at u re h as r i sen t o

a b ou t 40 C Re m ove t h e st ea m d eliver y t ub e a nd im
°
.
-
,

m ed ia te ly r e ad t h e tem per a tur e Aga in we igh t h e c alor i .

m eter t h e inc r ea se of w eight M w ill give t h e m a ss of t h e

, , ,
F IG95 G J c ondensed steam
.

Let W b e t h e m a ss of t h e c old wa t er and w an d S t h e m a ss ,

( 1 s pec i fi c h ea t of t h e c al ori m eter Also let t , b e t h e initi al an d

.
,

t t h e fi nal tem pe r a t ur es of t h e wa t e r
, Th en t h e heat gi ven out
.

by M gram m es of stea m at 1 00 in c ond ensing t o wa t er a t 1 00 is

° °

ML calor ie s wh ere L is th e latent h eat of steam Th is c onde nsed

, .

ste a m i n cool i ng fr o m 1 00 t o t w ill gi v e out M 1 00 )

°
, ( t c a l or i es , .

T h e hea t ga ined by t h e wa t er in t h e c alori m e t e r i s W( t , t ) ,

c alor ie s and t h a t g a in ed by t h e c alor im eter i t self i s wS ( t,

, t ) ,

c alori e s H en c e sinc e t h e h e a t l ost i s equal t o t h e h eat ga ined

.
, ,

ML M( 1 00 t ,) W( t, t , ) wS ( t '
2

a nd from th i s eq u a t ion L c a n b e c a l c u lat e d .

Re pe a t t h e ex pe r i m ent t wo or thr e e t i m es e nt e r ing y our re sult s ,

a s i n t h e follow ing e x a m pl e

We ight of c al orim e t er
We ight of c alori m et er water
m a ss of w at er
We ight cal or im e ter w ater c ond ensed ste am
m a ss of s team u sed
Init ial te m pera tur e of w a te r
F inal t em pe rat ur e of wa t er
c h a ng e i n t e m per a t ur e
 Vapour Tens ion . 1 69

Hea t given out by c h ange of st eam a t 1 00

°
to water a t 1 00
°

73 x L c alor ies .

H eat given ou t by 7 3 g rm s . of wat er a t 100

°
c ooli n g to
x 60 5 44 2 c alor i e s .

Total loss of he at 73 L 44 2 .

Hea t g a ined by w at er 17 18 x 4 1 5 8 c alor ies .

Heat g ai n ed by c alor im eter x 0 096 x 1 2 2 c alor i es .

Tot al he at ga ined 4 2 80 l
c a or ie s.

H enc e sinc e h ea t lost

,
h eat gained ,

73 L 44 2 4 2 80

5 2 6 c alor i e s .

V a p ou r T e n s i on an d B oi li n g p oi n t
-
. Th e ex p eri

m en t s m ad e i n Ex erc ise 4 7 h ve sh own th t when a m all

a a s

y
quantit of a liquid suc as h w t e o et h e is introd u ed
a r r r c

int o t h e vac u um of a b aromet er (th e Torricellian vacuum as i t

i s called) t h en t h e m erc ury c olumn is depressed t h rough a
,

d ist anc e wh ic h is very m uc h grea t er th an c ould be d ue t o t h e

we igh t of th e li quid It wa s also found t h a t so long as th ere
.

was a litt le li q uid fl oat i ng on t h e t op of t h e m erc ury c olumn ,

th en t h e d epression due t o th e addition of m ore liquid was

p r ac t ic a lly n il b e in
g
, o n ly d u e t o t h e w e ig h t o f t h e a d d e d
li quid .

Th e d epression o f t h e merc ury colum n indic a tes th at t h e

liquid g i ves o ff vapour wh ic h ex ert s a pressure an d t h e fac t ,

t ha t th e furth er a ddition of liquid does not inc rease t h e d epres

sion sh ow
, s t ha t t h e pr e ssure th i s vapour ex e rt s i s in depen d en t

o f t h e qu a nt it y of li q ui d present .

T he d istanc e t h rough wh ic h t h e m erc ury colu mn is

d epr essed g ives in t erm s of a column of m ercury t h e
, ,

p r ess u r e e x e r t e d by t h e v a pou r o f t h e li q u i d or t h e V A P O U R

P R E S SURE .

T h e va p our pr e ssure of a ny li q uid is fou nd t o alt er wi t h

t em pera ture an d t h e t em perat ure a t wh ic h a liquid gives off
,

bubbles of vapour or b oils is th at at wh ich th e vapour pressure

, ,

is e qual t o t h e pressure of t h e at m osph ere or t h e pressure t o ,

wh ic h t h e liquid is su bj ec t ed .
I7 0 H ea t .

EXERC IS E 1 36 . Vapour f
tension o water at tlze boi li ng

poi n t.

Appa r a t us —
tube and steam j acket
B ar om et er .

Yo u ar e supplied with a b arom et er tu be wh ic h for m ost of i t s ,

length i s surroun ded by a wi d er gla ss t ub e A B ( Fig Th e ,

.

baromet er tube i s h eld in position by t wo c ork s ,

D and E wh i c h a s sh own i n t h e cr oss sec ti on

, ,
-

K ar e c ut so as t o allow t h e p assage of stea m

,
.

T h e tub e F c an b e c onnect ed by m ean s of a length ,

of rubb er t ubi ng t o a c an in wh ic h st ea m i s gen e

,

r at ed t h e st ea m aft er p assing t h r ough A B esca p i n g

, , ,

at t h e b ott om .

With out r em oving t h e b arom et er tube fr om

i nside A B fill it w ith m ercur y and inver t over som e
, ,

m er cu ry i n a d ish fix ing t h e t ube i n an u pr ig ht ,

p o s it i on by m e ans o f a r e t or t c la m p so th a t t h e ,

o pen end o f t h e w i de t ub e is a b out a q uar t er of a n

i nc h ab ov e t h e surface of t h e m er cur y T h e m er .

c ur y d i sh h a d b ett er be pla c ed on t h e fl oor a n d ,

t h e can for gener a t ing steam on a t a bl e alon g sid e .

P ass a few drop s of water up into t h e T orri celli a n

vac uum (see p th en pass stea m i nt o A B an d
.
,

not ic e h ow t h e m er cu r y c olumn b ec om es d epresse d ,

so th at wh en t h e wh ole tub e h as b een h ea t ed t o

,

C and stea m i ssu es fr om t h e b ott om t h e

°
1 00 .
, ,

m erc ury stand s at t h e sa me level in sid e an d ou ts id e

t h e b ar om et er t u b e .

It i s i m port an t t h a t th er e sh ould b e a little w at er

fl oating on t h e t op of th e m ercury even wh e n t h e ,

m er cury is d epr essed t o t h e utm ost Wr i te a .

d escri ption of t h e ex per im ent c ar efully st a ti n g ,

p m 96,
wh
.
a t i t pr ov e s A lso e x pl a i n.w h y i t i s th a t t h e

tem perature at wh ic h water b oils varies with t h e

b ar om etric pressur e .

EXE RC IS E 1 37 .
— B oi li ng poi nt
-
f
o a lt o/t o] .

App a r a tus — Wurtz flask th er m om eter .

Fi t u p a Wurtz fl ask in t h e m ann er d escribed i n Ex er c i se 1 2 4 ,

a nd fill i t a b o u t a th i rd f u l l o f al co h ol ( m ethy la t ed s p i r i t ) H e a t b y .

m ean s o f a s m a l l B u n s en fl a m e a n d wh e n v,
a p o u r i s s u es fr om t h e

S ide t u b e r,
e a d t h e t e m p e r a t ur e sh o w n by a th e rm o m e t er w i th i t s ,
 I7 2 H ea t .

( )I Ch ang e i n t em per at ure Z I

' °
c h ange in va pour pressure 6 1.

( 2)
C h ange in vapour pressur e for 2 9 cm
°
( )
1 1 .

( ) 2 cm .

Mean cm .

F r om your r esults c alc ulate in a way si m ila r t o that em ployed ,

on

p 1 5 1 wh at would be t h e b oiling point of t h e alcohol used

.
,
- in
Ex erc i se 1 37 a t t h e nor m a l bar om et ri c p r essur e of 7 6 0 c m
,
.

D i st i lla t i on —
It has b een found in th e prec eding e x e r
c i se th a t alc o hol boils at a lower t e mperat ure t an wat e r h .

No w , at th e tempera ture at whi c h alc o ol h boils it s vapou

,
r

pr e ssur e is eq ual t o t h e b a o m e t ri c
r r essur e ,
p wh ile t h e apo r v u

pr e ssu re h tempe ature is m uc h less H enc e if

of wa t er at t is r .
,

a m i tu e of w ter nd lc ohol is h e t ed t o i ts boili ng poi n t

x r a a a a -
,

t h e vapou p ess re of t h e l oh ol w
r r u hi h m easures t h e tenden cy
a c ,
c

of t h e al oh ol t o b e om e vapour w
c cill b e m uc h g e te t h n t h e , r a r a

vapou r p ess re of t h e wate T hus when suc h a m i t e boi ls

r u r. , x ur ,

t h e v apo wh ic h is at fi t fo m ed will c ontain a ve y la ge

ur rs r r r

p pro o rti o n o f a lc o h ol A s t h e p p o o . t i on o f a l o h ol i n t h e r r c

boiling liq id decreases th e p opo tion of al oh ol in t he vapour

u ,
r r c

will l o decrease till fi n lly t h e esidue i s wate lm ost f ee

a s , ,
a ,
r r a r

f om l ohol
r a c Du ing t h is p oc es th e b oiling p oin t of t h e
. r r s -

m i ture will g ad lly ise f om a t em pe at u e om ewh t n ea

x r ua r r r r s a r

th t t wh i h pu e alc ohol b oils t o that at wh ic h pu e wa t er

a a c r r

b oils .

T h e ab ove p ope t y m ay be m ad e use of t o separa t e t wo

r r

liqu ids s h a , uc l oh ol nd wat e wh i h h ave different b oili ng

s a c a r, c

p o i n t s F. o t h i s p p r o se t h m i t u
ur e i s plac ed in a flaske n d
x r a

b oiled th e vapo given off b eing c ondensed by b ing passed

, ur e

t h ough t be wh i h is kept c ool S h a p oc ess is calle d

r a u c . uc r

di t ill t on
s a i Th e fi st h alf of t h e liq uid wh ic h i s d isti lle d o v e
. r r

c o nt in a la ge p opo t ion of t h e li q ui d w
a s r r r r ith t h e lower b oili ng
p o i n t w, h i le t h e e id le ft i n
r s t h e fl ue sk c on t a i n s a l g e a ar r

p p r
o o t i onr o f t h e li q i d w i t h t h e h ig h
u e b oili ng p o i n t r -
.
 D is t illa t i on . 173

EXERC IS E 1 39 .
—
D i sti lla ti on .

Appa r a t u s -
Wu rtz fl a sk ; c ond en ser ; therm om et er ; H ar e s
’

a ppar atu s .

T ake a gla ss t u be 1 2 inches long and 1 1 inch es in d ia m eter a nd ,

fit a cork a t eith er end Through t h e cent re of th ese c or ks b ore a

.

h ole so th at a lengt h of glass tub e D C ( Fig

,
a b o ut 1 i n c h i n ,
.

'
FIG 98
. .
( Im)

d i a m e t er , c anpass tight ly t hr ough A lso bor e a sec ond hole i n .

e a c h of t h e cork s t o fi t t wo sm a ll b en t piec es of gla ss t u b e E and F

, , .

C onn ec t t h e c entr al t ub e D C w ith t h e sid e t u b e of a Wur t z fl a sk ,

su pport i n g t h e a pp a r at u s i n t h e m a nner sh ow n i n t h e fig ur e C on .

n ec t E w ith t h e w a t er su pply a nd l e a d a t ub e fr om F t o t h e s ink

-
, .

B y p a ssin g c old w a t er thr ough A B t h e v a p ou r wh ic h d ist il s ov er

,

fr om t h e fl a sk i s c ond en sed i nt o l i q u id a nd m a y b e c oll ec te d i n a ,

fl a sk a t D .

Make a m ix t ure c ontai ning a bou t e qu al volum es of water a nd

m ethyl at ed spir it a nd d et er m in e t h e d en sity of t h e m ix tu re by
,

m e a n s of H a r e s a ppar a t u s ( Ex er c i se
’

A b ou t h a l f fi ll t h e Wur t z fl ask wi t h t h e m ix t ur e a nd k ee pi ng a , ,

c u rr en t of c ol d w a t er fl ow ing t h r o ugh t h e c ond e n ser A B h ea t t h e ,

fl a sk wi t h a B u nsen fl a m e N ote t h e t em peratur e a t t h e end of

.

e a c h m i n u t e a s t h e d i stil lat i on pr oc eed s st opp i ng t h e pr oc ess wh e n ,

a b ou t h a lf t h e liq u i d h a s d ist ill ed ov er .

I7 4 H ea t .

Mea sure t h e density of t h e di stillate and also of t h e r esid ue i n

, ,

t h e flask . Th en fr om t h e following table whic h gives t h e num ber ,

of c ub ic c ent i m et res of a lc oh ol in 1 00 c c of a m ix tur e of wa t er an d

. .

alc oh ol of d i fferent d ensiti es c alcula t e t h e n um ber of c ub ic c ent i

,

m etr es of alc ohol i n 1 00 c c of ( 1 ) t h e or igi n al m ix t ur e ; (2 ) t h e

. .

di stilla te ( 3) t h e re sid u e i n t h e fl a sk .

D en sity 7 9 82 85 87 9 0
‘

92 94
‘

96 97 98
C ub i c c m .

of a l c oh ol 80 70 60 50 40 30 20
90

in 1 00 c c .
.

Also d istil a tion of comm on salt and notic e th at t h e distilla te

solu ,

is free fr om salt so th at d i st ill at ion i s a m eth od of prepa ring dr ink

,

a ble wa t er from sea w a t er

- .
I7 6 Mag n et is m .

Th e Ma gn et — The e x peri m en s tmade in t he prec edi ng

exerc ise will gi ve a gen eral idea of t h e d ist inc t ive propert i e s

of a m ag net . It will have been noticed t hat t he power of

a ttrac ting iron or st eel b odies is c h iefl y c onc en trated ne th e ar

ends of t h e m agnet . Th e t wo p oin ts near t he e nds o f t h e

m agnet at whic h we m ay suppose t h e m ag net ic power t o b e
t t
c on c e n ra e d are c alled th e p oles of t h e m agnet . The fi rst
four ex perimen s m ade h
wed no differenc e b etween th e t wo
t s o

p ole s ; t h e fi ft h ex p er i me nt h o w ev e r sh ows a d i fi eren c e T

, h a t ,
’

po le w h i ch w h e n,t h e m ag ne t is freely suspended t urns t ow a r ds ,

t h e nor t h is c alled t he n ort h p ole,

1
wh ile t h e ot he r is calle d

the sou t h pole .

EX ERC IS E 1 41. —
L i nes o ff or ce o f a mag net .

App a r a t us — filings ; par affi n a nd fl at d ish ; bar a nd

Iron
h or se sh oe m ag nets small c om pa ss
- .

Melt som e par affi n wax in a lar ge fl at dish t h e t op of a bi sc uit —

b ox w ill d o and d i p a sh eet of wh i t e unl ined pa per i n t h e wa x

,
—
.

R em ove t h e p a per allow a s m uc h wa x t o d ra in off as possib le a nd

, ,

h ang up t o c ool Treat h alf a d ozen sheets in this way

. .

Lay a b ar m agn et on t h e t a ble a nd over i t pla ce one of t h e ,

wax ed sheet s of pa per u sing t wo block s of wood t o su pport ,

t h e pa p er . Th en d ust a thin layer of fine iron fili ngs all over t h e

p ape r Th e filings c an best be put on by m eans of a t est t ube full
.
-

of fil ings w ,
ith a piec e of m u slin t ied ove r t h e end Gently t ap .

t h e pa per and n oti c e h ow t h e fili ngs set th em selves i n lin e s

,

r a d i a t i ng from t h e t wo end s of t h e m a gnet When these li ne s a r e .

a s d i st i n c t a s possi ble p ass a B u nsen flam e ra pidly over t h e

,

surface of t h e p a p er Th e wa x w ill in th is way b e m elted a nd w ill

.
,

ser v e t o fix t h e filing s
”
.

P lac e a very sm all c om pass i n difl erent p ositi ons on t h e sh eet

'

of p a per a nd not i c e th at in ev er y c a se t h e need le set s it self p ar allel

,

t o t h e lin es for m ed by t h e i r on fil i ngs Th us t h e c urv ed lines in .

whi c h t h e filings set them selves when th e pa per is t a pped so t h a t ,

t h ey ar e free t o m ove r e pr esen t t h e d ire c tions in wh i c h a sm all

,

pivot ed needle would set at ea c h point These curves ar e c alled .

t h e li nes of forc e of t h e m agn et for th ey giv e at ea c h point t h e ,

d ir ec t ion in wh i ch t h e poles of a sm all need le wou ld be pulled

u nd er t h e i nfl uen ce of t h e bar m a gnet .

Th i s pole of a magn e t is som eti m es called t h e north seeking pol e a nd -

,

t h e o ther t h e south seeking pole -

.
 L i nes of For ce of Mag net . I7 7

O bt a in in t h e s am e way h oe th e lines of for c e of a h or se- s

m a gnet of t wo bar m a gn ets pla ced p ar allel an d a b out t wo inc h es

a p ar t ( I) wi t h l ike p oles t u rned t h e sa m e wa y a nd ( 2 ) with unlik e ,

pole s turned t h e sa m e way ; and of t wo b ar m agnets pl ac ed so as

t o for m a T b ut w it h ab ou t a n inc h b etween t h e end of one m agne t
,

an d t h e m id d le o f t h e ot h er .

EXE RC IS E 1 4 2 — . L ines ff
o or ee o f a mag n et .

A ppa r a t u s —
L g
ph otogr a phic d ish 1 2 ih b ar m agnet
ar e fl at -
.

se wi ng need l es a n d p i ec es of c ork
-
.

If i t w er e possible t o ob t a i n eith er a north or a sout h pole

a l on e suc h a s ingl e pole wh e n pla ced n ea r a m agn e t w ou l d i f it
, ,

were free t o m ove trav el a long a lin e of for c e Alt h ough it i s

,
.

i m p ossible t o obt ain a si ngl e pol e we m ay so a rr a nge t h e ex peri ,

m ent th at one pole of a sm all m a gn et m ay b e l ess a ffec t ed by t h e

m a gnet wh ose lines of for c e h a ve t o b e st ud ied th an t h e ot h er pole .

Magnetiz e a sewing ne edle by str oki ng it fr om end t o end-

wi th t h e pole of a bar m a gnet Th en st ick th is need le t hrough a .

sm all d i sc of c or k so th a t t h e eye pr oj e c t s j u st a bov e t h e surfa c e

,

of t h e c or k Fill a la rge ph otogr a ph ic d ish with wat er an d support

.
,

a l a r ge b ar m a gn et on bl oc k s of wood j u st a b ov e t h e surfa ce of t h e

wa t e r .

Float t h e m agnetized n eed le on t h e water with th e eye u pper

m ost a nd see t owa rd s wh ic h pole of t h e b a r m ag net it i s at t r act ed
, .

Th en star t ing t h e float ing needle near t h e opposit e p ole of t h e ba r

m a gnet not ic e t h e p at h t h e n eed l e follows wh ile p assi ng t o t h e
,

a tt r a ct i ng pole of t h e m a gnet S t a rt t h e flo a t ing need le from .

d iffer ent poi nt s a nd in ev er y c a se m a ke a d r awi ng of t h e p a th it

,

follow s It w ill b e found th a t th ese p a t h s a re of t h e sa m e sh a pe a s

.

t h e l ines ob t ain ed wit h t h e ir on filin g s .

EXERC IS E 1 43 .
—
Metlzod of mag net iz i ng a steel str i p ,
a nd

mag net i c r e ulsi on.

p
App a r a tus -
B ar m agn ets
k spr ing t
s eel c loc -
.

Take a stri p of c lock spring a b out 6 in c h es long str a ight en it

.
-
,

out a nd fa st en it t o t h e t op of t h e t a bl e w ith a li t t le se a l in g wax

,
-
.

Th en str oke it fr om end t o end wit h t h e north end of your bar

m agnet b eing c areful alw a y s t o c om m en c e a t t h e sam e end
, H old .

t h e m a gn et n early v ert i c a l a nd m ov e it w ith a st e ad y a nd u nifor m

,

m otion Mar k t h e en d a t whic h you b egan str ok ing t h e spr ing an d

.
,

n ot i ce th a t it h a s b ec om e a m a gn e t .
I7 6 Mag net is m .

Th e Ma gn et .
—
Th e e x peri m e n s t m ade in t he precedi ng
ex erc i se will gi ve a g en er al idea of t h e di st i nc t iv e proper t i es

of a m agnet . It have b een noticed t hat th e powe of

will r

a ttrac ting iron or st eel b od ies i s c hi efl y c onc entr at e d ne th e ar

en ds o f t h e m agnet T h e t wo p oin ts near t he e nds of t h e

.

m a gn e t at whic h we m ay suppose t h e m agnetic power t o b e

t t
c onc en ra e d are called t h e p oles o f t h e m ag ne t Th e fi rst .

four ex perim en s t h
made s owed no d ifference etween th e t wo b
po le s th e fi f th ex peri ment , o wev er, s ow h
s a di fferen ce T at h . h
p ole whic h wh en , t h e m ag n e t i s fr e e l y suspended tu n tow d , r s ar s

t h e nor th is called th e n ort pole, 1

h wh ile t h e oth e i called r s

th e sou t h pole .

EXERC IS E 1 4 1 .
—
L i nes o ff or ce o f a mag net .

Appa r a t us filings ; par affi n a nd fl at dish ; bar a nd

—
Ir 0n
h or se shoe m agnet s sm all c om pa ss
- .

Melt som e paraffi n wax in a large flat dish t h e t op of a b isc uit —

b ox w ill d o an d di p a sh ee t of wh it e unlined pa per i n t h e wa x

,
—
.

