Biological Molecules

Carbohydrates, lipid, protein and nucleic acids are important organic compounds. They are macromolecules
composed of many subunits such as simple sugar (carbohydrates), amino acids (protein), glycerol and fatty
acids (lipid) and nucleotide (nucleic acid).

A. Carbohydrates
- Carbohydrate molecules are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in approximately
1:2:1 ratio with general formula 𝐶𝑛(𝐻𝑛𝑂)𝑛.
- Carbohydrate originates as a by-product of photosynthesis that is why plants and other
products are sources of carbohydrates.
- Carbohydrates are very effective energy-yielding nutrients and building materials.

Types of Carbohydrates
1. Monosaccharides
- comes from the Greek word: “monos”= single “saccar”= sugar
- is the simplest form of carbohydrate with the chemical formula of 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6.
Examples:
1. Glucose
- also known as dextrose or grape sugar; it is thee only form of sugar used by
the body that provides energy to fuel all cellular processes. It is the most
abundant carbohydrate in the blood that is why it is also called blood sugar.
- it requires no digestion and may be given intravenously to patients who
cannot take food by mouth. Glycosuria is the term for glucose present in
urine.
2. Fructose/Levulose
- is considered the sweetest among the sugar being twice as sweet as glucose.
- It is found in fruits, honey and corn syrups.
- It is metabolized directly, but is also readily converted to glucose in the liver.
3. Galactose/Aldohexose
- A genetic metabolic disorder that affects how the body processes galactose is
known as galactosemia.

2. Disaccharides
- Two monosaccharides joined together with the formula 𝐶12 𝐻22 𝑂11. The bond that
joins the two simple sugars is called glycosidic bond.
- Disaccharides should be broken down into simple sugar through the process of
hydrolysis before it can serve as fuel for cellular activities.
Examples:

1. Sucrose
- commonly known as table sugar is a combination of glucose and
fructose and is considered an excellent natural preservative.
2. Lactose
- found in milk and milk products is formed by combining glucose and
galactose. An enzyme called lactase is needed to digest this. Lactose
intolerance is a common digestive disorder where the body cannot
fully digest lactose.
3. Maltose
- found in beer is composed of two glucose. It also provides energy in
germinating seeds.
3. Polysaccharides
- Polysaccharides are made up of repeating units of sugar joined together by
glycosidic bonds. These can be classified as structural polysaccharides which are
components of structural parts of living things such as cell wall of plants and animals.
Examples:
1. Cellulose
- the most abundant organic molecule on earth that provides support to
cell walls of plants and other organisms such as bacteria.
- The cellulose in plant foods passes unchanged through our digestive
tract is commonly known as fiber.
2. Chitin
- a principal component of exoskeletons of animals like mollusks and
crustaceans. It is used in making surgical threads, binders in dyes,
fabrics and adhesives.
3. Starch
- a storage polysaccharide derived from potatoes, wheat, bread, pasta
and other bread products. Ptyalin or salivary amylase is the enzyme
that changes starch into sugar.
4. Glycogen
- usually referred to as animal starch stored in the liver and muscle.