Rem ov e t h e p a per allow a s m uc h wa x t o d r a in off as possibl e a nd

, ,

h ang u p t o c ool Tr eat h al f a d ozen sh eet s in thi s way

. .

Lay a b ar m ag net on t h e t a bl e a nd ov er it place on e of t h e ,

wax ed sheet s of paper u sing t wo blocks of wood t o su pport ,

t h e pa p er . Th en dust a th in layer of fin e iron filings all over t h e

p aper Th e filings c an b est b e put on by m ean s of a t est t ub e full
.
-

of fi l i ngs w ith a p iec e o f m u slin t i ed over t h e end

, Gently t a p .

t h e pa per and n oti c e h o w t h e fili n gs set t h em sel ve s i n lin es

,

r a d i a tin g from t h e t w o end s of t h e m a gnet When these line s ar e .

a s d i st i nc t as p ossible pa ss a B unsen flam e ra pidly over t h e

,

surfa c e of t h e p a p er Th e wa x will in th is way b e m elt ed a n d w ill

.
,

serv e t o fix t h e fi ling s
”
.

P la ce a very sm all c om pa ss in d iffer ent positions on t h e S h eet

of p a p er a nd not i c e th at in ev er y c a se t h e n eedle set s it self p ar a llel
,

t o t h e lines for m ed by t h e i r on fil i ng s Thus t h e c urved l ines in .

wh ic h t h e filings set them selves wh en t h e pa per is ta pped so t h at ,

t h ey ar e free t o m ov e r epr e sent t h e d ir e ct ion s i n wh i c h a sm a ll

,

pivoted n eedle wou ld set at ea c h p oint Th ese curves a r e c alled .

t h e li nes of forc e of t h e m a gnet for they g ive at ea c h poin t t h e ,

d ir e c tion in wh ich t h e poles of a sm all needle wou ld be pulled

u n d er t h e i nfl uenc e of t h e bar m a gnet .

Thi s p ole of a magnet is so meti m e s called t h e north seeking pol e a nd -

,

t h e o t h e r t h e sout h seeki ng pol e -

.
I7 6 Mag net is m .

Th e Ma gn et m ade in t he prec eding

.
—
Th e e x peri m en s t
ex erc i se will gi ve a gen eral idea of t h e di st inc tive proper ti es
of a m ag net It will av e ee n n ot ic ed t at th e pow
. h
er o f b h
a ttrac ting iron or st e el b od ies i s hiefly c oncent ated ne c r ar th e
en ds of t h e m agn et Th e t wo p oin ts near t he e nd s of t h e
.

m agn e t at whic h we m ay suppose t h e m ag netic power t o b e

t t
c onc e n ra e d are c alled t h e p oles of t h e m ag net Th e fi r st .

four ex peri m en s t h
made s owed no d ifference etween t h e t wo b
p ole s ; t h h
e fi ft h h ex peri men t , o w h
ev er, S ows a di fferenc e T at .

p o le w h i h w h
c e n t h e m
, ag n e t is f ly sus pe nd e d t u n t owa d ree ,
r s r s

t h e n o t h is called t h e n o t h pol wh ile t h e oth e i s called 1

r r e, r

t h e sou t h p ole .

EXERC IS E 1 41 .
—
L i nes o ff or ce o f a mag net .

Appa r a t us fil ings ; parafl i n a nd fl at d ish ; b ar a nd

—
lr on ‘

h or se shoe m agnet s sm all c om pa ss

- .

Melt som e paraffi n wax in a large flat dish t h e t op of a bisc uit —

b ox w i ll do a nd di p a sh ee t of wh i t e unlined p a pe r i n t h e wax
,
-
.

Rem ov e t h e p a per allow a s m uc h wax t o d r a in off a s po ssible a n d

, ,

h a ng u p t o cool Tr eat h a l f a d ozen sh eets in thi s way

. .

Lay a b ar m agn et on t h e t a bl e an d ov er it pla ce one of t h e ,

wax ed sh eets of paper using t wo blocks of wood t o support ,

t h e p ap er Th en d ust a th in layer of fine iron filings all over t h e

.

pa per Th e filings c an b est b e put on by m eans of a t est t ube full

.
-

of fil i ng s wi th a p i ec e of m usli n t ied ov er t h e e nd
,
Gently t a p .

t h e p a per and n oti c e h ow t h e fi lings set th em sel ves i n li n es

,

r a d i a ti n g from t h e t w o e n d s of t h e m a gnet When these lines ar e .

a s d i st i n c t as p ossible pass a B un sen flam e ra pidly over t h e

,

surfac e of t h e p ap er Th e wax wi ll i n t h is wa y b e m elt ed and w ill

.
,

serv e t o fix t h e fili ngs

”
.

Plac e a very sm all c om pa ss in different positi ons on t h e Sh eet

of p a per a nd n ot ic e th at in ev ery c a se t h e needle set s it self p ar a lle l
,

t o t h e lines for m ed by t h e ir on fil i ng s Thus t h e c urved lines i n .

whic h t h e filings set them selves wh en th e p a per i s ta pped so t h a t ,

t h ey ar e free t o m ove r epr esent t h e dir e ct ion s i n wh i c h a sm all

,

pivoted n eedle wou ld set a t ea c h point Th ese curves a r e c all ed .

t h e lines of forc e of t h e m agnet for th ey g ive at e a ch poin t t h e ,

d ir ec t ion i n wh ic h t h e p oles of a sm all needle wou ld be pu lled

u nd er t h e i nfl uence of t h e bar m a gn et .

Thi s pole of a m agne t i s somet i m es c alled t h e north seeking pol e a nd -

,

t h e o t he r t h e south seeking pol e -

.
 L i nes of For ce of Mag net . I7 7

O bt a in in t h e sam e wa y h oe
th e li ne s
of for ce of a h or se- s

m a gn et of t wo bar m ag net s a b o ut t w plac ed parallel an d

o in c h es

a p ar t ( I) wit h like p ole s t u rned t h e sam e wa y a nd ( 2 ) with unl ike ,

poles turn ed t h e sa m e way ; a nd of t wo b a r m agnet s pla c ed so a s

t o for m a T b ut w ith a b out a n i nc h b etw e en t h e end of one m agnet
,

a nd t h e m i d d le o f t h e oth er .

EXE RC IS E 1 42 — . . Li nes ff
o or ce o f a m ag net .

A ppa r a t u s —
L g
ph ot ogra phic d ish 1 2 ln b a r m agnet
ar e fl at -
.

se w i ng need l e s a n d p i e c es of c ork
-
.

If it w er e possible t o obt a in eith er a nor th or a sou t h p ole !

a lo n e su c h a singl e p ole wh e n pl a c e d n ea r a m a gn e t w ould i f it

, ,

wer e free t o m ove tr avel along a lin e of for c e A lt h ough it i s

,
.

i m p ossible t o obt ai n a S ingle p ol e we m ay so a rr ang e t h e ex peri ,

m ent th a t one pole of a sm all m a g net m ay b e less a ff ect ed by t h e

m a gnet wh o se lin es of for c e h a ve t o b e st ud ied th an t h e other pole .

Magnetiz e a sewing needle by st roking it from end t o end

-

wit h t h e pole of a bar m agnet Th en stick t h is needle through a .

sm all d isc of cor k so th a t t h e eye pr oj e ct s j u st a b ov e t h e sur fa ce

,

of t h e c ork F ill a large ph otogr a ph ic d i sh wit h water an d su pport

.
,

a la rge b a r m a gnet on block s o f wood j u st a b ov e t h e surfa c e of t h e

wat e r .

F loat t h e m a gn et ized needle on t h e wat er wit h t h e eye upper

m ost a nd see t ow a r d s wh ic h pole of t h e b a r m a gnet i t i s at tr ac t ed
,
.

Th en start ing t h e float ing ne ed le nea r t h e opposit e pole of t h e b ar

m a gn et not ic e t h e p a t h t h e n eed l e foll ows wh ile p a ssin g t o t h e
,

a tt r a c ting p ole of t h e m a gnet S t ar t t h e fl oa t in g n eedle from

.

d i ffer e nt points a nd i n ev er y c a se m ake a dr a w ing of t h e p at h it

,

foll ow s It wi ll b e fou nd t h a t t hese pa th s a re of t h e sam e sh a pe a s

.

t h e li n es obta ined with t h e ir on fili n gs .

EXE RC IS E 1 43 .
—
Metlzod of mag net i z i ng a steel str i p, a nd

Appa r a t u s — B ar m a gnet s
k spr ing t
s eel cloc -
.

T ake a stri p of Clock spr ing a bou t 6 inc h es long str aighten it
-
,

o ut a nd fa st en it t o t h e t op of t h e t a ble w it h a li t t le se al in g wa x
,
-
.

Then str oke it fr om end t o end wit h t h e nort h end of your b ar

m a gnet b ei ng c ar efu l alw ay s t o c om m en ce a t t h e sa m e end
, H ol d .

t h e m a gne t n ear ly v ert ic al a nd m ov e it w it h a st e a d y and uni form

,

m ot i on Mar k t h e end at whic h you b egan st r oking t h e spr i ng an d

.
,

n ot i c e th a t i t h a s b ecom e a m a gn et .
I7 6 Mag net is m .

Th e Ma gn et —
The e x peri m e n s tm a de in t h e precedi ng
ex erc i se will gi ve a g en era l i de a of t h e d i st i nc t i ve properti es

of a m agne t . It willh ve b een notic ed that th e powe of

a r

a tt rac ting iron or st e el b od i e is c hiefly c oncentrate d ne th e

s ar

en d s of t h e m ag n et . T h e t wo p oin s n ear t th e e nd s of t h e
m agn et at wh ic h we m ay sup pose t h e m ag ne ic po wer t o t be
t t
c on c en ra e d p t
areh e m ag ne tcalled
T h e fi r s the oles of . t
four ex perim en s m ade s ow t
ed no d i fferen c e etw een t h e t w o h b
p ole s th e fi f th
how ve sh ows a di ffe en e Th t
ex peri men t , e r, r c . a

p o le wh i h w h ecn t h e m ag
,
n e t i s f eely s s pe nd e d t ns t o w ds r u , ur ar

t h e no t h is c lled t h e n o t h pol wh ile t h e othe i 1

r a lled r e, r s ca

t h e so th pole
u .

EX ER C IS E 1 4 1 .
—
L i nes o ff or ce o f a m ag net .

Appar at us —
Ir on filings ; par a fli n
‘
a nd fl at d i sh ; b ar a nd

h orse sh oe m ag nets s m all c om pa ss

- .

Melt som e par afli n wax in a large fl at d i sh t h e t op of a b iscui t —

b ox wi ll d o an d d i p a s h eet of wh i t e u n l ined p a per i n t h e wa x

,
-
.

Rem ov e t h e p a per all ow as m uc h wax t o d r a in off as p ossibl e a nd

, ,

ha ng up t o c ool Tr eat h al f a d ozen S h eet s in this way

. .

Lay a b a r m a gn et on t h e t abl e a nd ov er i t pla c e one of t h e ,

wax ed S h eet s of pa per using t wo block s of wood t o su pport ,

t h e p a p er Th en d ust a t hin lay er of fine iron filings all over t h e

.

pa per Th e filings c an b est be put on by m ean s of a t est t ube full

.
-

of fil i ngs wit h a piec e of m uslin t ied over t h e end Gently t ap

, .

t h e p a per a nd n ot ic e h ow t h e fil i n gs set th em sel v es i n lin e s

,

r a d ia ting from t h e t wo end s of t h e m a gn et Whe n t h ese lines ar e .

a s d i st inc t a s p ossibl e p a ss a B un sen flam e ra pidly over t h e

,

surfa c e of t h e p a per Th e wa x w ill in t h is way b e m elted a nd w ill

.
,

serv e t o fix t h e fili ngs

”
.

P la c e a very sm all c om pa ss in differ ent p osit i ons on t h e sh eet

of p a per a nd n ot i c e t h a t in ev er y c a se t h e ne edle set s it se lf p ar a lle l
,

t o t h e lines for m ed by t h e i r on fil ing s Thu s t h e c u rved line s in .

whic h t h e fil ings set t h em selves wh en t h e p aper is t a pped so t h a t ,

t h ey ar e fr ee t o m ov e r e pr esent t h e d i r ect i on s i n wh i c h a sm a ll
,

piv ot ed n eed le wou ld set at ea c h point These c urves a r e c alled .

t h e li n es of for c e of t h e m agn et for t h ey g iv e a t e a c h poin t t h e ,

d ir ec t i on i n wh i ch t h e p ol es of a sm a ll n eed le w ould b e p ulled

u n d er t h e i nfl uen c e of t h e ba r m a gnet .

Thi s pol e o f a magne t i s som et i m es called t h e north seeking pol e a nd -

,

t h e o t h e r t h e sout h seeking pole -

.
178 Mag net ism .

Mak e a d ouble loop ( see p 86) in a lengt h of u nsp u n silk fibr e ,

.

a nd by i t h a n t h m g ti d w t h p i f m w d t n d
g e a n e z e a c s r ng r o a -
oo en s a .

Th ere ought t o be at least a foot of fibre between t h e stan d and t h e

loop . Th e m a gneti z ed S pr i ng will set i tself wi th t h e m arked e n d
pointi ng north Repeat t h e ex per im ent, stroki ng t h e spring with
.

t h e south pole of t h e bar m a g net In th i s c ase t h e end of t h e spring

.

a t wh i c h you b e i n strok i ng w
g i ll b e fou n d a s o uth p ole M ar k t h e .

n orth pole of th i s stri p , an d th en b ring t h e n or th p ole of t h e b ar

m a gnet near t h e nort h pole of t h e susp en d ed m ag net Wh a t .

h appen s ? Also test wh a t ha ppens wh en t h e north pole of t h e b ar

m a gnet i s b rought near t h e south pole of t h e susp end ed m a gnet .

Re pea t t h e ex peri m ents, u sing t h e south pole of t h e ba r m ag net .

F r om your r esults draw up a r ule for t elling whether t wo poles w ill

r epel or a ttr a ct one a n ot h er If t h e rea son a suspend ed m a gn e t
.

set s i tself north and south i s bec au se t h e earth i s a large m a gn e t ,

wh ic h attracts t h e poles of t h e su spend ed m agnet, what ki nd of a

v
pole m ust t h e ear t h h a e at t h e north pole ?
EXE RCIS E 1 44 .
—
Metlzod of m ag net i z i ng st eel st r i s p .

Appa r a t us asprevi ous ex erc ise

in .

Fasten a stri p of c lock spring t o t h e t able as in t h e pr evious

-
,

ex er c ise a nd h old ing a b ar m a g net i n a near ly v er ti c al posit i on i n

, , ,

e ac h h a nd p la ce t h e south p ole of t h e one a nd t h e nort h ol o f t h e

p e

ot h er in c on t ac t w it h t h e m iddle of t h e S pri ng Then d ra w t h e .

m agn et s a w ay fr om on e an ot h er t ill t h e end of t h e spri ng i s r ea c h ed .

Re pea t th is operation sev er al ti m es m ake a note of t h e posit i on in

,

whi ch t h e m agnetizing m a gnets have been h eld and m ar k t h e ,

r i ght h an d end of t h e st eel st r i p

-
S us pend t h e stri p a nd d et er m in e
.
,

wh ich end is t h e north pole H enc e give a r ule for t elling wh ich
.

end of t h e st ri p w ill b e t h e nor th p ole illust rat ing y our a n swer by,

m ean s of a sk etc h .

EXE RC IS E 1 45 . —
Metlt oa of '
mag neti z i ng steel st r i s p .

A pp a r a t us asprevious ex er ci se
in .

Fa sten a str ip of clock spr ing t o t h e t able and h old ing t wo ba r

-
, ,

m a gne t s a s i n t h e pr evi ous ex er c i se plac e a small p iec e of w ood

,

a b out a n i nc h w id e betw een t h ei r p ol es th en m ove th em fr om on e ,

e nd of t h e stri p t o t h e oth er Th e poles of t h e m agnets m ust b e

.

h eld a ga inst t h e piec e of wood a ll t h e t im e so tha t they m a y b e ,

sep ar a t ed by a c on stant d i st an ce .

D eterm ine wh ich end of t h e str ip is a north pole and d ra w u p a ,

r ule a s i n t h e pr ev iou s ex erc i ses gi vi ng a l ett e red ske t c h

,
.
 Ter r es t r i a l Mag net is m . 1 79

EXE RC IS E Ej
'
1 4 6. —
ect o f br eaki ng a mag net .

Appa r a t u s — B ar m a g net ; l k spring ;

c oc -
ir on filings a nd

p a r a fli n ed pa per .

T ake a piec e of clock S pr ing about 3 in ch es long a nd st r aighte n

-
, ,

i t o ut . Wind one end of a piec e of iron wire rou nd t h e spring a nd ,

h old i t in t h e flam e of a large B unsen burner t ill t h e wh ole lengt h i s

a t a br ight r e d h eat Th en r apid ly q uench by plunging int o som e
-
.
,

c old w at e r In th i s way t h e st eel will b ecom e v er y h ar d a nd b r ittle

. .

Ma gnetiz e by t h e m ethod u sed i n Ex erc ise 1 43 or 1 44 str okin g t h e ,

s tr i p
, fir st on one sid e t h en on t h e ot h er Mark t h e nor t h pole
,
.

of t h e st r i p a nd obt a i n t h e lin es of for c e w it h i r on filing s Also .

,

d ip in i r on fili ngs a nd note th at none of t h e filin gs a d h er e t o t h e

,

m id d le .

N t b k th
ex r ea e m a gn et iz ed st r i p in h alf ,
m ark ing t h e part s, so
th at you wi ll know wh ic h e nd s of t h e t wo piec es wer e nex t eac h
oth e r . Plunge eac h of t h e pi ec es in iron filings D escr ibe wh a t .

h a ppens m aking a sket c h of t h e t uft s obt ained ( 1 ) before ( 2 ) a ft er

, ,

b r e ak i n g .

D eterm ine wh ic h end s of t h e t wo par t s a re nort h poles by

su spend i n g th em or t ry ing th e i r effec t on a sus pend e d n ee d le
, ,

r e m e m b er i ng th a t lik e p oles r ep el an d unlik e poles a t t r ac t on e ,

a n oth e r .

H old t h e t wo h alves i n t h e po sit i on th ey oc c up ied b efor e t h e

str i p wa s b r oke n a n d pl un ge i nt o fi ling s
, N otice th at th e t ufts of .

fili ngs ar e m uc h g r eat er a t t h e e nd s t h a n at t h e m i ddle Th u s t h e .

t wo o ppo sit e poles wh ic h ar e i n c ont ac t t o a gr ea t ex te nt neutr a l iz e

e a c h ot h er s e ffec t
’
.

B r eak on e of t h e h alves i n t wo a nd r epe a t t h e t est s A ga in , .

b r e ak on e of t h ese por tions i n t wo a nd so on It will alwa ys b e ,

.

fou n d t h a t ea c h p ort ion i s a c o m plete m a gnet with t wo p ol es a nd ,

t h a t wh e n t h e p ar t s a r e pla ced togeth er a m a gnet i s ob t a ine d w it h

, ,

a p ole a t e a c h e nd t h e i nt er m ed i at e poles p r a c t ic ally n eutr a l i z ing

,

e a c h ot h e r .

T e rr e st r i a l Ma g n et i sm .
-
In som e of the pr e c ed i n
g
e x erc i ses it h a s b een fo
t hat wh en a m agnet i s u nd su spend ed

by a fine t hre ad so th a t i t i s fre e t o t u rn i n a horiz on tal pla ne

, ,

i t se ts i t self i n a nort h a nd sout h d irec tion Wh en suitable .

a rra nge m ent s ar e h ow e ver ma de so t h a t t h e tr ue geo ra hic a l

, g p ,

n or t h i s o b ser v ed i e t h e di rec t ion which points t o th e north

, . .

en d of t h e axis ab out w hic h t h e eart h t u rn s it i s found t hat ,

1 80 Mag ne t ism .

a m agnet d oes not p oin t ex ac tly d ue n or th . Th e angle

i nclu ded b etween t h e direc tion in whic h a fr eel y su spende d

m agnet p oi nts and t h e tru e nort i s called t h e decli nat ion It h .

h
is fou nd t at t he dec li nation varies from place t o plac e on t h e
ear th s surfac e and also c hang es with t ime The value of t h e
’
, .

declination i n Great Bri tain at t h e present day i s ab ou t 2 0 W

°
.

—
th at is t h e m agnet p oints 2 0 west of t rue north
,
°
.

If a m agnet i nstead o f b eing suspend ed by a t hr ead or

,

m ount ed on a p ivot so t ha t it ca n only t urn in a h oriz ontal

p la n e ,
i s m ou n t e d on a h o r i z on t al a x le so t h at it ca n t u rn i n a

vertic al plane t hen it is fou nd that in th e nort h ern h em isph ere

,

t h e n ort h p ole points m ore or less d ow nw ards If t h e ne ed le .

i s so placed t h at wh en it is h oriz on tal i t i s p oin ting mag neti c

n ort h and sout h i e so t ha t t h e a x le poin ts d ue m agne ti c e a st
, . .

a nd w est then th e angle wh ic h t h e needle m ak es with t h e

,

h oriz on tal is called th e i ncli na ti on or clip In th e sou th ern , .

h emi sphere th e south pole of th e needle would dip .

Ma gn et i c Ax i a Th e straigh t line j oining t h e poles o f

—

a m ag net i s c alled t h e mag net ic ax is of t h e m ag ne t Th e .

FIG 99 . .

m agne tic ax is of a m agn e t n ee d n o t, a nd, in fac t, seldom doe s,

ex ac tly c oi n cid e with tra igh t line j oining th e c entres of
the s

t h e e n d fa c e s o f t h e m a g n e t i e t,
h e .
g e o
. m e tr i ca l a x i s W h e n .

de t er m in i n g t h e d ir e c t i o n o f t h e m a g n e t i c m e ri d i an w e c a n ,

o n l y o b se r v e t h e d ire c t io n i n w h i c h t h e g e o m e t rica l a x i s o f
th e s p u s e n d e d m a g n e t p o in t s w h i l,e w h a t i s r e q u ir e d i s t h e

d ir e c ti o n i n w h i c h t h e m a g n e t i c a x i s p o i n t s .

If A ( B I F
. ig 99)
, . i s a m a g ne t i c n e e dl e su s p e n d e d a t C ,

AB w i ll t h e n b e t h e g e o m e t ri ca l ax i s L e t t h e. m a g n e t ic a x i s
1 82 Mag n et i sm .

whic h h ave been m arked on t h e sur fa c e Th is l ine of bi secti on .

will b e t h e m agnet ic ax i s of t h e d isc Verify this fac t by laying a .

s h eet of pa per over t h e d isc and using iron filings a s in Ex erc i se

, ,

1 41 . S h ow h ow i t is th at t h e ab ove m eth od g iv es t h e m ag net i c

ax is, illu st ra t ing y our an swer by d i a gra m s .

EX ERC IS E 1 49 .
-
To fi nd t/ze mag eti c
n mer i dia n .

Appa r a t u s -
B ar m ag net ; c ar d b o ar d ; u nsp un sil k ; wooden
t
s a nd .

C ut t wo p iec es
h in c ardb oar d ab out 1 i nc h sq uare A t
of t , .

t h e c entre of one p unc h a h ole a b out h

Q i n c i n d i am et e r a n d ,

ov er t h is h ol e fa st en t wo silk fibr e s form i ng a c r oss a t t h e c e nt r e

of t h e ot h er m ak e a p i nh ole Fix t h ese c a rd boar d sq ua res t o t h e
.

e nd s of a b ar m a gn e t w it h soft wax a s sh ow n at A a n d B i n Fi
, g .

a wooden d am p or st and by
1 00 .S uspe nd t h e b a r m ag net fr o
m

FIG . 1 00

som e pun silk and a d ouble loop so th at t h e m agnet h an gs

u ns ,

a b out 2 i n c h e s ab ov e t h e sur fa c e of t h e t a b le Th en h av in g .
,

r em ov ed a ny m ov a bl e i ro n fr om t h e i mm edi at e n e ighb ou r h ood ,

look th r ough t h e p inh ole A a nd fix a la r ge pi n i n t h e t a ble a t a

,

di st a n c e of a b out 2 feet fr om t h e m ag net so t h at i t appe ar s i n line ,

wit h t h e point of int er sect ion of t h e S ilk t h r e ad s on t h e c ard B a t

t h e ot h er end of t h e m agnet Wi th out d ist urbi ng t h e st and fr om
.

wh ic h t h e m agnet i s suspend ed t u rn t h e m agnet so th a t t h e surfa c e

,

wh i c h wa s nex t t h e tabl e i s now upper most a nd fix a noth er pin in ,

t h e l i ne of s igh t p a st t h e i nt er sec t ion of t h e c r os s w ir e s .

Make a m ar k on t h e t able wher e t h e d irec t i on of t h e suspend i ng

fibr e w ould m eet t h e t able Th is m ay b e d one by rem oving t h e
.

m a g net a nd t h en h a ngi n g a plu m b li ne fr o m t h e p oint on t h e

,
-

st a n d fr o m wh i c h t h e m ag n e t wa s su s pe n d ed D ra w stra ight lin es .

j oining t h is point wit h t h e t wo pi ns a n d b isec t t h e angle bet ween

,

t h e lin e s Th is b isect or will give t h e d ir ection of t h e m a gneti c

.

m er idi an a t t h e s ur fa c e of t h e t able .

If t h e su spen d ing fib re i s t wi st ed an err or will b e i ntr od u c ed ,

 D ip . 83

for t h e t or sion will twi st t h e m agnet m a gn et ic m eridi an ou t of t h e .

Th is error m ay b e r ed uc ed by using a long su s pension fib r e, a nd by

ha ngi ng a b a r of som e non m agnetic m etal of a bout t h e sam e

-

weight a s t h e m agnet i n t h e loop Wh en t his m etal ba r c om es t o.

r est, t urn t h e s u pp ort i ng st a nd till t h e b ar p oint s a ppr ox i m a t ely

n orth and south The n r epla ce t h e bar by t h e m agnet, being

.

c ar eful not t o a llo w t h e fibr e t o twist .

EXE RC IS E 1 5 o .
—
Measur ement of dip .

Appa r a t us — D ip n eedle a nd s a nd t .

S et t h e edge of t h e st an d o f t h e d i ppi ng -
need le F
( g
i .
)
10 1 p ar al lel

to the m agne t i c m er id i a n fou nd i n t h e l a st ex er ci se, so t h a t t h e

v
d i id ed c ir c l e will li e north a nd
sout h , a nd the ax le of t h e n eed le
point t
ea s w est
an d .

Th e d ippi ng needle it se l f
-

c ons ist s of a st ri p of st eel a b o ut

6 i nc h es long po int ed a t ei t h er
,

end an d w ith a cyl i ndri c al st eel

,

a x le p a ssi ng ex a ct ly th r ough t h e

c e nt r e of gr av ity of t h e n eed le .

Th is ax le r est s on t wo short ‘

piec es of gla ss r od fix ed t o t h e
t o p of t h e u pr igh t s of t h e sta nd .

A gr ad ua ted sem i c ircle is

fi x ed so th a t t h e dia m eter A B i s
j u st above t h e level of t h e t 0p of
t h e gl a ss r od s a sm all sem ic ir c le
,

b eing punc h ed out t o allow of

t h e ax le r est i ng fr eely on t h e
gla ss This sc ale serves t o m ea
.

F IG . 1 0 1
sur e t h e a ngl e wh i c h t h e a x i s o f
.

t h e n ee dle NS m ak e s w it h t h e h or iz ont al A B i e t h e d i p , . . .

Pla c e t h e need le on t h e gla ss r od s so th at th e ax le is a t r ight ,

a n gles t o A B a n d p a sses t h r ough t h e cent r e of t h e h o le p unc h ed

,

i n t h e c ard a nd t ak e t h e r ead ing opp osit e t h e end N b eing c ar efu l

, ,

t o a v oid par allax Th en r everse t h e needle s o t h at t h e fa c e wh ic h

.
,

wa s n ex t t h e c a rd i s nowt ur ned a wa y fro m it a nd a ga in t a ke t h e ,

r e a d i n g opp osit e N .

T h e m ea n of t h e t wo r ea ding s w ill a ll ow for a ny err or d ue t o

t h e m ag ne t i c a x i s of t h e n eed l e i e t h e lin es j o i nin g t h e p ol es n o t
, . .
,

b e ing par allel t o t h e l ine j oining t h e ends of t h e need le Th is .

 I84 Mag net is m .

re v part elimi nat es any error d ue t o t h e axle n o t ex a c t ly

er sal also in
passing through t h e c entr e of gravity of t h e needle Th is e rr o r .

m ay b e c ompletely elim ina t ed by rem a gneti z ing t h e n eedle so t h a t

wha t was a north pole i s now a south pole and r epea t i ng t h e ,

r ead i ngs Th e m ean of all four r eadings will th en b e t h e d i p

. .

Ma gn et i c Mom en t t made in Ex erc i se .

—
Th e ex perim en s

1 46 on t h e effec ts of b rea k ing a m agnet

, and t h en a g a i n ,

b uilding up t he magnet with th e parts have shown that a n ort h ,

a n d sou th pole w hen placed near together tend t o n eu tra liz e

, ,

eac h ot h er s effec t on ex ternal b od ie s It i s t hus evi d en t si n c e

’
.
,

e very m agnet m ust h av e b oth a nor th and a sou t h p ole t h a t ,

th ese poles m ust t o som e ex tent tend t o n eutraliz e e a c h

, ,

o t h er s effec t H ence i f we ha ve t wo magnet s t h e p ole s o f

’
.
, ,

whic h are of e qual strengt h but one m agnet is twic e as lon g a s ,

t h e o th er th en t h e longer magne t will ex ert a more p o wer fu l

,

e ffec t on ex ternal b odies si nc e t h e t w o poles are fur t h e r a art

p , ,

a n d t h ere fore do n ot neut raliz e eac h ot h er s e ffec t t o so g re a t

’

a n e x t en t For t h is reason in order t o h ave an i d ea o f t h e

. ,

st rengt h of a m agnet w e r equir e n ot only t o k nowt h e st r e n g t h

,

of t h e p oles bu t also t he distan c e b etw een t h e p ole s Th e .

r od uc t of t h e st rength of eit h e r of th e poles of a m a g n e t i n t o

p
t h e dista nc e b e t w een t h e pole s i s called t h e m ag ne t ic m o m e n t

of t h e m ag net .

EXE R C IS E 1 5 1. —
Compa ri son o f magnet ic moment s by tfi e
d efl ect i on metltod .

Appa r a t u s p
C om a s s w i—t h i nd ex m ov in g ov er i v i
d d ed C i r cle 1

m et r e sc a l e b ar m agnet s .

D r a w a line on t h e t op of your t able at righ t angles t o t h e m a g

net i c m eri d i a n m ark ed i n Ex er c i se 1 49 La y a m et re s c ale alo n g .

thi s line and set t h e com pa ss so th at t h e c entre i s over t h e m i d d le

,

of t h e sc a l e Then having r e m oved all m agnets and i r o n t o a

.
,

d i st an c e t ur n t h e c om p ass b ox ( not t h e sc ale) till t h e po in t e r c o m e s

,
-

t o t h e z er o of t h e c ir c l e P la c e a b a r m agnet on ea c h sid e of t h e
.

c om p ass need le a t a dist a nce of n ot less th a n 2 0 c m

-
a n d a dj u s t .
,

t h eir posit ions t ill t h e nee d le of t h e c om pa ss c om es b a c k t o z e r o .

Th e com pass belong ing t o th e gal no m et er descr ibe d on p 2 1 2 w i l l va .

d o fo r this e peri ment x .

1 86 Mag net ism .

EXE RC IS E 1 5 2 .
—
Induced mag net ism i n i r on a nd steel .

A pp a r a t us — B ar m agn et
piec e of soft iron and of steel ir on
filings a nd para fli ned pa per c om pass .

Pla ce a piece of soft ir on ab ou t 3 inc h es long a nd of t h e , ,

sa m e c r o ss sec tion a s t h e bar m a g net su pplied t o o u n d e a sh e e t

y u r
-
,

of p a per and t e st wh et h er i t i s m a gnet iz ed by m ean s of i r o n fi lin g s

, .

Also b ring it n ea r a suspe nd ed or piv oted m a gneti c needle and ,

n ot ic e t h a t e ith er e nd a t tr a ct s ea c h end of t h e ne edle .

N ex t pla ce t h e soft iron and th e b ar m agnet in line separated ,

by a bout h alf a n in ch and obt ai n th e lines of force wit h filings in

, ,

t h e m a nner d es c r ib ed i n Ex er c ise 1 4 1 T o wh a t c onclu sion a s t o .

t h e s t ate of t h e soft iron wh e n near t h e m ag net d o t h e line s of forc e

l ead ? Fr o m t h e d ire ct ions in wh ich t h e lines of forc e r un c an you , ,

by c om pari ng t h ese c urv es wit h t h ose obta ined in Ex er c ise 1 4 1 t ell ,

wh ich end of t h e iron h as a pole of th e sa m e S ign a s th e nearer p ole

o f t h e b ar m ag net ?

R em ov e t h e b ar m a g net and ag ai n t est t h e m agneti c c on d it i on

,

of t h e soft ir on by m ea n s o f a susp end ed or pi vot ed m a g net .

Re pe a t t h e ex per im ent s u sin g a piec e of unm a gnetiz ed soft stee l

,

in pla c e of t h e soft iron In wh at way d o t h e r esult s n ow obt a in ed

.

( )1 wh e n t h e b ar m a g n et i s n e a r a n d ( )
2 a ft e r t h e r e
,
m o v a l of t h e

b ar m a gnet d i ffer from t h ose obt a i ned w it h t h e soft iron ? Mak e

,

a l ett er ed sk et c h sh ow ing wh i c h en d of t h e st eel h a s a nor t h a nd

,

wh ich a sou th pole when pla c ed opposite 1 ) t h e n orth pole a nd ,

( )
2 t h e s ou t h p ole o f t h e b ar m a g n et .

EXERC IS E 1 53 .
—
Induced magn eti sm .

A pp a r at u s —
B ar m a gnet sm a l l m agnet piece of soft iron wir e
c om p a ss .

T ak e piece of soft ir o n w ire about 3 inches long a nd h old

a ,

it in a v ert ic al p osi t ion w it h t h e low er end n ea r one of t h e poles o f

a pivo t e d m a gne t ic n e ed l e B r ing a ba r m a gnet w it h i t s n orth po l e
.
,

d ownwar d s n ear t h e u pper end of t h e wir e an d not ice wh ic h po le

, ,

of t h e p iv ot ed n eedle i s r ep ell ed by t h e l owe r e n d of t h e w i r e H e nc e .

d eter m ine t h e S ign of t h e p ol e a t t h e low er end of t h e wir e Re pe a t .

,

bringing t h e sout h pole of t h e b ar m agnet n ear t h e t op of t h e wi r e .

Make t wo sketc hes sh ow ing t h e a r ra ngem ent of m ag net and w ir e

, ,

lett er i ng t h e pole s of t h e m a gnet and t h e p ole i nd u ced a t t h e low e r

e nd of t h e w i r e .

N ex t t ie a piece of cott on t o one end of t h e ir on wire pl a ce t h e ,

b a r m a gn et on t h e t a b le a nd h old ing t h e c ot ton by t h e end b r i n g

, , ,

t h e w ir e n e a r on e pol e of t h e m a gn et b u t d o no t let t h e end o f t h e ,

 Ind u ced Mag net is m . 1 87

wir e quite touch t h e pole Th e posit ion i n wh i c h t h e wire is t o b e

.

pl a ced is sh own i n Fig 1 0 2 H er e NS i s t h e b ar m agnet A B t h e

. .
,

FIG . 1 02 .

w ire and C B t h e cot t on wh ic h i s held at C t h e att ra c t ion of t h e

, , ,

m a gnet keep ing t h e w ir e i n a n a lm ost h or iz ont a l p osit i on Th e .

ex per i m ent s a l r ea d y m a d e h a v e sh o w n th a t a n or t h pole i s i nd uced

i n t h e ir on w ir e a t B ; we now h a v e t o Sh owt h a t a so uth p ol e i s

i nd u ced at A .

H old ing a sm a l l m a gnet

h orizont al and at r ight angles t o t h e ,

b a r m a gn et b ri ng t h e sout h pol e near A

,
It w ill be found t h at t h e .

wire i s r e pelled sh owi ng t hat a south pole h a s been i nd uced at A

,
.

B r ing t h e south pol e near B a nd a t t r a ct ion w ill t ak e pla c e

,
.

Re pea t u sing t h e south p ol e of t h e b ar m agnet t o i nd u c e t h e

,

m a gneti sm i n t h e w ir e Make in each c ase a di a gr am on wh ic h

.
,

t h e sign s of t h e poles of t h e b a r m agnet and of t h e i nd u ced pol e s a r e

c lea rly m a r k e d .

EXE RC IS E 1 54 .
—
Magneti sm i nd uced by tlze ea r tns eld
’
fi .

Appa r a t us — B ar of soft ir on a bou t 3 feet long (a p ok er) ;

h am m er ; com pass .

Pl ace a suspended or pivot ed needle near th at edge of a t a bl e ,

wh ic h lies i n ab out t h e m agn et ic m erid ia n Then h ol ding a b ar of .

i ron suc h a s a pok er in t h e d ir ect ion in wh i c h t h e d ip n eed le point s

, ,
-

( E x e r c i s e b r i n g fi r st t h e t op a n d t h e n t h e b o tt o m e n d n e a r t h e

pivot ed needl e C arefully not e t h e sign of t h e polari ty indu ced in

.

t h e pok er . R ever se t h e poker a nd r ep eat ,

.

N ex t h olding one end of t h e poker near th e piv ot ed needle turn

, ,

t h e pok er a b out t h i s end a s a c ent r e k ee ping i t i n t h e m a gnet ic ,

m er i d i a n . N ote th e polarity of t h e end nex t t h e needle for d ifferent

p o s i t i o n s of t h e p ok er M ak e a sk et c h sh ow
. i ng t h e p ol ar ity i nd u c ed
,

i n t h e p oker i n t h e d i ffer ent p osit ion s a nd giv e a n ex pl an at i on , ,

r em em b eri ng th at t h e e ar th m ay b e r egar d ed a s a l arge m a gnet w i t h

i t s sou t h pole ne ar t h e n or t h geogr a ph i c a l p ol e a nd i t s n or t h p ol e ,

n ear t h e south ge ogr a ph i c a l p ol e .

H old t h e poker p ar a llel t o t h e d ir ec t i on of t h e d i ppi ng needle ,

an d g iv e i t t wo or th r e e sh ar p bl ow s N o t ic e t h a t t h e i nd u c e d
.

m a gnet ism i s m uc h st r onger t h a n befor e H enc e c onc u ssion a ssi st s .

t h e m agnet iz at i on of t h e ir on by i nd uct ion .

 P A RT IX .
—
E L E C TR I C I TY .

S ECT IO N I .
—
STA T IC ELEC TR IC ITY .

IN or der to insure succ ess i n ma n y t on

of t h e e x pe rim en s

t tic
s a elec ric i t ty , i t is essential t hat all the a pparat us as well a s

t h e air o f t h e r oo m h
s o uld be dry . For th is reaso n t h e e x peri

y
m ent s generall succeed est on a frost d ay A righ t o pen b y . b
b
fi re is t h e est m eans of dr ing elec tric al a p parat u s a ili ng y . F
th is ,
a large r ad ia ting g as s o e ,
su t v
c h as is u sed for h eati ng
p p
ur o ses in h
s ops, may be u se d .

EXE RCIS E 155 E le ct r.

ifi —
ca t i on byf r i ct i o n .

Appa r a t us —
Rod s of sealing wax , eb onit e, sh ell ac , gla ss
l -
fl anne l
a nd S il k r ubber s .

Tear som e pa per int o sm all pieces about h alf a c ent im etre squ are ,

a nd plac e th ese on t h e t able Rub a st i ck of se ali ng wax wi t h a

.
-

d r y p iece of fl annel or on you r coat sleeve a nd h ol d it over t h e p ie ce s ,

of p a per N ot ice that t h e p aper is a tt ract ed som e of t h e p iec es

.
,

st ic k ing t o t h e seali ng w ax ot h er s da n c ing u p a nd d own b et w e e n

-
,

t h e r od a nd t h e t able Pa ss your ha nd over t h e surfa ce of t h e

.

se ali ng wax or p a s s t h e r od r api dly th r ou gh a B un se n fl a m e

-
,
A ga i n .

h old t h e rod over t h e piec es of paper N o a tt r ac t ion will t ake pl a c e . .

Wh en t h e rod i s r ubb ed it i s sai d t o bec om e elect r ifi ed a nd it i s

, ,

t o t h i s elec t r i fi c a t ion th a t it o we s it s p ower of a t t rac ti ng t h e p a p e r .

P assage t hr ough t h e fi ngers or t h rough a fla m e d estroys t h e elec t r i

fi c at i on . Tr y wh eth er a n elec tri fi ed rod of seali ng wax will a tt r a c t -

oth er light b od ie s su c h a s b r a n pi t h, sm a ll c h i p s of wo od ,
c or k , , ,

feath er s et c , .

Rep eat t h e ex per im ent u sing r od s of eb onit e sh ella c a nd gla ss

, , ,
.

In t h e ca se of gl a ss u se a r ubbe r m ad e of silk in plac e of t h e fl a nn e l

,
.

Ebonit e sti r ri ng rods m ay b e obtained fr om ch em ical a pp ar a t us

-

d eale rs a t ha lf a crow n a do en z .
 S uspend a n elec r i t fied r od glass by t he stirrup
of , an d e ec ri fy l t
a second r od of glass and , bring it near t h e suspend ed
r od In t h i s .

c a se r ep ul sio n w ill t ak e pl a c e .

T r y wh eth er an elect r i fied r od of sh ella c or of eb onit e a tt r a c ts

or r e pels a n elec t ri fi ed rod of gl a ss .

From t h e re sult s of your ex perim ent s fill in t h e followin g t a ble ,

i n e a c h square ent er ing whe th er t h e t wo b od ies one o f wh i c h i s ,

enter ed a t t h e t op of t h e c olu m n and t h e ot h er a t t h e e nd o f t h e

r ow in wh ic h t h e sq u ar e lies a t t ra c t or r epe l e ac h o t h e r wh e n
,

e l ect r i fi ed i n t h e m a nner i nd ic at ed .

Eb onit e r u bb d S h e lla c ru e d bb Glass r u ed bb

h Fl hF h
e
wi t a n ne l. wi t lanne l . wit S i lk .

P os i t i v e and Ne g a t i v e Ele c t ri fi c a t i on —
In the

p re vious e x erc ise been fo nd th t t h e ele t ific t io n

it h as u a c r a

i nd d in gla
uc e wh n ss, bb ed with silk diffe s f om th t
e ru ,
r r a

i d ed in sealing wax eb onit e o sh ellac wh en ubb ed wi t h

n uc -
, ,
r , r

fl n n el
a Fo wh ile t w ele t ified ods of ny one of t h e s
. r o c r r a e

m e ta i l r a se p el ro n e n o t h e nd t w
a el e t i fi ed
r, a ods o n o f o c r r , e

wh i h i of e li ng w
c s
s a nd t h e ot h e
-
axo f eb on i t e o
a h ll r r s e ac,

l o e pel one nothe

a s r n elec t ifie d
a od of g lass at tr
r, a ts n
r r ac a

e lec t ifi e d od f e i t h e of t h e ot h e m t e ials
r r ,
o r r a r .

Th ese two k inds of elec t i fic a tion h ave ec eive d separ a t e r r

na m es t h a
: t w h ic h i s d e v e l pe d i n se al in g w ax o sh ella c an d
-
, ,

eb onit e wh en m bb ed w
,
i th fl annel is c lled r si n or n g ti v a e ou s, e a e,

ele t i fi a t ion w
c r c h ile that developed in glass wh en u bb ed wi t h
,
r
 Cond uct or s a nd Insu la t or s . 1 91

s il k is ca lle d v i tr eou s
p t , or Forosi t i ve,
c o n elec ri fic a ti on .

v e n ienc e i n w r it in g r e sin ous or n e at i ve e lec t ri fi c at i on i

g , s

i nd ic a t ed by t h e sy m b ol ( m in u s) a n d v i t reo u s or p osi t i v e ,

e le c t rifi c a t ion by t h e sym b ol (p )

lu s .

It will be seen t hat t h e result s ob t ai n ed in Ex e rc ises 1 5 5

1 57 c an be su m m ar iz ed as follows
b odie att ac t all u nelec trified bodie
A ll elec t ri fied s r s.

B odies elec trifi ed wi t h t h e sam e k ind of elec t ific ation r repe l

on e a no th er .

B odies t
elec ri fied, one posi tively an d t h e o th er nega t ively ,

a ttrac t one an ot h er .

EX R C IS
E E 1 5 8 —
Electr ifica t i on by conta ct wi tlz a n electr ified
body .

A pp a r a t us —
P it h ball
pun silk rod s of ebon ite or sealing
un s

wax a nd gla ss fl an nel and silk r ubber s .

S uspen d a pith b all by a t hr ead of unspu n silk and br ing a n

1
,

ele c tr i fi ed r od of sealing wax or gla ss n ear it Th e p ith b all will be

-
.

a t t r ac t ed but if allowed t o t ouc h t h e r o d it w ill im m ed i at ely b e

,

r e pell e d .

It will b e found t h at t h e ball h as now a cquir ed t h e pow er o f

a tt r a c ti n g un elect ri fi ed b odies H old your h an d near t h e b all a n d
.
,

n ot ic e t h a t i t i s a t tr a c t ed Th e b all h a s t h us b ec om e elec t r i fi ed or
.

c h ar ge d by c o nt ac t wit h t h e r od a nd sinc e wh en i t i s ele c t r i fi ed it

,

i s r e pe lled by t h e r od by whic h it was elec t ri fi ed it follow s th at i t s ,

e lec t ri fi c a t io n i s of t h e s am e k ind a s th at of t h e ro d B r i ng a r od .

e l ec t r i fi ed wi th t h e opposit e k i n d of elec tr i fi c a t i on t o t h a t of t h e

c h ar gi ng r od n ear t h e c h a rged pi t h b all a nd show t h a t i t i s

a ttr ac t ed .

EX E R C IS E 1 59 . Cond uctor s a nd i ns ula tor s .

Appa r a t us as in previous ex er c ise, wit h t h e a d di ti on of s m all

d isc of m et al .

S u sp end a pi t h b all by a l ength of c ot t on , a nd b r ing a n elec tri fi ed

r od n ea r it T h e pith b all w ill b e at t r ac t ed , a nd a ft er c ont a c t w it h
.

t h e r od wi ll fa ll b a c k O n b ri nging a n u nelec t r i fied b od y n ear t h e

.

b all n o at tr ac tion will t ake pl ac e, an d t h e b all will b e fo u nd qu it e

u n elec t r i fi ed We th us see t h at t h e c h arge c om m unicat ed t o t h e
.

p i th b a ll by c ont a c t wi th t h e el ec tr i fie d r od h a s b ee n lost S i nc e .

A ll si k l u se d fo r insu lation purposes m ust be u ndyed .

 1 92 Elect r i ci ty .

t h e onl y wa y in wh ic h t h e pit h ball now uséd d iffers from t hat used

i n t h e pre vious ex erc ise wh i c h wa s found t o r et ain i t s c h arge is
, ,

t h e s u sp end ing fibr e we a r e led t o t h e c on clu si on t h at wh ile silk

, ,

d oes n ot allow t h e elec t r ifi c a ti on of t h e pith ball t o esc a pe c otton ,

d oes .

A body s uc h a s c ot on, t wh ic h a llo ws the elec t ri fic ation t o esc ape ,

is lled a c onduct or
ca .

F a st en a sm all piec e of m et al such a s a h al f penny on t h e end ,

-
,

of a st ic k of sealin g wax Holding i t by t h e sealing wax c ar ge t h e

- .
-
,

h alf penny by contac t with an el ec tr i fied body Th en bring t h e

-
.

c h a rged h alf pe nny n e ar a suspend ed pi t h b a ll a n d not ic e t h a t

-
,

t h e C h a r ge i s ret a ined for a c on si der a ble t im e Repe a t t h e ex pe ri .

m e nt u sing r od s of eb onit e sh ella c gla ss wood and m etal a s

, , , , ,

h an dles t o su ppor t t h e h alf penny a nd find in ea ch c a se wh ether -

, ,

when s o support ed it r etai ns it s c har ge ,

.

In sul a t ors an d . C on d u c t ors .

—
F om th e esults obt ined
r r a

in t h e last ex erc ise it will be no tic ed th t wh ile som e bodie

a , s,

suc h as S il k , sealing -
b onite et d o not llow th e
wax , e , c. , a

elec rifi c at tion of a body whi h they upport to flow aw yc s a ,

o th er b odies suc h as c otton wood m etal et c allow t h e

, , , ,
.
,

elec trifi c a ti on t o esc ap e B od ies wh ic h d o not allow t h e .

elec trifi ca tion t o esc ape are calle d n on c onduc t ors or i nsula tors , ,

sinc e t h e y m ay be u sed t o i nsulat e an elec t ri fi ed b od y so t h a t

it s elec trific ati on will n ot e sc ape B od ie s whic h allow t h e .

elec trifi c at ion t o esc ape are calle d cond uc t ors si nc e t h ey a r e ,

supp osed t o c ond uc t t h e elec tr ifi c at ion aw ay .

Th e P r oof P 1an e b sequent e e ises we h all .

— In t h e su x rc s

o ften m k e se of asm ll di sc
u f m et l ab t t h e si e f
a a o a ,
ou z o a

S i pen e
x tt c h ed to an insul ting h ndle m d e of eb oni te o r
c , a a a a ,
a

sealing w a b o t i in he long Th is inst m ent is lle d

-
x, a u S x c s . ru ca

a p orf p la noe W h e n t h e m e t
. l di c i b o g h t i n c o n t a t w i t h a s s r u c

a n ele t ifi e d b dy it b ec om e s c h
c r g
o e d w i t h t h e s m e k i n d of ar a

ele t i it y as is t h e b ody t t h e poi nt

c r c f on t t If we t h e n
a o c ac .

rem ov t h e p oof pl n e by t h e i nsul t ing han dle

e r a n d te t t h e a , a s

q ntity an d ign of t h e elec t ificat ion a ied w y we

ua S n r c rr a a , ca

o b t ain a m eas e of t h e k i nd a n d q anti ty of t h e elec t ifi

ur ti o n u r ca

of th t p t of t h e h ged b ody at whi h ntac t was m d e

a ar c ar c co a .

If i t i f nd th t th e p oof plan e
s ou a
p yid l l os e s it s c h r
g e t h e ra ar ,
1 94 Elect r ici ty .

B r ing t h e g wax near t h e pencil an d t h e n

elec t r i fied r od of seali n -
,

take i t away !and t est whet her a ny part of t h e r od is now elec tri fied
,
.

Repe at t h e wh ole seri e s of ex perim en ts u sing a p osi t ively ,

e l ec tri fi e d rod of gla ss i n plac e of t h e n eg a t i vely elec tr i fi ed r od of

se aling w -
ax .

Make sketc h es of t h e pencil and ch arged rod in t h e t wo cases ,

a nd c lear ly m a rk t h e S ig n of t h e elec tri fi c a t ion on t h e c h ar ged r od

( s e ali n g w-
a x or gl a ss) a n d a lso t h e sig
,
n s of t h e elec tri fi c a t io n a t t h e

d iffer ent p art s of t h e in sulat ed cond uc t or ( penc il) .

In d u c t i on .
— Th e ex p er im en s t m ad e in t he prec eding
ex erc ise h ve
a sh o wn that when , b y b ha C h arg ed od is roug t

n ea r an in su lated unelec tri fied ond uc to t h is ond uc t o

c r, c r

b e c om es elec ri fi ed. t Th e cond uc t or is in uc h ca e aid t o s a s s

be t
ele c ri fi e d by ind uc t ion and t h e C harge w
, hich is develop d e

is c alled t h e i nd uced ch a rg e, and t h e elec trifi ed rod is c alle d

t h e i nd uci ng body . Th e e x perimen s t have also shown that t h e

t
e lec rifi ca t io n in duc ed in t h e c on d uc or t is at th e en d n e arer

th e inducing body of t
t h e O pposi e Sig n t o t h e ind uc ing c ha ge r ,

while th e elec rific a t tion at t h e fur t h er en d of t h e c on d uc or t is

of t h e sam e Sign as t h e induc ing c arge h .

when t h e induc ing c harge is rem oved th e insulat ed

Sinc e,
c ond uct or sh ow s n o sign s of elec trifi ca tion i t follows th a t t h e ,

induced ( positiv e and n egat ive) elec trifi cat ion m u st on t he ,

r em oval of t h e ind uc ing c h arge m u tually d e st roy one ano t h e r , .

EXE RC IS E 1 62. -
Induced clzarg e .

App a r a tus previous ex erc ise

as in .

B r ing an electr i fi ed st i c k of sealing wax (or eb onit e) n ear t h e -

en d of t h e i n sul a t ed penc il a s i n Ex er c i se 1 6 1 a nd wh i le t h e
, , ,

i nd u c i ng b od y i s i n pla c e m om ent ar i ly t ou c h any p ar t of t h e pen c i l

,

wit h y our finger so a s t o c onnect t h e insul ated b od y with t h e ear th

su c h a n op er a ti on w ill i n fut ur e b e r eferr ed t o as
,
putt ing t h e in su
,

lat ed b ody t o eart h ”

Now r e m ov e t h e induc ing ch arge and t ouc h
.
,

t h e i n su la ted penc il w it h t h e pr oof pl a ne a nd d e t erm ine by m e a n s , ,

of a Ch arged p ith b all wh eth er a c h a rge i s t ak en a w ay a nd if so

, , , ,

o f wh a t S ign .

Re pea t t h e ex p er im ent using a po sit ive ly elec t r i fied b od y (gl a ss)

,

t o in d uc e t h e c h a rge .
 Induced Cba rg e . 1 95

“
B ou n d C h ar e an d g
Fr ee C h a r e Th e pre g .
—

c edin
g ex p e r im e n t h as s o wn t a t t h e st a t e o f t h
h e t wo inh d s k
of elec trifi ca ti on induc ed in an i nsulat e d c on duct or w h e n a
,

h
c ar ed
g o d i sb y ro u g t near ,
ar e bd i fl e ren t Fh or o n p u tt i ng
'

t h e insula t ed od t o eart b y h
t h e c arg e o f t h e sam e sign a s h
t h e induc ing c arge, w ic h h h
is driven t o t h e opposit e end of
t h e c onduc or t from t h e ind uc ing c ha ge
r ,
escapes ; wh ile th e
c ha g e of
r t h e O pposi e sign, t whic h is ac c um ula ed on t t h e end
of t h e c onduc or neares t t the ind uc ing c ha g e
r , remains on th e
c on duc or e en t v wh en this la tter is c onnec ted t o ear th . Th e
fir st of th ese C h ar es wh ic h esca pe s w
g , h en t h e i n sula t ed c on

duc t or is put t o eart , is h t k

of en sp o en of a s t h e free c h a ge r ,
”

w ile t a t w ic does
h h h h not esc ape is c alle d the b ound
c h rge
a .

Th e t of th e ex perim en ts
resul s may be sum m ed by up

saying t h a t w hen a c harged body A Fi is b ough t

, , ( g . r

near an insulat ed c ond uc t or B C , ,

a c h arge of O pp osi t e sign t o t h e 3

induc ing c har ge is attrac ted t o
FIG 1 0 4.
t h e part of th e c onduc t or n earest
.

th e ind uc ing c h arg e , while a C h a ge r of the sam e sig n is

d ri v en a way t o t h e par t of t h e co nductor furth est away from
t h e ind uc ing c ar ge h . Wh en t h e insulated conduc tor is pu t
t o ear t h t hen for th e
,
tim e being t h e earth forms part of th e
c o n duc tor a nd t h us t h e c h arge of t h e sam e
,
. sign as th e

induc ing c harg e t rav els away t o th e O pposi t e end of t h e eart h .

EXE RCIS E 1 63 .
—
Ind uced cba rg e on a n u ni nsula ted body .

App a r a tus pr ev ious ex erc ise

as in .

Fr om wh at h as been said in t h e previ ous paragra ph we sh oul d

ex pe c t t h a t wh en a c h a rged b od y i s br ou ght ne ar an u n i n s u la t ed
,

b od y a c h ar ge of O pposit e Sign would b e ind uced In t h e part of

,

th e u n i n su la t ed b od y n ea r e st t h e c h ar g ed b od y .

In ord er t o prove th at th is 15 so c h ar ge a r od of sealing wa x or ,

-

gla ss and h old ing it ab out an inc h a bove t h e surface of t h e table,

, ,

touch t h e table with t h e proof plane j ust below t h e elec tr i fi ed r od .

T e st t h e c h arge c arried away by t h e proof plane and S howby a ,

k
s e t c h t h e sig n of t h e c h a r g e i n d uc ed i n an u n i n su la t ed b od y wh e n
 1 96 Elect r i ci ty .

( I) positively and ( 2 ) a neg atively elec tri fied

a bod y is brought n e a r .

Wh y m ust you rem ove t h e pr oo f pla ne fr om t h e t ab le bef or e y ou

r e move t h e i nd uc ing c h ar g e ?

Th e G old le a f Ele c t r osc op e — In some of t h e pre

-
.

c edi n
g e x e rc i ses we a v e m a d e use o f a su sh
p en d e d p i t all h b
as a m eans of de t ec t in
g w e t e r a h h
od b y
is or is not elec trifi ed A .

m ore sensitive and c onvenien t in

t
s ru men t t o use for th is p p
u is
r ose

s hown in se tion in c Fig 1 0 5 , and i s

.

ca lled a g old lea f e le t r o c e It

c s op
-
.

c onsis s t of a m etal di sc, A , c on

n ec t ed by a m etal r od wi t a sm all h
m e tal cross piec e, B Two str ips of
-
.

g old leaf, C ,
are a ttac ed t o t i s h h
c ross piec e
-
The m et al rod c on
.

nec t ing t h e d isc w it B i s insulat ed h

by b eing surrounded w it sealing h
wax (shown sh aded at D in t he
figure) wh ere it passes t hrough
, t he
F'G ‘ ”5 °
G) ‘

kE
C or . h
T i s c or k fi t s in to th e n ec k
of a wid e m out hed
-
bottle ,
whic h ser es v t o prot ec t t h e g old
leav es from draug h ts . Wh en a c harge is c om munica ed t
t o the m et al plate A , called t h e cap , t h e g old leav es also
b h
ec om e c arg ed, a nd as t e are c arg ed w hy
i t t h e same ind h h k
of elec tric it y hy
t e repel one anot er t h e strong er t h e elec tri h
fi ca t ion t h e greater i s t h e div ergenc e of t h e leaves .

b b y
By ringing a od in c ontac t wit h th e cap of an u nc h a g ed
r

t
elec rosc ope whet h er it i s c harged or not and also
we can se e ,

t a n i d ea as t o t h e e x t en t t o wh i c h i t i s c h arg ed b ut w e
g e ,

can not t ell t h e sig n of t h e c h arge If h owever t h e elec tr o .

, ,

sc ope i s c h arged say posi ti vely so t h a t t h e lea ves ar e m od e

, ,

ra t ely diverged t h en by b ringi ng a p osi ti vely elec t rifi ed bo dy

, ,

nea r t h e c ap a n ega ti ve c h arg e w

,
ill be i nduc ed at t h e cap,
wh ile an induced p ositive charg e will be repelled t o t h e g old
leav es c ausing t h em t o d iv erge furt h er
,
If, on t h e o th er h and, .

t h e c h arged b o dy i s elec tri fi ed n egat ively t h en on br ingi ng ,

I98 Elect ric i ty .

EXERC IS E 1 65 . — T/te g old leaf -

electr osco e. p
App a r a t u s previous ex er cise
as in .

C h ar ge t h e gold leaf elec trosc ope som ewh at st r ongly and b r i n g ,

t h e h and n ear b ut n ot t ouc h i ng t h e pla t e

,
N otice h owt h e leaves , .

c ol la p se. This c olla pse i s d ue t o t h e c h ar ge induced on t h e un d er

s urfa c e of t h e h an d r ea ct i ng on t h e i nduc i ng c h a r ge a nd a t tr a c ti n g

it t o t h e u pper surfa ce of t h e c a p so t h at t h e electr i fic ation of t h e ,

leav es i s r ed u ced H ow w ould you disti ng uish t h e c oll a p se of

.

t h e l eav es prod u ced i n t h i s way b y a n u nch ar ged b od y fr o m t h a t

pr od uced by a b od y c h arged with elec t ri ficat i on of t h e opposit e
S ig n t o th at w ith wh i ch t h e elect r osc ope i s c h a rg ed ?

EXE RCIS E 1 66 . Conducti on .

Appa r a tus as i n t h e p revi ous ex erci se, with t h e ad di ti on of

r od s of wood e t c
,
.
,
a nd lengt h s of wi re , c ott on , silk, et c .

C h arge t h e elect roscope so th at t h e lea ves d iver ge wid ely th e n ,

t ouch t h e c a p wit h t h e end of a length of about a foot of t h e foll ow

i ng sub st a nces h old ing t h e ot h er end in y our h an d : m et al wi r e
, ,

wood d r y silk d am p silk c ott on gl a ss rod on t h e surfa ce of wh ich yo u

, , , ,

h ave breath ed t h e sam e r od a ft er t h e surface h a s b een w ell d r ie d

,
.

N ote in each case t h e tim e t h e leaves t ake t o c ollapse owing t o t h e

c h a r ge b eing c ondu ct ed alon g t h e d i ffer ent sub st a nc es D raw u p .

a t a ble i n wh i c h t h ese su b st a nc es ar e a rr a nge d i n or d e r t h e b e s t ,

c on d u c t or s c om ing first .

Th e Ele c t ro p h oru s W en we C arge .

-
h h a c on du c or t by
h h
t ouc ing it wit an elec trifi ed i nsulator, su c h wax
.

as se ali ng -

or gla ss, o nl t h e y
elec t r i c i t q u i t e n ear t h e poi n t o f y c on t ac t

is b
a le t o esc ape on t o t h e c ond uc t or Th e r est . of the
t
elec rifi ca t io n , sinc e it c a nn o t flow from on e p ar t of t he
i nsula tor t o a no t h er ,
does n ot h arge th e ond t o
g o to C c uc r .

k
By m a i ng u se of t h e induc tion e e c i sed by a c h a g e d b o d y
x r r

o n a c ond uc tor w e c an ot nnly m k e se of t h e wh ol

o a u e

t tion b ut we can
elec r i fi c a ,
arg e a c ond uc t or a g ai n and C h

ag a in wit h ou t d issipat ing t h e i nd uc in el c t i fi t i An

g e r ca o n .

i nstrum ent wh ic h work s on t h e ind uct i on prin c iple c alle d ,

a n elec troph or us is sh ow n in sec t ion i n Fig

, 1 06 It c o n . .

si st s of a d i sc of e b on i te sh e llac or i nd i arub b er A B on
, , , ,

t h e b ottom surfac e of w h ich a disc of ti n foil C D is p ast ed , , .

 Elect r op/zor u s . 1 99

A di sc of metal, EF, wi th a rou nded edge , and fi tted with

an insulating handle m ade of a rod of sea ling- wax or of

varn ish ed glass,

for m s t h e c ond uc or on t wh ich h
t h e c arge i s
in d u c e d .

Wh en th e u pper su rfac e of A B is ru bb ed with a d ry fla n n el

it b ec om es nega tively elec trified T his negat ive elec trifi cat ion
.

i n du c es a positive elec trifi c ation on t h e tin foil C D t h e c orre ,

sp ond i n
g n e ga t i v e elec tr i fic at i o n fl owi ng t o e a rt h i f t h e i n st ru

m ent i s stand ing on t h e t able Th is C h arge i nd uc e d on t h e

.

tin foil r eac t s o n t he c harg e on A B and t end s t o preven t it ,

fl owi ng awa y If n ow t h e pla t e EF is plac e d on A B sinc e

.
,

t h e surfac es of EF and A B ar e neit h er o f th em a b solut ely

fl at t h ey only t ou c h a t a few point s and it is only t h e nega
, ,

FIG . 1 06 . (i ).

t i ve t
elec ri fic a t hese fewpoints whic h Ch arges EF All
t ion at .

t h e r est of t h e elec trifi ca tion h o w e ver induc e s a n elec t ri

, ,

fi c a t i o n i n EF posi tive on t h e lower sur fac e and negat ive on

,

t h e u pper surfac e If t h e plat e is now r e m oved a nd t est ed

.

th e t w o i nd uc ed c h arges w ill h ave recomb ined and only t h e ,

v ery feeb le n ega tiv e c h arg e c onduc ted from A B at t h e po int s

o f c o ntac t w ill rem ain O f t h e t wo elec t rifi c at ions indu c ed
.

wh en EF is plac ed on A B one (t h e negative) is free wh ile

,
“ ”
,

t h e o th er ( t h e p osi ti ve) i s bound H enc e i f th e plate EF

”
.
,

i s put t o ea rt h by t ouc hing it wit h t h e fi nge r th e neg ative ,

fr ee c h arg e will e sca p e wh ile t h e posi t ive b oun d C h arg e

,

will r em a in O n nowrem oving EF by m eans of t h e insulating

.
2 00 Elect r i ci ty .

h andle it will be found t o be strongly elec trifi ed with a posi

,

t ive charge so t ha t on approach ing t he fing er or any other

,

uninsulat ed b od y st ong spark will be ob t ained

a r .

EXE RC IS E 1 67 .
— l e elect r o p bor u s .

Appa r a t u s — Elec tr ophor us ; gold leaf

-
elec r osc o e t p ; r od of

e bonite or sealing wax -

.

El ec tr ify t h e in sulat ing d isc of t h e elec trophorus by sh ar ply

r u bb in g it w ith d r y fl annel a nd t est t h e S ign of t h e c h a r ge by
,

bringing t h e disc near an electr ified electr oscope D isc harge th e .

plat e EF ( Fig 1 06) by put ting it t o ear th and h olding t h e h andle

.
, ,

G near t h e end so t ha t t h ere m ay be as great a lengt h a s possible

of i nsula t ing m a ter i al b etween y ou r h an d a nd t h e pla t e pla c e t h e ,

plat e on t h e t op of t h e electrified disc With out t ouc h ing t h e .

pl ate rem ove it and test it s electric al c h arge by m ean s of a c harged

,

e l ec t r osc ope Make a note of t h e am ount and sign of t h e Ch ar g e

. .

Repla c e t h e plat e on t h e el ec tri fi ed d i sc a nd th is t im e put it ,

t o ea rt h by t ouch ing it w it h your fi nger Rem ove t h e pl at e by t h e .

i n sulat ing h a nd le and t est t h e S i gn of t h e c h a rge by c ar efully

,

b ringing it near a c harged gold leaf electrosc ope Is t h e Ch arge - .

of t h e sa m e o r of o pp osit e si g n t o t h e

c h ar ge on t h e elec t ri fi ed d isc ? H as t h e
pl at e been c h ar ged by c ondu ction or by
ind u ction ?
B ri ng your fi nger n ear t h e c h ar ge d
pl at e a nd not e t h e S p ark wh ich passes
,
.

EXE RC IS E 1 68 .
—
Electr i c densi ty .

Appa r a t us a s in previ ou s ex erc ise wit h ,

ti on of the a d di c ond uc t ors of v a r i ou s

sh a pes and pr oof pla n e .

S u s pend a c on e sh a ped c ond ucti n g -

body by t wo Ioops of silk i n t h e m a nne r ,

sh ow n i n Fig 1 0 7 C h ar ge t h e c ond u c t o r . .

by giving it two or t hree sparks fr om t h e

el ect roph or u s Pla ce t h e pr oof plan e .

a ga i n st t h e point A th en t est t h e a m o u n t
F
IG 7
. (i )
10 . .
,

of t h e c h ar g e c arri ed a w a y by pla c in g t h e

proof pl ane fl at on t h e d isc of t h e elec trosc ope which for t h i s ,

e x pe ri m ent m ust be u nch a r ged N ot e t h e ex tent t o which t h e

.
202 Electr i ci ty .

EXE RCIS E 17 0. — Far a day s i ce p a il exper i me nt

’
-
.

Appar at us as in pr evious ex er c ise, with the a dd i tion of a c on

d uc t ing phere s .

C onnect t h e ed ge of t h e i nsulated m et al ve ssel used in t h e la s t

ex er c i se wi th t h e c ap of t h e elec tr osc ope by m eans of a fi ne m et a
wir e This wire m ust not t ou c h any other b ody besides t h e elec tr o
.

sc ope a nd t h e i nsula t ed ve ssel S uspend a m et al s ph er e a bou t .

l
,

1 i nc h i n d iam et er from a length of silk r ib b on .

,
I C har ge th i s sph er e by m ean s of t h e elect roph oru s a nd th en
.
,

h old ing it by t h e silk ri bbon lower it int o t h e m etal vessel but d o

, ,

n ot let it t ouch eith er t h e sid e or b ott om N otice how t h e leave s .

of t h e elec t r osc op e d i ver ge b ut c olla se on t h e r em ov al of t h e

p ,

s her e
p W .r it e ou t a n e x plan a t i on il lu s tr a t ed by a sk et c h o
,
f ,

t h e r eas on t h e lea ves di verge .

2 Agai n c har ge t h e s ph er e and i ntr od uc e it into t h e v e ssel a s

.
,

before being c ar eful not t o tou c h t h e sides or bott om While t h e

, .

c h ar ged s ph er e i s in th i s posit i on t t h e elec t m et er a nd v esse l

pu r o
t o e ar t h by t ouc h ing eith er wi th y our fi ng er N ote th at t h e leave s .

c olla p se Rem ove t h e sph ere t h e lea ves will th en d iverge a s m uc h

.
,

a s b efor e Test th e sig n of t h e charge by br inging a negat i vely

.

c h ar ged sti c k of seali ng wax n e ar t h e c a o f t h e ele ctro m et e r

p .

Write out an ex planati on of wh at you ob serve .

Eq u ali t y i n t h e P o si t i v e a n d Ne g a t i v e C h ar ge s
p r o d u c e d b y In d u c t i o n —
T h e r e su lt s o f t h e a b ov e e x pe r i
m en ts with t he c harg ed sp h ere and t h e h ollowc ond uc tor ar e
p r a c ti c ally t h e sa m e a s t h o se o b t ai n e d i n E x e r c i se 1 6 1 , o n ly
t he m et h od o f ca rry ing out t h e ex perim ents is sligh tly d ifl eren t
'

Th e positi vel c y h a ged h ere when introduc ed int o t h e m et a l

r sp ,

vessel, induc es a n eg t i v e c h g e a o n t h e i n sid e

ar a n d a p o i t i v e ,
s

C ha ge is epelled t o th e oth e e t em ity of th e c ond c to i

r r r x r u r, . e.

t o t h e electroscope O n p tt ing t h e elec t osc ope t o e ar t h

. u r

t h is p osit ive c ha ge sinc e it is f ee escapes Wh en t h e

r ,
r , .

ind ing c h a ge on t h e sph e e is e m oved t h e n eg t iv e c h a g e

uc r r r ,
a r ,

wh i h was bound sp ead s all ove r t h e c ond c to nd t h e

c ,
”
r u r, a

g old le a v es d i v er g e wi t h a n e g t i v e c h ar g e T h se ae p e i . e x r

m en t s e only q uali t t ive

ar that is th ey on ly Sh ow that both
a —
,

p o ist iv e a nd n e g a t iv e el e c t i fic a t io n s a re rd e v elop e d by i n d c u

t i n Th e e pe iment can h oweve b e arranged in suc h

o . x r , r, a

A wooden sphere coat ed with t infoil will do .

 Elect r i c Scr eeni ng . 20 3

way as h
t hat t h e am ou nt of t h e nega tive induced
t o s ow
c h arg e i s ex ac tly e qual t o t h at of t h e posi ti ve i nd u c ed c h ar ge ,

a n d t ha t eac h of t h e se c h arg e s is e qual t o t h e i n du cing c h a rg e .

EX RC IS E E 1 7 .
1 —
Eg u ali 0r of t h ep osi ti ve a nd neg a t i ve i nduced

Appa r a t u s previ ous ex erc ise

as in .

B r i ng t h e ch ar ged sph er e i n t o t h e m et al vessel a n d put t h e ,

elec t r oscope and v essel t o ear t h Re m ov e t h e sph ere b ut d o n ot

.
,

d i sc h arg e i t ; t h e lea ves d iverge w i t h t h e n ega t iv e i nd uc ed C h ar ge .

A gai n i ntrod u c e t h e C h ar ged sph er e a nd b r ing it i nt o c o nt a c t w it h

,

t h e i n si d e o f t h e vessel T h e leaves of t h e elec tr osc ope d o not

.

d i v er ge Re m ov e t h e sph er e i t w ill b e found t o h ave ent ir ely lost

.
,

i t s c h ar g e Th us t h e posit ive c h ar ge on t h e sph er e h a s ex a ct ly

.

n e ut r aliz ed t h e in d u c ed n eg at iv e c h ar ge and t h i s ex per im e n t

,

t h er efor e show s t ha t t h e ind u c ed n ega ti ve c h a r ge i s e x a c t ly eq u a l

i n a m oun t t o t h e i nd u c i ng p osit iv e c h a rge .

N ex t i ntroduc e t h e C harged S ph ere and wi t/t ou t putting t h e , ,

elec t r osc o p e t o e ar th all o w t h e sph er e t o t ou c h t h e i n s id e of t h e

,

v essel It will be found t h at t h e d ivergence of t h e gold leaves

.

r e m a i ns u nalter ed T h e sph er e will h ave c o m m unic at ed i t s enti re

.

c h a r ge t o t h e v essel a nd elec t r osco pe a nd t h i s c h ar g e pr od uc e s

,

t h e s am e d iverge nc e of t h e lea ves a s d id t h e p ositi v e i nd uc ed

c h a rge H en c e t h e posit iv e a nd t h erefor e also t h e n egat ive Ch a rge
.
, ,

i s ex a c tly eq u al t o t h e i ndu c ing C h ar ge wh en a s in th is c a se t h e , ,

bod y on wh i ch t h e Ch arge is ind uc ed pra ct ically c om pletely sur

r o u n d s t h e ind u c in g c h ar ge Write out a n a c c ou nt of t h e ex per i
.

m ent u nd er t h e t h r ee h ea d s ( I) t h e obj e ct of t h e ex per i m ent ( 2 )

, ,

t h e m eth od of c a rry i ng o ut t h e ex per im e nt ( 3) ex pla n at ion of t h e ,

r esu lt s obt ai n ed .

EX RC IS E E 1 7 .
2 — Electr ic scr eening .

App a r a t us —
Elec tr oph or us ; t
p w ir e g a u z e
elec r osc o e .

In c arry ing o ut som e of t h e previ ou s ex per im ent s it m a y h av e ,

b een found t h at wh en t h e electroph oru s wa s plac ed t oo near t h e

ele c t r os c o p e t h e le a v e s of t h e latt er d iv er g ed wh en t h e el e c t r o

h oru s wa s u sed Th i s i s d ue t o t h e electr i fi cat i on i nd u ced i n t h e

p .

ele c t r osc op e by t h e power fully c h a rge d plat e of t h e elec t r o ph or us .

It i s oft en i m port a nt t o b e a ble t o sc r een a n in strum ent su c h a s ,

t h e elec trosc ope fr om t h e i nd u c t ive effec t s d ue t o c h ar ged b odies

,

i n t h e neighb ourh ood In ord er t o S h ow h ow t h i s m ay b e d on e

.
,
 2 04 Elect r ici ty .

k
t a e som e bend it into a cylinder so t ha t it will
wire ga uz e a nd ,

surr ound t h e elect rosc o e a nd sta nd ab out 6 or 8 i nc h e s ab ov e t h e

p
t op of t h e plate C onnec t this wire gauz e with t h e g a s pi pe by
.
-

m ean s of a m et al wir e so t h a t t h e ga uz e m ay b e in good c ond u c tin g

,

c omm uni c at ion with t h e ear th Now bring t h e c h arged elect r o .

p h oru s p lat e n ear t h e elec tr osco pe an d n o ti ce th a t t h e le a v es a r e ,

n ot a ffec ted Hold ing t h e c h ar ged plate in position r em ov e t h e

.
,

gau ze a nd notice th e wid e divergence of t h e electr osc ope leaves

, .

When placed between t h e c har ged body and t h e elec tros co pe ,

t h e g auz e h a s a c h ar ge ind uced on i t of t h e opposit e S ign t o t h e

i nd uc i ng c h ar ge t h e c or r espond ing i nd uc ed c h a rge of t h e sa m e
,

S i gn flow ing t o earth Th is fi x ed c h arge since it i s of opposite

.
,

S ign t o t h e induc in g c h ar ge tends t o i nd uce a c h arge on t h e ,

elec tr o sc o e of opp osit e S ign t o th a t w h i c h t h e c h arg ed b od y w ould

p
i nd uc e Th ese t wo induc ed c har ges on t h e electr oscope neutr alize
.

on e an other and t h e el ec t rosc o pe i s u na ff ec ted by t h e c h ar ged

,

bod y D isconnec t t h e gauze from t h e wir e lead ing t o th e g as p i pe

.
-
,

a nd in sula te t h e g auz e by st an d i ng it on a sh eet of eb oni t e A ga i n .

bri ng t h e ch arged pla te near a nd not ice t h at t h e electrosc o pe is ,

n ow a ffect ed
“ ”
In th is c a se t h e
. fr ee ind uced c h ar ge c a nn ot
esc a pe t o ea rth a nd so a ffec t s t h e elec t rosc op e by i nd uc t ion
,
.

EX RC IS E 1E 73 .
— To ma ke a L eyden j ar

C ar efully c lean a nd d ry both i nside a nd out a wide m outh ed

-

gla ss bottle Coat th e insid e and outside up t o th e should er wi th

.

tinfoil using shella c varnish t o stick on t h e foil Then warm t h e

,
1 .

u pper par t of t h e b ottle a nd g i v e t h e port i on of t h e gla ss whi c h i s

,

n ot c over ed w ith ti nfoil a th i n c oat ing of S h ellac var n ish Wh en .

this v ar ni sh i s dr y set a piece of wood i n wh ich a wire w ith a rin g ,

or k nob a t t h e t op h a s b een fi x ed a t t h e b ott om of t h e b ott le and , ,

fa sten it in posit ion by pou ring som e pla ster of P ar i s on t h e t o p .

P a ck t h e bottom of t h e bott le wit h sc rap t infoil so as t o c onne c t ,

t h e i n sid e coat ing w it h t h e u pr ight w ir e .

EXE RC ISE 1 74 .
— T/t e Ley den j a r .

App ar a t u s r— L yd
e en j ar ele c r ot ph orus .

H olding t h e j t y
ou sid e of aou r h L yd
a nd c h a r ge t h e
e en ar in ,

j a r by p a ssi ng t wo or th r ee s p a rk s fr om t h e elec t ro phoru s t o t h e

knob Hold one e nd of a sh ort piec e of thi ck COpper wire a g a in st

.

Shella c va r nish m ay b e p repa red by d issolvi n fl ake shell ac in m e t h y

l at ed spiri t The shellac takes som e days t o disso v e
. .
2 06 g un m en .

Plac e t h e t
z inc an d a stri p of c opper in th e d ilut e
am alg am a ed

a c id b ut d o n ot let th em t ouc h
, N otic e th at both m etals a ppe ar .

un a c t ed u pon Now m ake th em touc h eith er in t h e liq u id or ou t

.
,

sid e . N otice that bubbles of gas ar e evolved not h owever from , , ,

t h e z inc b ut fr om t h e c opp er
, Instead of b ringi ng t h e z inc a n d .

c opper i nt o conta ct t ouc h e a c h w i th one end of a length of c o pper

,

wir e and again note t h e evoluti on of bubbles of g as fr om t h e

,

c opper .

Rem ove t h e z inc an d c opper stri ps wash th em a nd th en c ar e , ,

fully dr y b etween blotti ng p a per and weigh Replac e t h e str i p s in , .

t h e d ilute a c id a nd allow th em t o r e m a i n i n c ont a c t for fift een

,

m inu tes th en agai n wa sh d ry and weig h

, It will b e fou nd th at
, , .

alt h oug h b ubbles of g a s h a ve been c onti nuously evolved from t h e

C oppe r it h as n ot lost we ight wh ile on t h e ot h er h and t h e z i n c h a s

,
.

It i s evid en t th at h ere we a re dealing wi th som ethi ng m ore th a n

sim ple c h e m i cal a cti on sinc e it i s t h e for m at i on of a m eta lli c c on
,

ne ct i on b etwee n t h e c opper an d z in c wh ic h a ppar ently c a u ses t h e

evolut i on of t h e g as fr om t h e C O pper an d t h e eat i ng a w a y o f t h e

zinc We shall in fact find tha t t h e wire j oining t h e t wo m eta ls

.
, ,

possesses m any di stinctiv e and curious propert ies which i t d id not ,

possess before it wa s connec ted t o t h e c opper and zinc plac ed in

the a c id .

Th e gem ent c onsisting of t wo m etal plates one of z inc and

arr a n ,

t h e ot h er of c opper d i ppi ng i n d ilut e a c id an d c onnec te d by a

, ,

m et al wir e c onst itu t es wh a t i s c alled a v oltai c element or couple

,
.

Th e pec uliar p roper t ies possessed by t h e c onnec ting w ir e ar e sa id

t o b e d ue t o t h e passage of a n electr ic c urr ent th i s curr en t b eing , ,

for c onv enience supposed t o flowt hrough t h e wir e from t h e C opper

,

pla te t o t h e z inc plate Th e poi nts where t h e wire i s a tt ac h ed t o

.

th e m et a l pla t e s ar e c alle d t h e p ol es of t h e c e ll a n d i n or d e r t o
,

d i sting uish t h e t wo t h e pole fr om wh ic h t h e c urr ent is s upposed

,

to fl ow ( co pp er ) i s c a lle d t h e p o s it i v e p ol e a n d t h e oth er p ole ( z i n c ) ,

i s c alled t h e negat ive pole .

EXE RC ISE 1 7 6 .
-
Ef cct f
o cu r r ent on a sus ended
p mag neti c

Appa r a t u s — D ani ell cell ; co pper wire : pivoted com pass

n eed le.

Th e si m ple c ell set u p previou s ex ercise is not su it a ble

in t h e
for ex per i m ent s on t h e elec tri c c ur r ent sin ce i t i s foun d th a t t h e ,

c u r r e nt i t send s r a pi d ly d im i ni sh es For m any of t h e followi ng .

 A ct i on f
o Cu r r en t on Mag net . 20 7

ex perim ents a form of cell c alled a D aniell cell will be u sed .

This cell c onsists of a rod of am algam ated z inc form ing t h e nega ,

tive pole placed in dilute sulph uric a cid cont ai ned in a pot m ad e
,

of
po ro u s ea rt h e nw a r e Th i s p or ou s
.
pot i s surro u n d e d by an o t h er

vessel of glass or glazed eart henware wh ich is filled wit h a solut ion ,

of C opp er sulph a t e A plate of c o ppe r d i ppi ng i n t h e c oppe r

.

sulph a t e solut ion for m s t h e posit iv e p ole S uc h a cell w ill send .

a curr e nt for so m e t im e w ith out b e c o m i ng ex h au st ed It i s .

,

h owever i m portant wh enever you are not using t h e c urr ent t o

, , ,

d isc onnec t t h e w ir es et c j oi ni ng t h e t wo poles

,
.
,
.

C onnec t t h e poles of a D a niell c ell by a le ngt h of a b out t wo

yar d s of c otton c overed CO pper w ire (ab out No
-
H old t h is .

w ire over and par allel t o a m agnet ic needle which i s eit her sus ,

pended by a t h in silk fib re or pivoted on a fine point N otic e t h a t .

t h e ne ed le i s d efl ec t ed D isconnect t h e wir e at one end fr om t h e

.

c ell a nd not e th a t t h e wir e no lon ge r a ffec t s t h e n eedle

, N ex t .

h old th e wir e at right an gles t o t h e lengt h of t h e need le (i e h old . .

i t ea st an d west) a nd ob serve wh et h er t h e n eed le i s d efl ec t ed wh en

,

t h e cell i s c on nected u p t o t h e wi re .

Fix t h e wire par allel t o t h e length of t h e needle and eit h er j ust ,

a bov e or j u st b elow a nd not e t h e d irec t ion in wh ic h t h e n or th pole

,

i s d eflect ed Then rever se t h e c onnect ions of t h e wir e a nd cell

.
,

i e c onnec t t h e e nd of t h e w ir e wh ic h wa s c onne cted t o t h e posit ive

. .

t o t h e neg at ive pole an d v i ce v er s é

,
A ga in not e t h e d irec t i on in.
,

wh ic h th e north pole is d efl ected .

A c t i on of C u r r en t on Ma gn et i c Needle —
Th e pre
c e ding ex perim e n s h ve S hown t h t wh en wi e th o gh
t a a a r r u

whi h a c rrent i s pa ssing is h eld ne a a m agne t ic need le t h e

cu r ,

n e e dle t en ds t o set i t self at ig h t angle s t o t h e wi e a nd th at

r r ,

t h e di ec t ion in wh ich th e n o t h p ole i s urge d d epen ds on t h e

r r

T
FIG . 1 09.

d irec t ion of t h e c urren t in t h e wire . A r ule for rem e m be r

in g i n whic h dir ec t ion t h e n eedle will be d e flec t ed i s as

 t h e needle, t en h
will be urged t o your left Thus
th i s pole .
,

i A B ( Fig 1 0 9) is a c onduc tor c onveyin a c u rrent i n th e

f .
g
dIrect ion sh own by th e arrows and N is t h e nort h ole of a
p ,

magne tic needle NS ; t hen t h e nort h ole will be ac ted u on

p, p
by a force tending to drive it down t hrough t he page i e to , . .

t h e left of a m an sw im ming with the c urren t and

facing th e nee dle.

R EXERC IS E D efl ection
1 77
-
o f mag net by a cond ac

tor convey i ng a cur r en t .

Appa r a t us as in Ex erc ise 1 7 6.

F asten t o th e wir e a piece of p p

a er letter ed , as in
F Fig . 1 1 o, t o re r esen p t a m an . Th e letter ed sid e r epr e

I nc . t
1 10. fa ce L bein g t h e left h an d and R t h e right
sen s t h e , , .

Test th e truth of t h e ab ove rule for eac h of t h e posi ti ons

o f t h e c urrent wi th r efer enc e t o t h e needle shown by th e arr ow s in
Fig 1 1 I In each case m ak e a dr awi ng of t h e arrangem ent sh owing
. .
,

t h e pa per cross in posit ion Also sh owth at fr om t he r ule i t follow s

.

FIG . 1 1 1.

t h at each pa r t wir e bent int o a rect angle or loop and plac ed

of a , ,

r ou nd the needle w ill t end t o d e flec t t h e needle in t h e sa m e

,

d ir ection . Illustr ate y our answer by sket ch es .

EXERC IS E 1 ff
7 8 o
.
f — w L i nes
i r e con v e
y oi n orce
g a cu r r ent a .

Appa r a t us — Two Gr ove or B u nsen cells a bout 2 feet of N o 1 8 .

uncover ed c opp er w i r e ; i r on filings ; small c om p ass .

C onnect t h e negative pole ( zin c) of one of t h e cells suppli ed t o

you a n
,d t h e p os it i v e p ole of t h e o th er c ell a nd j oi n t h e e n d s of a ,

piece of stout copper wir e a bout 2 feet long t o t he other t wo poles

, , .

D ip th is wire in ir on filing s a nd n ot ic e h ow they Cl i ng t o t h e ,

2 10 Elect r i ci ty .

st r on gly m agnetized ,
and willbodies D oes
a t t ra ct ir on a nd t
s eel .

t h e end of t h e ir on nex t t h e end of t h e c oil whi c h beh av es lik e a

n ort h pole be c om e a north or a sout h p ole ?
, Repla ce t h e ir on by
a r od of st eel and not i c e t h a t t h e st eel be c om es m a net iz ed an d
, g ,

r et a i ns it s m a g net i sm aft er t h e cu rr en t h as b een st opped .

EXE RC IS E 1 81 . -
S olenoi d ( cont i n ued ) .

App a r a t us —
Co tt on covered
-
C O pper wir e concen r i ct m e r c u ry
c ups ; D aniell c ell .

Wi nd a bout th irt y tur ns of c over ed Copper wire on a pencil or u se ,

t h e c oil m ad e in t h e la st ex er c ise br i ngin g t h e fre e ends of t h e wi r e

,

b ac k t o t h e m id dle an d fasteni ng them ,

ther e w ith a few tur ns of cotton or wit h

se alin g wax i n t h e m a nn er sh own a t A B
-
, ,

Fig 1 1 2 .C ut off t h e end s of t h e wi r e

.
,

leavin g a bout 2 i nch es pr oj ec ti ng a nd fr o m ,

t h e end s r e m ove t h e c ot t on c over ing A m al .

gam e te t h ese end s by d ipping t h em in t o

som e n itr i c a c id a nd th en in t o m er c u r y
, .

S usp end t h e c oil by a d ouble loop a nd a ,

single th r ead of un s pun silk a b out 1 8 i n c h e s

long so t h at t h e end s of t h e w ir e d ip o n e
,

in eac h of t wo conc ent ri c m ercur y c u p s a s ,

sh ow n in t h e figur e T h e c onst ru c t ion of

.

F IG m .
t h ese m er c ury c u p s i s sh own in sec t i on in
Fig 1 1 3 Th e wir e C passes thr ough t h e
. .

wood t o t h e inner m er c ury c up while t h e wire D dips i n t h e outer ,

c up . If th
,
e n C i s,
c o n n e c t e d t o t h e po s i t i v e p o l e o f a D an i e ll
c ell a nd
,
D t o t h e n e g a t i v e p o l e t h e c urr e n,
t w ill co m e i n a t C a n d ,

th ence pass u p t h e wire A through t h e c oil , ,

an d ou t by t h e wi r e B t h e m er c ur y i n t h e ,

outer c u p an d t h e wir e D ,
.

B end t h e w ir es A and B t ill t h e c oi l will ,

C t urn fr eely wit h out t h e end s of t h e wir es

pm ",
3 (i ) , t.o u c h i n g t h e s id e s of t h e m er c ur y c u p s a n d ,

then connect t h e wires C and D wit h t h e

poles of a D aniell cell It wi ll be foun d tha t on t h e passage of t h e
. ,

cu r r e n t ,t h e s u s p en d e d c o i l s e t s i t se l f w i th i t s ax is i n t h e m a g n e t i c

me r id i a n j u s t a s a s u s p e n d e d m a g n e t w o u l d d o B r i n g t h e po l e
.

o f a m a g n e t n ear t h e c o il a n d n o t
,
i c e h o w o n e en d i s a tt ra c t ed a n d
h
t e o e t h r r e
p e lle d a n d d e ter m i n e as i n t h e p
,
r e v i ou s e x er c i se i n ,
 Ga lv a nometer . 2 II

whic h d irec t i on t h e c ur r ent i s c i rc ulat i ng when you fa ce tow ard s

th e n orth point ing en d of t h e c oil
-
.

Th e G alv a n om et er .
—
It h as b een seen ,
in Ex erc ise 1 77,
th a t if a wire t roug w ic h h h h a c urr en t
is passing form s a loop
surro un d ing a suspend ed or p iv o t e d m ag n e t ic n ee dle ,
t en h
ea c h pa t of th is Ioop tends t o
r de flec t t h e n eed le i n t he sam e

d irec t ion . If, no w inste ad

, of t h e wir e for ming a single loop,
t h ere are a n u m ber of loops, th en t h e c urre n in eac t h of th ese
loop s will tend t o deflec t t h e need le , so t hat a m c h la ge
u r r

d efl ec tion will be ob tained t han wh en a sing le loop is u sed .

Th e a bove is t h e pri nc iple of t h e gal a nom e er, v t whic h is an

in st r u m ent for detec t ing , and, in som e form s of galvan o m ete r,

m easuri ng ele c tric c urr e n ts It c on sist s e ssent iall of a . y
b
n u m er of t urns o f insula t ed w ire ( t h e c oi l) surround ing a
suspended or p ivot ed m agnet iz ed nee dle T h e en d s o f th e .

wire form ing th e c oil are broug t t o t wo m eta l term inals, or h

b indi ng sc rews
-
In order t o u se t h e ga lvanom eter t o det ec t
.

wh e t her a t
is passi ng in any Circ uit , t he c irc uit is ro e n
c urren b k
at so m e poi nt , and t he t w o e n d s j oine d t o t h e t wo inding b
sc re ws of t h e g alvano m et er, t en if t h e nee dle is d eflec t e d , it h
shows tha t t h e galv nom ete and the efo e th e a r, r r c irc ui t of

whic h it now fo m s pa t is t av e e d by a c r ent

r a r ,
r rs u r .

EXE R C IS E 1 82 .
— T/ze Ga lvanom et er .

Appa r a t us —
G lva D aniell cell
a n om e er t .

A for m of galvanom eter d esc rib ed by P r ofessor B alfour S t ew art ,

a n d s ui t ed for use i n t h ese ex er c i ses i s sh own i n Fig 1 1 4 It c on sist s

,
. .

o f a w o od en r i n g A B on w , hi c h about t h irt y t urns of S i lk covered

,
-

C o ppe r w ir e ar e w oun d T h e end s of t h e w ir e a r e fa ste ned t o t h e t wo

.

t e r m in als C a n d D
,
Th e wood en r ing i s a t t a c h ed t o a plat form E
.
, ,

o n wh ic h a c om p a ss b ox slid e s T h e c o m pa ss b ox c ont a in s a
- -
.

m a g net iz ed n eed le ns suppor t ed on a p ivot and h a ving a l ight

, , ,

a lu m i n iu m poi nt er G H a t t a c h ed
, Thi s pointer m oves j ust ab ove
, .

t h e sur fa c e of a c ar d gr ad ua t ed i n d egr ee s a nd wh en t h e p oi nt er i s ,

a t t h e z er o d i v isio n t h e need le i s p ar a llel t o t h e c o ils o f w ir e Th e .

c om pa s s b ox can b e placed a t di ffer ent d i st a nc es fr om t h e c oi l so

-
,

th at t h e sensitiveness of t h e instrument can be altered Th e reason .

2 12 Elect r ici ty .

for h av ing the po int er G H at r ight a ngles t o th e need le i s t h a t , ,

in ord er t o rea d t h e posit i on on t h e sc ale w ith out any er r or d ue t o

p arallax ( p
. t h e ey e m u st b e pla ced ex a ct ly vert ic ally over t h e

FIG . 1 1 4. G)
o

e nd o f t h e p oin t er . point er were pa rallel t o t h e need le or if

If t h e ,

t h e posi tions of t h e end s of t h e n eed le it self w er e r ea d t h en for , ,

sm all d eflec ti on s t h e coil A B w ould pr event t h e eye b ein g plac ed

,

vert ically over t h e pointer .

Plac e t h e galvanom et er so t hat t h e pointer i s at t h e z er o of t h e

s c ale a nd th er efor e t h e C oil i n t h e m a gn et i c m er id ia n
, C on n ec t .

t h e t erm in al D w it h t h e positiv e pole ( co pper) of a D an iell c ell ,

a nd t ou c h t h e ot h er t er m in al w it h a wir e c onne c t ed w it h t h e o th e r

pole of t h e c ell N ot i c e t h e a m ount an d t h e dir ec t ion in wh ich t h e

.

n eedle i s d e flec ted Rever se t h e b a tt er y conn ect ion s an d a ga in n ot e

.
,

t h e d irec t ion a nd a m ount of t h e d efle ct ion Move t h e c om pa ss

.

b ox fur th er and fur t h er a w a y fr om t h e c oil a nd note t h e defl ec t ion

,

i n ea c h c a se .

S e t t h e c oil of t h e galvanom eter e ast an d w est a nd a g a in c on ,

n ect t h e t erm in als w i t h t h e pol es of t h e c ell Wh y i s i t th a t you n ow

.

obt a i n li tt le o r no d e fl e c t ion alt h ough t h e c urr e nt i s pa ssin g t hr ou gh

,

t h e coil ? Thi s ex perim ent sh ows t h e nec essi t y of pla cing t h e c oil
of t h e galv a n om et er in t h e m agnet ic m er id ia n wh en i t i s u sed t o ,

d etec t t h e p a ssage of a c urr ent .

 2 14 Elect r ic i ty .

t he term inals of t h e galvanom et er D ip t h e plat es in som e d ilu te.

s ulph ur ic ac id kee ing th em as far a ar t as i bl nd ha vi n g

p , p p oss e a , ,

a dj ust ed t h e it i n f t h m b t ill d fl ti n f b u t
p o s o o e c o pa ss ox a e ec o o a o -

thirt y d eg rees is obtai ned not e t h e galvanom eter d e flec ti on T h en

,
.

m ove t h e plates near er together but n ot so as t o touch a nd n ot i c e

, ,

th at t h e defl ec tion of t h e galvanometer increases showing tha t a ,

lar ger current is nowfl owing thr ough th e circuit Thus th e d ec rea se .

i n t h e d istance b et ween t h e plates and th erefore of t h e r esi stan c e ,

wh ich t h e liquid opposes t o t h e fl owof t h e current in crea ses t h e ,

c urrent in t h e c ir cuit .

K ee ping t h e plates at a c onstant d istance apar t it will be n otic ed ,

that t h e galvanometer d eflect ion grad ually decreases This is t h e .

ph en om enon referred t o on p 207 wh ich m akes suc h a sim ple c ell

, .
,

u ns uit ed t o m ost ex eri m ent s wher e a c urr ent i s r equir ed

p .

D i fferen ceP ot en t i a l or Ele c t r o—Mot i v e For c e

of .

T h e ex perim ent s made i n hy

drostatics ave s own t at, i f t wo h h h
vessels c ontaining liquid are c onnec t ed a p ipe, t en t h e by h
liq uid will fl owfrom t h e vessel i n w ic t h e liquid stan d s at h h
a higher level into that at th e lowe level Here a diff en c e r . er

i n level or a h ead of li quid p oduc es a c u rent of li q id i n t h e

, ,
r r u

ppi e t
, h i s urrent flow
c ing from t h e h igh er lev el t o t h e lowe r.

Thi s hydrostatic example w ill assist in mak ing clear wh at

happens when t he two poles of a cell are connec ted by a wi e r .

It mu st h owever be c learly un d erst ood t hat t h e ele ct i

, , ,
r c

c urrent is not a fl owof som e b ody alled elec tric i ty t hroug h c

th e w ir e We may h oweve th ink of th e t wo poles of a c ell

.
,
r,

as being a t diffe ent elec tri ca l r

“
levels so th at when t h ey e ,
ar

c onn ec ted by a w i e there i s a flowof elec tri ci ty t h ough t h e

r r

wi e from t he pole at t h e high e level t o that at t h e lowe

r r r,

th is flow c onstit uting t h e elec tric c urrent In th e c ase of .

ele c t ic ity t h e d ifferenc e in le v el b etween t w

r o poi nt s is lled ca

f
t h e de er ence f
o p otenti a l, or t h e elect r o- moti ve f orce be twee n
t h e t wo points Th e poin t from w ic t h e c urrent is supposed
. h h
to b
flow eing at t he ig er p ote ntial h h .

If we c onnec t th e t erm inals of a galvanometer t o t wo p oin ts

in t then if these
a c ir c ui , p oin s are att different potenti als a
c ur re n t will flowt h roug h the g alv anome te r an d t h e n e e d le b e
 P otent i a l . 2 15

d eflec ted ; an d by obse ving r th e direc tion in wh ic h t he need le

is de flec ted we ca n det ermine whic h of t
t h e po in s is at t h e
high e potent ial If h owever t h e galvanom ete is ndeflecte d
r .
, , r u

i t sh ows th at t he two point e a t t h e sam e

p o t en t i l sin c es ar a ,

wh en t h ey are j oined by wi e (t h e wi e o f th e galvanom et er a r r

c oi l) no c u en t
p sse s in t h i
rrs w i e I n t hae s b se q u e n t r . u

e erc ises w
x e sh ll often m k e use of a a alv n m t i t h
a i
g a o e e n r s

way t o t est whet h e t wo point s on a c ircuit are at t h e sam e

, r

po e t
n tial .

EXE RC IS E 1 85 .
-
Fa ll of potent i a l a long a wi r e conveyi ng a

App a r a t us —
; D a n G lv
iellac e ll w ira nom et er
e .

C onnec t t h e end s of a p iec e of copp er wi r e ( N 0 2 2 unc overed ) .

,

a b ou t t wo m e t r es long t o t h e poles of a D a ni ell c ell a nd st r etc h

, ,

t h e wir e ou t on t h e t a b le ov er four p ins fix ed i nto t h e t able a s a t ,

A C B B Fig 1 1 5 , Jo i n
. on e t er mi
. n al of t h e galv a nom eter t o t h e

FIG . 1 15.

wir e at C, a nd , wit h t h e end of a wire att ac h ed t o the o ther term inal ,

tou c h th e t t h ed w ir e
s re c th at th er e is no de flec
also at C . N ot ic e

t i on .T h e t wo t erm in als of t h e galva nom et er t ouc h t h e c irc ui t a t

t h e sa m e point an d th er e for e th er e i s no d iffer enc e of p ot enti al
,

between t h e points of c ontact .

N ex t keeping one term inal at C touch t h e stretched wire a t

, ,

som e oth er poi nt M b etw een C a nd t h e n egat ive pol e ( z in c ) of t h e

, ,

b att ery N ote t h e a m ount a nd d irect ion of t h e d eflect i on Wh ich

. .

o f t h e poi nt s C or M i s a t t h e h igh er p ot e nt i al ?
2 16 Elect r ici ty .

Move th e contact t o N and O and note th at t h e deflec tion i s i n

,

t h e sa me d irection b ut th a t i t i ncreases as t h e c onta c t i s m a d e

,

fur ther a way fr om C T o wh at conclusion d oes thi s lead as t o t h e

.

m ag nitude of t h e differen ces of potenti al between C and M C a n d ,

N and C and O ? In this connection remember that i n t h e

, , ,

hydr ostatic illustr ation given on p 2 1 4 t h e greater t h e h ead of .

,

water t h e g reat er t h e flowof t h e wa ter i n t h e pipe .

Now connec t t h e sec ond t er minal of th e galvanomet er t o t h e

st r et c h ed w i re at A kee ping t h e ot h er t erm inal still at C
,
F rom .

t h e d ir ect i on of t h e d eflec ti on obta ined d ecide whic h of t h e point s ,

C or A i s at t h e h igh er poten ti al
, .

D isconnect t h e c ell fi rst at t h e neg ative pole then at th e positi ve ,

l d i h t p t t i l b tw
'

p o e a
,n n ea c case t e s for a di fl er enc e of o e n a e e en

d ifferent p art s of t h e str et c h ed wir e N0 current will n owb e fl owin g

.

thr ough t h e stretched wire it is only wh en a current i s fl owing th a t

,

difl er ent par t s of t h e wir e a re at di ffer en t potentials

'

EXE RC IS E 1 86 .
— Fa ll of p otential along a wi r e convey i ng a

cur r ent .

Appa r a t us previ ou s ex ercise

as in .

Take three pieces of wi re of t h e sam e length ( about a foot ) one ,

of t h i c k c opper a not h er of t h i n c opper and t h e thir d of t h e sa m e

, ,

d iam et er a s t h e th in c oppe r but of Ger m an silver

, Twist t h e end s - .

of t h ese wi r es t ogeth er and t o t wo len gth s of C opper w

,
ir e connec ted
t o t h e pole s of a D aniell c ell a s sh ow n i n Fig 1 1 6 wh er e A C is
,
.
,

FIG 1 1 6.

t he th ick c opper w ir e, CD the thin , a nd D E the G er m an - sil er v

w ir e .

Find t h e d eflec tion galvanom et er wh en it s terminals ar e

on the
c onnect ed by t h e sa m e pai r of w i res fir st with A and C th e n wi th, ,

C a nd D and lastly wi th D a nd E
,
F rom th e deflections obtai n ed
.

t o wh a t c onclusions a re you led a s t o t h e m a gnitude of t h e d i ffer en c e s

2 I8 Elect r ici ty .

G S O hm i n
. . 1 827 h owed from th eoretical on ide a
. O hm s c s r

tion s, and su bseq uent e pe iments carried out by ot hers have

x r

c onfi rm ed h is view that , t h e ratio of t he d ifference o f po ten tial

bet ween th e en ds of any giv en c on duc tor t o t he curren t p ass
ing i s a c on s an t t , no matt er howgreat t h e c urren t , so long as

t he tempera ture of th e c onduc t or is not altered This c on sta n t .

rati o of th e difl er enc e of t t t w w

'

p o e n ia l t o t h e cu rren is h a t e

have called the resistanc e of th e conduc t or Th e above la w .

i s known as O h m s Law a nd i t affirms t ha t the resi sta n c e of

’
,

a c on duc t or does n ot d e end on t h e value of t h e c urren t

p
p as s in g i n t h e c on d uc tor b u t i s a n i n d epe n d
,e n t p hy s i c al
p p
ro er ty o f t h e conduc tor j ust a s m u c h as i t s mass or v olu m e
, .

It follows from O h m s law t hat if th e sam e c urren t passe s

’
,

thr ough t wo c onductors then th e differen c es of poten t ial ,

between th eir e nds are t o one another as their resista nc es .

For let C be t h e curren t E1 t h e d iff ere nc e of p otential b e t wee n

,

t he en d s of t h e fi rst c on duc tor a nd R i ts resistanc e ; E, and , I

R2 b eing th e c orresponding quant ities for t he ot h er c ond uc tor :

t hen by Ohm s la w
,
’
,

EXE RCIS E 1 88 . Comp a r ison f

o r esi sta nces.
( Wbea t stone s
’

net.
)
Appa r a t us a — G lv
anom et er ; D ani ell c ell ; G erm an silver w ir e -
.

S tretc h a length of ab out th ree feet of G erm an silver wir e b et wee n -

t wo pins C D ( Fi g
,
fix ed into t h e table and c onnec t C and D
.
,

t o t h e poles of a D aniell c ell B F a sten togeth er at F t h e end s

, .

of t h e t wo wi r es wh ose r esi sta n c e s h a ve t o b e c om par ed and fa ste n ,

t h e oth er e nd s t o C a nd D Also j oin one term inal of t h e g alva

.

n om et er t o F With t h e end of a piece of c opper j oined t o a wir e

.

c onnec t ed t o t h e oth er t er m i nal of t h e g alv a nom et er touc h d i ff e r ent ,

pa r t s of th e str et c h ed wire C D till a point E is found wher e on , , ,

 Compa r ison o f R es is ta nces . 2 19

m a ki n g c on a c t t no d efl ection i s produc ed S inc e th ere is n o

, .

d e fl e c t i on it foll ow s t h a t t h e point s E a nd F a r e a t t h e s a m e

FIG . 1 1 8 .

potent ial Therefore t h e di fferenc e of potential b et ween C a nd E is

.

equal t o t h e difl er enc e of pot ent i al b e tw een C a nd F a nd t h e ,

diff er en c e of pot enti al b etw een E and D i s equ al t o th at b etw een

F a n d D H enc e
.
,

D iff er enc e of potenti al b etween C and E

D iff er enc e of pot enti al between E an d D
di ff er e nc e of potenti a l b etw een C an d F
d iffer en ce of potent ial b etween F a nd D

B ut S i nc e not p a sses through t h e galvanometer th e

c urr en ,

c urr en t i n C E m ust b e equal t o t h e c urr ent in ED a nd t h e c urr e nt ,

in C F equal t o t h e c urr ent in F D Th erefore from wh at h as been

.
,

sa id on p 2 1 8 .
,

R esist a nc e of CE d i ffer e n c e of potential between C and E

Resi sta nce of ED d i ffer en c e of p ot en t i al b et w een E an d D

Also

Resi st an c e of CF d i fferen c e potential between C and F

of

R esi stan ce of FD d ifference of p ot en t i al b etw een F a nd D

Th er efore
Re si st a nc e of C E t
r esis an c e of CF
Resi st an c e of ED r esi st a n c e of FD
2 20 Electr ici ty .

S in ce C D is a unifor m wire
Resista nc e of CE length C E

So th at finally
Resista n c e of CF len gt h C E
Resi stanc e of FD length ED

Thus by m easuri ng th e lengt h s C E and ED of t h e stret c h ed

,

wir e we can obtai n t h e ra tio of t h e resistances of th e wires C F and

,

FD .

Mea sur e by th is method t h e rat io of t h e resistance of ea ch o f

t h e wir es su ppli ed t o you t o tha t of t h e c opper w ire Also t aki n g .

t h e r esi stan c e of a m etr e of t h e c opper w ire as t h e unit c alc ula t e th e ,

r esist anc e of a m etre of ea c h of t h e oth er w ir es .

Wh e a t st on e s ’
B ri d e g In ord er t o appl t h e m et od
— y h
of c om pari ng two resist anc es given i n Ex erc ise 1 88, i t i s

v
c on eni en t k
t o m a e use of an instr um en t called a Wheatstone s ’

bridge , in wire along whic h t he movable c ontac t

wh ic h th e
c an be di splac ed is st ret c h e d over a d iv ide d scale A sim ple .

form of Wh eat stone s b ridg e which is c apable of giving ver y

1 ’
,

fa irly accura te results is sh own in Fig 1 1 9

, In th is figur e . .

FIG . 1 1 9. 1

C M, NO and P D are three strips of th ic k c opper a nd C D

, ,

is t he stre tc hed wire At Q M N F O P an d R b ind ing

.
, , , , , , ,

sc rew s are soldere d on t o th e c op per st rips w hile t h e end s ,

of t h e w ire ar e soldere d t o t h e strips C M and D P Th e .

le s of t h e b attery are c o nnec t ed t o t w o b inding sc re w s

p o ,

Par ti culars of t h e di me nsions et c of this bri dg e wi ll be fo u nd i n

, .
,

the Sylla bus o f t h e C ourse i n Physi cs at t h e Royal C ollege o f S ci e nc e ,

S uth K ensi ng t on
o ( Eyre and S po t t iswoode )
. .
 222 Elect ri ci ty .

B end t h e end s of t h e wi res a t ri ght gles wh ere th e y lea ve an

t h e b inding sc r e ws, so a s t o obta in t h e ex a c t lengt h of w i re of

wh ich t h e r esista nce h as been m easured Int er c h an ge t h e wir e s
.
,

being careful t o clam p them in t h e b inding scr ews j ust u p t o t h e

be nd and a g ain find th e p ositi on of b alance If t h e bridge i s well
, .

m a de t h e r a tio of th e segm ent s int o wh i c h t h e str et ch ed wi re i s

,

n ow d ivi ded oug ht t o be t h e sam e as b efore

, If th er e i s only .

a sm all d i ff er en c e b etw een t h e t wo ra ti os t h e m ean m a y b e t a k en

as g iv ing t h e c orr ec t ra t i o of t h e r esi sta n ce s of t h e t w o wires .

Mea sure t h e lengt h s of t h e t wo wires a nd sh owthat t h e r esist

anc es are t o one a noth er as t h e lengt h s .

C onn ec t t h e t erm inals of t h e galva n om eter t o t h e b in d ing

sc r ew s Q an d R ( Fig 1 a n d one pole of t h e c ell t o F
. W ith .

a piece of c opper sold er ed t o a wir e c onnec te d t o t h e ot h er ol e

p
of t h e cell m ak e c onta ct a t d i ff er ent p oi nt s on t h e str etc h e d w ir e
t ill a position is fou nd suc h t h at on m a king contac t no d eflec ti on
o f t h e g alva n om et er i s produ c ed N otice th at t h e point a t which
.

bala nce is now obta ined is t h e sam e a s th at found before t h e

position of t h e c ell and galvanomet er h ad been inter c hanged .

It will g e nerally b e found b et ter t o em ploy thi s arr angem en t of t h e

b attery and galvan ometer ra ther th an t h at in which t h e m ova ble
c ont a ct i s att a c h ed t o t h e g alvan om et er .

EXE RC IS E 1 9
0. — Resista nce f
o wi r es .

Appa r a t us in pr evi ous ex er ci se

as .

Insert t wo wir es of t h e sa m e m at er i al, b ut of di fl erent sect i ona

'

a r ea s, i n t h e t wo ga ps of t h e brid g e F ind t h e poi nt of b ala nc e,

.

a n d h enc e g e t t h e ra ti o of t h e r esi sta nces Inter c h ange t h e wi r es,

.

a ga in b a lan ce, and t ake t h e m ean of t h e t w o va lue s obta ined for

the ra tio of t h e r e sistanc es .

O btain t h e ar ea of cross section of th e wires by m easur ing

-

t h e d i a m et er wi t h a s c r e w g a u g e a n d c a lc ulat ing t h e ar ea by
m ea ns of t h e ex pression
A r ea 1
3
wher e r is t h e radius
1
,
.

S h o w th a t t h e r e si st a n c es o f t h e wi r e s a r e t o one a no th e r

RI t r, ”
inver sely as th e sec tional ar e a s. Th at i s, h ow that
s
R2 1 7 1
3

where RI and r l ar e :t h e r esi st an c e a n d r a d ius of t h e one w ir e, a nd

R, and r , are t o b e c orr espondin g quan tit ies for t h e oth er wi re .

Repeat t h e ex per im ent sever al t im es u si ng different len th s

g,

of wir e .
 Specifi c R es is ta nce . 223

S p e c i fi c R esi st an c e It h as been fou nd in t h e pre vious

.
—

ex erc ise s th at t h e resi stanc e of a w ire i s direct l proport ional y

t o it s lengt h y
an d i n versel proport ional t o it s sec tional area .

Two wires of t h e sam e lengt h

an d sec ti onal ar e a, but one

m ade say of C O pp er and t h e oth e r of m

Ge an sil er,
r -
v have not ,

h owever , th e sam e r esi s a nc e. t

Th e t
resi s a nc e of a w ire of a ny m at erial of u nit lengt h and
h a v i ng a c ross sec t ion-
of u ni t area, is c alled the s eci
p f i c

r esist a nce of t h e m a erial t . T hu s, if k is th e sp ec ifi c resistan ce

of a m aterial, t h en th e resi s a nc e t of a w ire of w ic th e length h h
i s l and t h e area of cross sec tion is a, will be

EXE RCIS E 1 91 .
—
Compa r i son o
f tbc sp fi
eci c r esi sta nce f
o t wo

as in previ ous ex er c i se, with th e a dd i tion of wir es

of c o pper brass
, ,
a nd ir on .

Plac e a per wir e in one arm of t h e bridge and a Germ an

c op ,

silver one i n t h e oth e r a nd c om p ar e t h ei r r esi st a nc e a s in t h e

pr evious ex erc ise Measure t h e lengt h a nd diam et er of ea c h w ir e

. .

Let R, l, r ,
a nd
, b e t h e r esista nce length ra di us and
,, , , ,

s pec i fi c r esist an c e of on e wi re and 12 r ” and ks t h e c orr esp ond

, , ,

i ng quantities for t h e oth er th en ,

a nd R2

a nd b,
11
i x
R:
,2
2
11 Re

A ll t h e qua ntities on t h e ri ght h a nd this equation are

sid e of

known for r l a nd r , , ar e o bt ained fr om t h e di am et ers I an d l, h a ve

, 1

RA
b een m easured a nd th e wh o Is gi ven by t h e m easur em ent Wi th
,
R2
th eWheatstone s brid ge C alculat e in this way t h e r atio
’
. of th e
spec i fi c resist an ce of G er m an silver t o th a t of copper -
.

Repeat t h e ex peri ment using co pper and bra ss wir e , .

 Elect n ci ty
’

2 24 .

EXE RC IS E Ej f temper a t u r e fi re
'

1 92 .
— ect of an i ncr ea se o on

r esista nce f
o a wi r e .

A ppa r at us i n previ ous ex er c i se

as .

Pla ce a pie ce of Copper wire in eac h of the ga ps of the br i d g e

and find t h e poi nt of b alanc e . H eat one of t he wir es by m ea n s
of a B unsen fl am e, tice in wh ich dir ecti on t h e
a nd no v gal anom et er
n eed le i s d e flec t ed or i n wh i c h d ir ec t i on t h e p oi n t of c ont a c t o n
,

the w i r e h a s t o b e m ov ed i n ord er t o restor e t h e b alanc e Tr y i n .

wh ic h directi on t h e n eedle i s de flec ted or t h e point of c ont a c t fo r ,

balance m oved wh en one of t h e wires is slightly sh ort ened

,
.

H ence fi nd wh eth er h ea ti ng a c opp er wi r e in cr ea se s or d e cr ea se s

t h e re si stan ce .

Repeat t h e ex perim ent u sing b ra ss iron a nd G erm an silv er

, , ,
-
,

and not e any d iffe ren c e i n t h e m a g ni t ud e of t h e c h an ge i n

r esi stan c e prod uced by h ea t i ng in t h e di ffer ent c a se s .

EXERC IS E 1 93 .
— Resist a nce of t wo cond uctor s in pa r a llel .

Appa r a t us as in p revious ex er cise .

Take th ree length s of Germ an silver wire eac h about two fee t -
,

l ong Place one of t h ese in one of t h e gaps of t h e bridge a nd

.
. ,

u sing th i s w ir e as a stan d ar d co m par e w ith it t h e r esi st an c e of

,

e a c h of t h e oth er s T aki ng t h e re sist an ce of th is sta ndard pie ce

.

of wir e as unity let t h e r e si st a nc e of t h e oth er p iec es be RI an d R, .

N ex t keeping t h e standard wire in t h e one g ap plac e t h e oth er

, ,

t wo pi eces in t h e oth er g a p end t o e nd or in seri es as i t i s c alle d , ,

d c om par e th eir r esi sta nc e with t h a t of t h e st an dar d H en c e .

sh ow t h at t h e r e si st ance of t h e t wo w ir es in series i s R R, l .

N ext place t h e t wo wires in t h e g a p so th at they st retc h sid e

b y sid e fr om one b i nding scr ew t o t h e oth er Th e wir es ar e n o w .

said t o b e i n p ar allel Com pare their r esista nc e wh en i n pa ralle l

.

with th e s t and ar d a nd S how th at

I
l l
,
R3 RI 2
22 6 Append i x .

whic h ha s been d ipped i n zinc c hloride round t h e ed ge of t h e

j oint After th e joint is c om plete it m ust be thoroughly washed
.

with ba t water t o rem ove t h e zin c chlorid e whic h will oth erwis e ,

c orr ode t h e m et al Thi s washing with h ot water (if it is possible

.

i t is bett er t o ac tually b oil t h e ar ticle) i s p ar t ic ularly n ece ssar y

when electr ical j unctions ar e b eing m ade If t h e nat ure of t h e .

work i s suc h th at t h e wa shing c a nnot b e perfor med powd er ed ,

r osi n m ust b e u sed a s a flux i n pl ac e of z inc c hl or id e If t h e .

m et al surfa ces ar e well clean ed and t h e sold er i ng ir on is h ot a n d -

c lea n i t wi ll b e found a lm ost as easy t o obt a i n sa t i sfa c tory j oi n t s

,

with rosin as with zinc c hloride .

To Silv er G la ss Make up t h e t wo following soluti ons b eing

—
,

particularly c areful a s t o cleanliness .

1 .D issolve 5 grm s of crystallized silver nitra te in about 200 c c

. . .

of d istilled w at er P our a bout 50 c c of th is solution in to a seco nd

. . .

beaker a nd ad d amm onia ( solut ion) t o t h e b ulk of t h e solution till

,

t h e pr ec i pitate fir st t hr own d own i s a lm ost entirely r ed i ssolv ed .

It will b e found th at t h e pr ec i pit at e se em s t o d i sa ppe ar sud d enly

a t t h e end a nd t h e obj ec t of k eep i ng 5 0 c c of t h e solut ion wa s
,
. .

t o allow for an a cc id ent al a dditi on of t oo m uch amm oni a Th e .

5 0 c .c m u st.b e add ed t o t h e r est a ft er t h e pr oc ess of pr ec i p it a t i on

a n d solut i on wit h am m oni a h a s b een p er for m ed o n i t a lso F ilter .

t h e sol ution and a dd enou gh d istilled water t o m ake t h e solu t i on

,

up to 5 00 c c.
.

2 D issolve 1 g rm of silver nitr ate in a little di stilled wa ter

. .
,

an d pour into 500 c c of b oi l i ng d i st illed w at er

. . A d d 0 8 gr m of . .

Roch elle salt ( pota ssic sod ic t ar tr at e) and allow t h e m ix tur e t o ,

boil ti ll t h e precipita te contained in t h e solution becom es gr ey t h en ,

filter wh ile st ill h ot .

These t wo solutions m ust be kept in well stoppered bott les i n -

Th e glass surfa ce t o b e silvered m ust be cleaned by washing

with ( I) nitric ac id (2 ) water ( 3) c austic pota sh (4) water Th en
, , ,
.

a solution of st annous c hlori d e ( prot o c hlor id e of t i n) m u st b e r un

-

over t h e surfa c e wh i c h i s t o b e coa ted only and t h e wh ole w ell ,

wast first with t ap water th en with d ist illed w ater While st ill
,
.

wet t h e gl ass i s pl aced i n a clean glas s or porc elai n vessel with t h e ,

su r fa c e wh ic h i s t o b e silv er ed u pp er m ost a n d equ al v olu m es o f ,

t h e t wo solutions ar e m ix e d i n a b eak er ( not one wh i ch h as been

u sed for st ann ous c hloride solut i on) a nd th e n qu ickly pour ed i n t o

t h e vessel so a s t o c over t h e gla ss with ab out on e i nc h of solut i on .

Allow t o st and for a bout a n h our wh en t he silver ing will b e ,

 Append ix . 227

c om plete . If t h e solu tions ar e heated t o 30 C t h e silver

°
. will be
d e po sit ed in a bout
m inutes, b ut t h e
t en c o a t i ng w
so fir m
ill not be
a nd uni form a s if t h e soluti ons ar e u sed c ol d P our off t h e soluti on
.

v
a nd w a sh t h e gla ss, rubbi ng t h e sil e r off a ny par t s wh er e i t i s

n ot r eq uir ed Allowt h e silver t o d ry, a nd th en give it a c oati ng

.

of so m e va rn i sh, suc h as golden la c que r , wh ic h d oes not c ontr ac t

m uc h on d ry i ng T h e silver ed surfac e m ust not be touc h ed ti ll i t

.

i s qui t e d ry, or it wi ll bec om e st ai ned an d scra tc h ed .

T o B e n d G las s Tu b a — G
la ss t ube i s b est b ent i n an ordin a r y
b at s wing g a s flam e ; it i s very difli c ult t o g et a regular bend i n a
’
-
.

B un se n flam e or with a blow pi pe fl am e -

H old t h e t ube h or izon t al,
.

s uppor t in g i t on both sid e s of t h e point wh ere it i s bei ng h ea t e d

i n y o ur h and s, h old ing bot/z h and s with t h e nuckles t urn ed u p k

war ds . K eep t h e t ub e slowly r ota tin g till it b ec om e s qui te
s oft en e d . It is better t o h ea t t oo m uc h r a th er th an t oo lit tle .

Re m o ve t h e t ube from t h e fla m e, th en with a slow and st ea dy

m oti on t urn t h e t wo end s of t h e tu be down wa r ds till t h e b end i s
c o m plet e Wit h t ube up t o 8 i n in diameter t h e bend ought t o
. .

b e c om pl eted a t one operation ; with w ider t ube it wi ll be nec essary

t o d o p art of t h e b end , th en h e a t t h e tube a little furth er along ,
c om plet i n g t h e b end at th r ee or four o per at i ons .

T o D r a w O u t a Tu b a — He a t t h e t ub e in a rath er wide b low

p i p e fl a m e , su p p ort i ng t h e t wo e n d s b etw ee n t h e b all of t h e th u m b
a n d t h e point s of t h e fir st th ree fi ng er s of ea c h h and , b oth k nu ckl e s

b eing h eld eith er facing u pwar d s or downwards Keep t h e tube .

ro t ating b ac kward s and forwar d s by r olling it o er t h e finge rs by v

m ean s of t h e thum b s, be ing p ar t i c ula r ly c ar eful t o tur n t h e t wo
h alves at t h e sam e rate While t h e gla ss is in t h e flam e d o n ot
.

pull t h e ends apart , but let th e d ia meter of t h e gla ss b ec om e

slig htly c o nt r a ct ed by t h e gla ss t h ic k en ing Rem ove t h e gla ss.

fr om t h e fla m e, a nd th en dr a w t h e t wo ends apar t If t h e t ub e .

h a s only t o be slightly r ed uc ed in d ia m eter, dr a w t h e end s a p a r t

v er y slowly ; if a c a p illar y i s r eq u ir ed , dr a w t h e end s a par t q u ic kly .

T o S e al t h e E n d of a G las s T u b a — 1 Cut t h e end off squ ar e ,

.

a n d th en, kee pin g t he t ub e i n c ont i nu ou s r ot a t ion, h eat t h e ex t r em e

e n d a t t h e edg e of a blow pipe fl am e t ill t h e sid es fall to geth er

-

a n d c lose u p t h e end If a thic k lum p of glass i s form ed a t t h e

.

e nd , thi s m ay b e rem oved by h ea ti ng i n t h e fl am e, an d, wh ile i t i s

still i n t h e flam e, p ulling t h e lum p off w ith a p iece of cold glass .

Th en h eat t h e end of t h e t ub e, and, after rem oving it from t h e

fl am e, gently blowinto th e O pen end .

2 . A noth er m eth od wh ic h m a y b e ad opt ed i s t o dr a w off t h e

2 28 Append i x .

tube as if m aking a c apillar y t h en h olding t h e part of t h e t ub e,

wher e t h e c a pillary c om m enc e s i n a r a th er pointed fl am e and

a g ai n d r a w in g off Th e sm a ll h ea d of gl as s left a t t h e e nd of t h e
.

c l osed t ub e c a n b e r em oved a s i n t h e p revi ous m eth od by touc h

i ng with a pi ece o f c old gl a ss a nd fi nally gently blowi n g d ow n ,

t h e t ub e .

To B low a B u lb on t h e En d of a P i ec e G la s s Tu bi n g
of .

S eal t h e end of t h e tube t h en h oldin g it , , , with t h e open end

a

little lower th an t h e c losed en d b etween t h e b all of t h e t h u mb

,

a nd t h e fa c e of t h e fi nger s of t h e ri ght h an d t h e kn u c kle s b ei ng ,

tur ned downward s h eat t h e t ube n ear t h e closed end but no t

, ,

quite at t h e end in t h e blow pi pe flam e Keep t h e t ube t urni ng

,
-
.

t o and fro by r olli ng i t over t h e finger s by m ea ns of t h e t h u m b .

Th e r ota t ion m u st be so t i m ed a s t o coun ter a c t t h e t end e nc y o f

t h e soft glass t o b end a t ri ght a ngles t o t h e r est of t h e t u be If .

th ere a ppear s any likeli h ood of t h e sid es c olla psing and closing
t h e b or e r em ove t h e t ub e fr om t h e fl a m e and g en t ly blow i n t o
,

t h e open e nd It wi ll b e foun d th a t i n t h i s way t h e gla ss c a n

.

be c ollec ted a t t h e c losed end b ut th at th i s t h ic k ened m ass o f ,

g la ss i s s t i l l h ollo w t h e b or e o,f t h e t u b e b ei ng c on t i n u ed n ear l y

up t o t h e end When suffi c ient glass h as been c ollec ted in th i s
.

wa y hea t it u p well then rem ove from t h e flam e and holding t h e

, , , ,

t u b e n ear ly vert i c al with t h e c losed end d ownwar d s blow g en t ly

, ,

a nd st ea di l y i nt o t h e O pe n e n d t i ll a b u lb o f t h e r eq u ir ed si z e

i s obt a i ned .

If t h e b ulb i s u nsati sfa ct or y t h e gla ss m ust ag ai n be c ollec ted

,

i nt o a sm all pear sh aped h ollow m as s a nd t h e pr oc ess of blowi ng

-
,

r e pea ted . Wh ile reducing a b ulb in thi s way i f it shows an ,

i nclin ation t o b ec om e wr inkl ed gently bl o w a sm all pufl of a ir

'

i n t o t h e t ub e . Wh en blowing bulbs it i s of u se t o r em em ber tha t ,

i f you blow im m ed i a t ely a ft er you tak e t h e gla ss out of t h e fl am e ,

t h e th in p art s wi ll g et th i nn er If h owever you wai t a m om en t

.
, ,

before blowing t h en t h e t hin p arts will h ave c ooled m or e th a n

,

t h e thi c k p art s so th at n ow t h e th ick part s will be m ost blown ou t

,

a nd th us w ill b ec om e th in ner .
2 30 Appendix .

N it ir c ac id S tront ium c hlor id e .

S ulphuri c a c id c om m erc i al . Lithi um c hloride .

C opper sulph ate Thallium c hlori d e .

C a lci um c h lorid e ( c rystalliz ed ) . Eth er .

Magnesiu m c hlor ide .

Wire — S t eel a nd br ass pia no wire ,

N OS. 2 4 a nd 28 S . WG . .

( t
s an d ar d wire gauge) .

U ncovered C opper wir e Nos 20 and 30 S W G , . . . .

U nc overed G erm an S ilver w ir e No 2 8 or 30 S W G -

, . . . .

C otton cover ed c opper wir e N 05 2 0 and 2 4 S W G

-
, . . . .

G lass t ube (soft soda) T h e m ost useful sizes are of t h e follow .

ing out sid e d i a m et ers 1 i Q 3 1 3

a nd 1 5 i n , , ,
1
, .

Th e omet er tube bore 3 i n

r m 1
, 2
.

C ur ve p a per P aper d ivid ed i n m illi m etre squares i s m ade by

.
—

S c hlei ch er a nd S ch ii ll ( agent : B em rose a nd S ons 2 3 O ld B ai ley , , ,

E C ) T h e pa per i s su ppl ied i n t wo for m s (a ) i n sh eet s 1 8 in by

.
,
.

2 3 in a t 5 s 6d for 2 4 sh e et s ( No 1 I3)
.
, . . or ( b) i n a c onti nuous r oll .
,

3 0 i n by . 1 1 y ar d s a t 1 z s ( N o T h,
e si n gl e s h e et s ar
. e th u s .

a litt le c h e a per th an t h e r oll b u t m a

y i n v olv e a li ttl e m or e w a s t e
,

i n c utti ng u p If t h e c ur ve p a pe r i s alwa y s su pplied t o t h e st ud ent

.

c ut t o t h e si z e h e w i ll r equ ir e for t h e ex peri m e nt m uc h w a st e w i l l ,

b e avoid ed .

B .

In t h e followi ng list t h e h i nstr um ent required for num b er of ea c

a cla ss of tw elve stu d ent s i s gi v en With larger classes it will no t .

b e n ec ess ary t o d uplic at e som e of t h e in st r um ent s suc h a s sc rew ,

gauge c ali pers H ope s a ppar atus m etronom e et c For t h e i nfor

, ,
’
, , .

m at ion of t h ose wh o h ave a ny d i ffi c ulty i n obt ai ni ng t h e appar at u s ,

t h e n am e of t h e m aker or a gent fr om wh ic h t h e i nstr um ent s

d escr ib ed i n t h e t ex t h a ve b een obtai ned ar e gi ven It m ust b e .

u nd er stood t h a t i n n ea r ly e ver y c a se suit a ble a ppa r a tus c a n b e

obt a i n ed from m a ny ot h er m aker s b ut t h e on es g iven ar e th ose ,

w ith wh ose inst r u ment s t h e a uth or h appens t o be per son ally

a c qu a i nt ed .

4 B ala n c es £ 6d 1
1 1 4s . .

( B ec k er Co .
, H a tton Wall ,
L ond on , EC . .

B a l a nc e No .
93 t o c ar r y 2 50 g r ms . If w i t h ou t
d ra wer , less .
)
A t oug lh h cheaper l nces can be ob tained t h i b alance i s strongly
ba a , s

r ec om m en d ed , as it may also be used for t h e quant i t at ive chem i cal work

of t h e sc h oo l .
 Append ur . 2 3I

4 B ox es o f w e i ght s 200 t o g r m .
, with force p s,
( B e c k e r ) .

1 S et g r amm e weight s 1 t o 1000 gr m s (B ec ker , No . . 1 13 )

1 Rough sc a les t o c arr y one k ilo ( B ec ker , No 97 ) .

1 S et B rit ish w eight s 02 t o 1 lb . .

6 B ox wood m et re sc ales d ivid ed in m m .

0 12 0
6 B ox wood y a rd scales d i id ed in {b i n v .

( Ra h on e S on s, H oc ley Abbey k Works Wh it ,

m or e S tr eet, B ir m in gh am ) .

6 Th er m om et er s 5
°
C to. 105
°
C .
, d ivided i n h alf
d eg rees 0 12 o

( Miiller , 1 48, High H olborn, L ond on WC) . .

1 S c r ew g a u ge 0 6 6
( Thi s is a ra ther sm aller th an t h e one sh own
for m
in Fig 9, . and i s m ad e by L ouis Muller ; agent
B e ck er ) .

1 S lid e c aliper s 0 6 0

( C h e st e r m a n S h e ffi
, eld N o , .

2 B ur ettes 5 0 c c i n .
1
16 cc . 0 8 o

2 G r a d ua t ed c yli nd ers one i n m etr i c a nd t h e other i n

,

B ritish uni t s
1 H y d r om ete r

6 T u ni ng for ks ( B ec ker )
2 Gla ss letter weight s
1

1 Gl a s s pr is m an gl e a bout 30
°
,

1 D en se gl a ss pri sm a ng l e a b out 60
°
,

1 Ho pe s appa r a tus
’

1 B ar a nd g a uge for ex pa n si on

2 C o pper c alor im et er s

I Me t r o nom e

3 D a n i e ll c e ll s

3 M a g n e t i c n e e d les 2 i n l
,
o ng w i t h a g
. a t e c en t re
,
s

( H a r v e y P e a k 5 6 C h ar i n g ,
C r oss R,
oa d ,

Lond on W C ) , . .

3 R e t o r t s t a n d s a n d c l i p s

4 C as t -
i r o n w e igh t s e i t h e r, 5 a n d 1 0 k i lo s or 1 4 a nd 2 8 lbs ,
.

J 16
£ 19 0

D ra wing i nstrum ents, suc h as c om pa sses ,

d ivid er s, a nd set

s quar es .

l w
Th ese e t t er eig t s are ab ou t 4 } m s x h . 2 } ms . x 2In. a nd m ay be
ob t ai ned from m ost st at i oners or from Bec ker .
2 32 A ppendix .

Th e c ons ruc ttion of m uc h of p t

t h e a p ar a us c an b e m a d e out
fr om t h e d esc ri pti on in t h e tex t and t h e fi ur e s g
Th e fi ur es of . g
a ppar a tus are in all ca ses dr awn t o scale and t h e fr act ion i n ,

bra ckets after t h e num ber of th e figur e i ndicates th e sc ale

e m ploy ed Th e numb er s b efor e e a ch of t h e following d escri pt i on s
.

r efer t o t h e ex er ci se i n whi c h t h e p iec e of a ppar atu s d es cr i b ed

i s em ployed .

3 1 S
.
p e c i fi c gr a v i ty fl a sk T a k e a 3 oz fl ask with a narr ow
— -
.

nec k a nd pa st e a stri p of pa per a b ou t

5 i n w id e r o u n d t h e n ec k . .

Th en using t h e ed ge of t h is paper a s a guid e m ak e a ri ng in t h e

, ,

gla ss with a wi r e file suc h a s i s u sed for fretwork a nd c arvin g

, .

3 2 U t ub e Ea c h lim b sh ould be ab out 24 i n long bor e of

.
-
.
—
.

t ub e a b out r i n T h e tu be i s b est bent over a lar ge b at s w in g

.
’ -

b u m er m aking t h e bend a litt le a t a t im e

, Th e c lips t o fa sten t h e .

t ub e t o t h e st an d m ay be m ad e fr om th in sh eet br as s .

H ar e s a ppar a tus Tubes eac h about 2 8 i n long and i i n

’ —
35 . .
, .

bore Th e rubber j oints c onnect ing t h e upr ight tub es wi th t h e

.

T piece m ust be fa st ened r ound with wir e

-
Th e T piece m ay b e .
-

of m et al or of gla ss .

3 6 T h.e solid c yli nd er m ay b e m a d e of w ood weighted w i th ,

l ead a suitable siz e being 2 in long and I} in in diam eter

, . . .

Th e h ollow c yl i nd er m ay b e m a d e by pa sti ng a str i p of p a per

a b ou t
}
3 i n w id er th a
. n t h e len gth o f t h e so li d c y li n d er r ound t h i s

c ylind er a nd w , h en this is d ry filling in t h e end with pla st er of

, ,

P ari s Aft er t h e rem oval of t h e solid cyli nd er t h e p aper m u st b e

.
,

d i pped i n m elted par affi n wax .

4 1 T
. u b e fo r d e t er m i n in g t h e d e n sity o f a li qu i d by fl o t a t i on .

C ut off a p iece of Mi n wa lled gla ss tub e 1 2 in long a n d - in . .

i n d i am et er and g ri nd t h e end s squ ar e on a sh eet of em er y cloth

,
-
.

C u t t wo cork s t o fit tightly int o t h e en d s P ush one of th ese c ork s .

i nt o t h e t ub e so t h at t h e out er sur fa c e i s ab out 2} in insid e t h e .

t u b e a n d fill in t h e S p ac e w it h seal ing wax fi nish in g t h e end off

,
-
,

fl at w ith a h ot p iece of m et al P our m er cury into t h e tub e t ill

.

i t floa ts upright th en inser t t h e second cork fi ni sh ing off wi th

, ,

se a l ing wax a s b efor e

-
A st ri p of pa per d ivid ed into m illim etr es
.

m ay be r olled up and pla ced i nsid e t h e t ub e so th at t h e d epth o f ,

i mm er si on m ay b e dir ec tly r e a d off .

4 8 B
. o y l e s l a w t ub ’
e L o n g li m b 36 i n — sh o r t l im b 1 0 i n .
,
.
,

b ore of t ube 0 3 in T o c l ose t h e end cut t h e tube off squar e

.
,
2 34 Appendi r .

t hi c k with
, a cr oss- pi ec e, I ( Fig . of s uc h a t h ic n essk th at
when t h e loop at t h e end i s put over a n ai l on
of t h e s ring p
this c ross piece t h e S pri ng is u st c lear of t h e wood
-
j
Th e sc ale .

v
m ay b e d i id ed by t h e m eth od g i en in Ex er cise 8, or c ard boar d v
v
S c ales d i id ed i n m m m ay be obt ai ned a nd glued on t h e w ood. .

A piec e of str ong c otton , with a not t o serve a s an index , i s

'

k
tied t o t h e spr ing H an g a weig ht of 1 1 0 grms on thi s str in g,
. .

a nd th en pa ss an oth er pi ec e of c ott on d ow n t h e a xi s of t h e spri n g,

a n d t i e t h e end s t o t h e loo s a t t h e end s of t h e S pr i ng T h i
p s .

c ot to n will form a c h eck str ing t o pr event t h e s pr in g b e in g str et ch ed

-

beyond i t s elastic limit whi ch w ould necessitate it s being t ec ali

br at ed If i t is preferr ed t h e use of a c ali br at ion c ur e c an b e
. v
av oid ed by m ak in t h l t o d d ir ectly i n m m T
g e sc a e r ea g r a e s o .

m ak e su c h a sc ale, obta i n t h e r ea d i ng s on a m m sc ale t em por ar ily .

fix ed alongsid e for str et c hing forc es of 1 0 and 1 00 g rm s P lot .

th ese values on c urve pa per , oining t h e t wo points by a strai gh t j

line . Re ad off t h e posi ti on of t h e index for ea c h wh ole 1 0 g rm s , .

m ark th ese points on t h e in st ru m ent , an d di vid e ea c h i nt er val

i nt o t en eq ual part s In or d er t o pr ev ent t h e in st rum ent sli pp in g
.

a bou t wh e n used on a fl at surfa ce, d ri ve a str ong n eed le th r ou gh

t h e wood n e ar eith er end so t h a t t h e point pr o ect s thr ough for j

a b ou t 1 i n th e n b r ea k o ff t h e h ea d Th ese n e ed le p o i n t s ar e
18 , . .

pressed into t h e pa per wh en t h e spring balanc e h as t o be fix ed .

Th e t wo longitudin al stri p s of wood fi x ed alon gsi d e t h e spring ar e

for t h e su ppor t of a str i p of w ood whi c h serves t o enclose t h e
s p r i ng a nd pr otect it fr om i n ur y, b ut whi c h h a s n ot been sh ow j n

in t h e figures in order th a t t h e spri ng m ight be seen .

7 1 I n c.li n e d p lan e — B a s e 2 4 i n x 2 i n x Qi n ; i nc li n ed p ar t . . .

2 4 in x 1 3 in x i in
. pr op ( H , Fig 5 7 ) 8 in long Th e h inge a t
. . . . .

B m u st b e c ount er sunk Th e n ails m ay be pla c ed 1 i n a part

. . .

C ylind er ( b ra ss) 31 i n lo n g a n d 1 5 i n i n d ia m e
.t er . .

73 P u ll e
. y — T h e s h ea f o u.ght t o b e m a d e o f box wood or som e

oth er h ar d w ood a nd b e at l ea st 3 in in di am et er
,
T h e ax le . .

m ay b e a bout 3 5 in i n dia m et er ; t h e block i s m ade either of

1 .

wood or of a piece of bent b and br ass - .

79 A tw .o od ’
s m a chi ne — Up r i ght 6 ft x 3 i n x 3 i n P lat . . .

form s C an d D ( Fig 6 2) 4 i n x 4 i n T h e pulley i s m ad e out of

. . .

th ree c ard board di scs glued t oget her Th e diam eter of eac h of .

t h e out sid e d i scs i s 6} ln a nd t h at of t h e i nsi d e one 6 i n .

, Wh ile .

th e gl u e i s dry ing t h e disc s m u st b e pressed fl at b et ween t wo

b oar d s T ake a piece of knit ting needle abou t 25 i n long and
. .

pa ss it t hr ough a disc of c ork a bout i i n th ick then through t h e .

,
 Append ix . 2 35

c entr e of the car d board

fi nally through anoth er cork d i scs, a nd

d isc. C oat t h e in sid e fa c es of t h e c orks with a thi c k ish glue an d ,

adj u st th ei r p o sit i ons t ill wh en t h e pulley i s t ur n ed by t h e ax le

it r u ns t rue T h e groove a t c ir c um fer en c e of t h e pulley can b e

.

sm ooth ed by m ea ns of som e fi n e sa n d pa p er wr a pp ed r ound a -

m et al r od or t h e ed ge of a fl a t pla t e Th e bear ings for t h e pull ey .

a x le con si st of t wo p ieces of gla ss t u b e a b out g t b

i i n l on T h e u e . .

sh ould be c h ose n of suc h a si z e th a t t h e a x l e j u st fi t s l oosely .

These piec es of gl ass ar e fix ed t o t h e w ooden u pr ight s by m ea ns

of se a l i ng wa x If n ecessa ry t h e pull ey m u st b e b ala nc ed by
-
.

weight ing wit h sealing wa x t ill it will r e m ain a t r est when t ur ned -

i nt o a ny posi t ion Th e t h u m b sc r ew s for fix i ng t h e posit ion of

.
-

t h e pla t for ms c on sist of a n o r d i n ar y scr ew wi t h a piece of b r ass

'

sold er ed i nt o t h e slot i n t h e h ead In or d er t o pr ev ent t h e scr ew s .

dam a ging t h e w ood en u pr igh t a p iec e of sh eet bra ss 3 in x 2 in

”
, . .
,

with a b out 3, i n of one of t h e longer ed ges bent r ound a t r ight

.

a n gle s i s sli pped bet w ee n t h e in sid e o f t h e w ood e n su pport of t h e

,

plat form and t h e u pr ight T h e th um b scr ew presses on th is m etal .

-

pl at e Th e c onstru ction of t h e falling pl atform B is sh own in

.
, ,

d etail i n Fig 6 3 T h e spr ing H c on si st s of a piec e of c lock spring

. .
, ,
-
,

an d t h e c a t c h i s par t of t h e pi n t o wh i c h t h e c or d i s a tt ac h ed ,

wh ic h i s bent r oun d at r ight angles and sold er ed t o t h e fr ont of

t h e spr i ng T h e w eigh t s m a y be m a d e of lea d a nd one pa ir
.
,

sh ould w ei gh a b out 2 50 g r m s a nd t h e oth er s 1 50 g rm s Th e .

,
.

r i d er sh oul d w ei gh a b out 1 0 g rm s a nd m a y b e m a d e of sh e et br a s s . .

T h e b est m at er i al t o use for t h e c ord i s fi n e fi sh ing line S iz e H .

,

l evel Am eric an Water pr oof t r out line does ver y well .

86 H ic k s b alli sti c b ala nc e

.
— ’
Lengt h of suspend ing fibr es
3 6 i n ; pla.t form s 4 i n x 4 i n L e n gt h of c r os s p i ece s C. F
( g i .
-
, .

8 in .

91 D ropping plate B ase 4 in x 4 in S lid e 1 0 in h igh

.
— . . .
,

2 i n br oad a nd 3 i n th ic k a nd i n cli ned a b out 85 t o t h e h or i

°
. .
, ,

z ont a l Th e slid e i s glued t o a sm all wood en bl oc k in wh i c h t h er e

.

i s a h ol e a b out { i d i a m et e r A r ew wh i c h p a sse s th r ough

i n i n sc . .

this h ole and a m eta l d isc a bout 1 i n in d ia m eter serves t o clam p .

t h e sli d e t h e l ar ge h ole i n t h e w ood allow in g t h e posit i on of t h e

,

slid e t o b e a dj u st ed T h e u pr i ght block t o wh i ch t h e tu ni ng fork s

.
-

ar e c la m p ed i s m ad e fr om a pi ec e of w ood 3 i n x 1 ; i n x 1 3 i h . . .
,

t h e b evelled fa ce b ei n g i n c l ined a t a b out 60 t o t h e h or iz ont al

°
.

1 07 S ph er i c al m i rror s
. It is po ssi ble t o ob t ain wat c h gla sse s — -

wh ic h are segm ent s of a S ph er e a nd wh ich when silver ed by t h e , ,

m eth od given on p 2 2 6 for m m i rr or s with a suffi c i ently good figur e

.
,
2 36 A ppend i x .

for t y work Th e silver m ay be protected by fastening

elem en ar .

t h e silver ed watc h gla sse s tog eth er in pair s one bei ng silver ed on
-
,

t h e c onc ave and t h e oth er on t h e convex surfa ce S u c h a pair of .

silver ed wa t c h
g lasses w ill
-
fo r m a c on c a v e m i rror o n o n e si d e an d
a c onvex m irror on t h e ot h er A stand for t h e m irr ors m a y b e .

m ad e by bor ing a c entr e b it h ole a litt le smaller th an t h e m irr or s

-

i n a piec e of wood a bout in thi c k th en cutti ng t h e w ood i n t wo

.
,

a lon g a di a m et er of th i s h ole A sa wc ut is m ad e p ar allel t o t h e

.

sur fa ce of t h e w ood a n d t h e m irr or sli p ped int o th i s c ut Th is .

piec e of wood m ay be glued u pright on another piece for m in g

a b a se .

1 14 S pectrom et er
. Instr uc t i ons for m ak ing a spec tr om et er
.
—

whic h is quite suffi c ient for elem ent ar y work will be foun d in t h e
S ylla bus of t h e C our se in Physic s a t t h e Roy al C ollege of S c i en c e ,

L ond on ( Published by Eyre S pott iswoode price one shillin g) ,

.

A g ood pr i sm m ade of d en se glas s wi ll b e r eq uir ed .

1 22 Hypsom eter — T h e hypsom eter m ay b e m ad e of eit h er

. .

glass or bra ss t ub e t h e latt er will not c rack T h e tube FD

,
.
,

Fig 88 i s 1 4 i n long a nd If i n in dia meter A c ork C pier c ed

.
, . . .
, ,

with a numb er of h oles serves t o su pport t h e end of t h e tube A B

,
.

1 28 Ex pansion of s in T h e t ub e A B i s 39 in long and h as

.
—
.
,

a b or e of a b out 0 1 i n B efor e c l osi n g t h e end th is tub e m u st be

.

t hor oughly clea ned by w a sh i ng in su c cession with nitri c a c i d ,

wat er c a ustic soda and water th en well dr i ed by h eati ng a nd

, , ,

blowi ng a cu rr ent of a i r t h r oug h by mea ns of a bellows B lowin g .

a ir t hr ough w ith t h e lungs i s q ui te u sele ss If high value s ar e .

obt a in ed for t h e co e ffi ci en t of ex pan si on th i s i s pr ob a bly d ue t o ,

m oist ur e whi c h h a s b een left c lin ging t o t h e sid e of t h e t u be

, ,

bec om ing c onverted i nto va pour at t h e h igh er t em per at ur e .

1 32 T h e h eat er sh ow n c a n b e m ade by any ti nm an a t a

.

sm all c ost .

1 38 U tub e B or e of t ube 1 i n
.
-
.
— Closed lim b a b out 5 i n . .

l ong open lim b about 8 in long

, . .

1 40 B ar m a gnet — Th ese m a b e m a d e fr o m t oo l st ee l 6 i n x
.
y . .

l i n
. x 1 i n B ef»
or e h a
. r d e n i n g fi le t h e e n d s sq u ar e H e a
,
t in a .

cl ear fi r e t o a br ig h t r ed h e a t t h en q ue nc h in w at er Ma gne tize

, .

by pla c ing inside a c oil thr ough whic h a fa irly strong c urr en t i s
pa ssed Th e m agn ets will r eq uir e r e m ag net iz ing from tim e t o t im e
. -
.

1 4 8 S t eel di sc — A w ood en d i sc i n w hi ch a m agnet h as bee n

'
. .

e m bed d ed w ill d o i nst ea d o f a st eel d isc T ake t wo d isc s of wo od .

a nd h ollow out a pla ce i n e ac h i n t o wh ic h t h e m a gnet will j u st fi t .

Th en glue th ese d iscs together with t h e m agnet in t h e h ollow .

2 38 Append ix .

is bored in a c or k 5 i n in diam e ter and r in long Th e wood and

. . .

c or k a r e th en glued o n a not h er pi ec e of wood and t h e wi r e s ,

c arr i ed in th ro ugh fin e h oles a s sh own in Fig 1 1 3 , . .

1 82 G alva nometer
. Th e c om pass b ox need n ot b e c irc ula r
.
—
,

b u t m ay be sq uar e t h e c ircular p ar t of t h e on e sh own i n Fig 1 1 4

,
.

wa s m a d e out of br own pa per Th e needle 2 in long w ith an a ga t e .

, .

c ent r e c an b e obt a i n ed fr om Messr s H a r v e y

, P eak 56 C har ing
.
, ,

C r oss Road L on d on W C pr ic e 1 s 6d
, ,
. . Th e pivot on whi c h t h e
, . .

need le t u rn s i s for m ed of a fi ne n e edle poi nt fix ed w i t h sealing wax

- -

int o a h ole in t h e b a se of t h e c o m p a ss b ox T h e d iv id ed c irc le i s .

4 i n. i n d i a m e t er a n d ,
m a y b e o b t a i n e d fr o m m o s t i n st ru m e n t
d ealer s pri c e a bout 6d
, Th e p oi nt er i s a tt a c h ed t o t h e t op o f
.

t h e c entr e of t h e nee d le by m ea n s of a S pot of se aling wax Th e -

.

best m at erial of wh ic h t o form t h e point er i s alum i nium w ir e

( N o. b u t b r ass w i r e or a c a p ill a r y gl a s s t u b e w ill d o T h e .

e nd s of t h e point er ought t o b e t u rn ed d ow n so a s on ly j ust t o

c lear t h e sur fa c e of t h e divi d ed c ir c le T h e c oil c onsi sts of th ir ty

.

t urn s of No 2 2 c over ed c opper w ir e wou nd o n a wood en c ircle

.

7 i n. i n d i a m e t e r Af t.e r w i nd i n g o n t h e w i r e g i v e it a g o od ,

c o a t ing of sh ell a c v ar n i sh .

TH E EN D .

N
P R I T ED BY L
WI L IA M L
C O WES A ND S O NS , LM I IT E D , L O NDO N A ND B B CCL ES :