Machine Tool Design 1

Topic 1
Gears: Nomenclature

Mostafa ElBahloul
Assistant Professor
Department of Production and Mechanical Design
Spring 2022

Mansoura University
Contents
• Introduction
• Tooth profile
• Gearing nomenclature
• Gear tooth systems
• Mesh interaction
• Nomenclature, tooth geometry, mesh interaction
• Helical gears
• Bevel gears
• Worm, worm-gear

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Introduction
• The difference between a friction drive and a gear pair is that a
series of intermeshing teeth are incorporated on each of the mating
friction surfaces to ensure no-slip operation.
• If the teeth are arranged to extend both inside (dedendum) and
outside (addendum) of the pitch circles and are extended parallel to
the cylinder axes (face width), the resulting toothed wheels become
straight-tooth spur gears with pitch radii r1 and r2.
• The smaller of two meshing gears is
usually called the pinion (typically the
driver/input) and the larger is called
the gear (typically the driven/output).

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Tooth Profile
• The fundamental law of gearing requires that the gear-tooth profile geometry must
produce an exactly constant angular velocity ratio between the driver and driven gears at
every position as successive teeth rotate through the mesh.
• If a meshing pair of gear teeth have profiles that satisfy this requirement, they are said to
be conjugate profiles.
• Theoretically, it is possible to arbitrarily select any
profile for one tooth, then find a profile for the
meshing tooth that will produce conjugate action.
• Practically, because of relative ease of manufacture
and insensitivity of angular velocity ratio to minor
variations in center distance, the profile used in the
current gearing practice is the involute of a circle.

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Tooth Profile
Involute Profile and Conjugate Action
• Considering a contact point C, the two surfaces in contact are tangent and the force
transmitted from one to the other acts along the common normal, ab.
• Line ab is called the line of action or the pressure line.
• The line of action ab intersects the line of centers,
O1O2, at the pitch point P.
• The angle between the pressure line and a
reference line through the pitch point,
perpendicular to the line of centers and tangent to
the base circle, is called the pressure angle .

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Tooth Profile
Involute Profile and Conjugate Action
• At the instantaneous position shown, circles may be drawn through pitch point P about
each center O1 and O2.
• These circles are called pitch circles and their radii, r1 and r2, are called pitch radii.
• The angular velocity ratio of driven member B to
driving member A is inversely proportional to their
pitch radius ratio, giving:
𝜔𝐵 𝑟𝐴
=−
𝜔𝐴 𝑟𝐵
• Lines of action for every instantaneous contact
point between mating teeth as they rotate must
pass through the same (fixed) pitch point P.

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Gearing Nomenclature
Tooth Shape and Size
• Circular pitch, pc, is The distance from any selected reference point on one tooth to a
corresponding point on the next adjacent tooth, measured along the pitch circle.
• The circular pitch may be calculated as an arc length equal to the circumference of the
pitch circle divided by the number of teeth z, or:
𝜋𝑑 2𝜋𝑟
𝑝𝑐 = =
𝑧 𝑧
• Similarly, the base pitch, pb, is defined as an arc length
equal to the circumference of the base circle divided by the
number of teeth z.
• Since 𝑟𝑏 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 , it follows that:
2𝜋𝑟𝑏
𝑝𝑑 = = 𝑝𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 
𝑧
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Gearing Nomenclature
Tooth Shape and Size
• The circular tooth thickness and tooth space are also measured along the pitch circle,
each being nominally equal to 𝑝𝑐 /2.
• To define the remaining boundaries of the gear
teeth, addendum circles and dedendum circles
may be constructed centered on O1 and O2.
• The addendum circle is established by adding the
addendum a (tooth height outside the pitch
circle) to the pitch radius r, and the dedendum
circle by subtracting the dedendum (tooth
dimension inside the pitch circle) from the pitch
radius.

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Gearing Nomenclature
Tooth Shape and Size
• A more common indices of tooth size are diametrical pitch, Pd (used only with U.S.
specification gears), or module, m (used only with SI or metric specifications).
• The diametrical pitch, defined as the number of teeth divided by pitch diameter in
inches, is given by:
𝑧
𝑃𝑑 =
𝑑
and module, defined as pitch diameter in millimeters divided by number of teeth, is:
𝑑
𝑚=
𝑧
• Equations for center distance C may be written as:
𝑧1 + 𝑧2 𝑚
𝐶 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 = = 𝑧1 + 𝑧2
2𝑃𝑑 2

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Gearing Nomenclature
Tooth Shape and Size
• Also, other useful relationships may be developed, including:
𝑝𝑐 𝑃𝑑 = 𝜋 → 𝑝𝑐 = 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠; 𝑃𝑑 = 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ/𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
𝑝𝑐
= 𝜋 → 𝑝𝑐 = 𝑚𝑚; 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑚/𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑡ℎ
𝑚
25.4
𝑚=
𝑃𝑑
• Gear teeth on mating gears can mesh properly only if their diametral pitches or their
modules are the same, hence:
𝜔2 𝑁2 𝑟1 𝑑1 𝑧1
= =± =± =±
𝜔1 𝑁1 𝑟2 𝑑2 𝑧2
where the algebraic sign is determined by inspection, and in accordance with the
convention that external mesh ratios are (−) and internal mesh ratios are (+).

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Gearing Nomenclature
Tooth Shape and Size
• The magnitude of the pressure angle significantly affects the
shape of a gear tooth.
• The 25° teeth have thicker bases and larger radii of curvature
at the pitch line, giving them higher bending-load-carrying
capacity as compared to 20° teeth.
• The 25° teeth tend to generate more operating noise,
however, due to their lower contact ratio (next few slides).

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Gear Tooth Systems
• Standardized tooth systems have been widely adopted to facilitate interchangeability
and availability by specifying selected pressure angles, then defining addendum,
dedendum, working depth, whole depth, minimum tip clearance, and circular tooth
thickness as functions of diametral pitch (or module).
• The most commonly used pressure angle is 20°, both for U.S. and SI gears, but a 25°
pressure angle is also common in U.S. coarse-pitch gears 𝑃𝑑 < 20 .
• Tooth proportions for AGMA standard full-depth spur gear teeth are specified in the
table (next slide), and the approximate actual sizes of standard involute spur gear teeth
are shown (next slide) for a range of commonly used diametral pitches.
• When a designer specifies the use of gears manufactured to standard system specifications, the gears
are usually available as stock items.
• On the other hand, the availability of modern computer-controlled gear manufacturing facilities
allows the specification of special nonstandard optimized gears, if warranted by a specific application.

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Gear Tooth Systems

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Gear Tooth Systems
• The table below gives the range of tooth sizes (in terms of diametral pitch or module)
generally available from gear manufacturers.

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Mesh Interaction
• The angle of action is usually subdivided into
an angle of approach and an angle of recess.
• Force is transmitted from the driving gear to
the driven gear along the line of action.
• The distance Z along the line of action from
a to b is called the length of action,
calculated as:
𝑍= 𝑟𝑃 + 𝑎𝑃 2 − 𝑟𝑃 cos  2

2 2
+ 𝑟𝑔 + 𝑎𝑔 − 𝑟𝑔 cos 
−𝐶 sin 

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Mesh Interaction
• To maintain smooth operation and
constant angular velocity ratio, it is
necessary that at least one pair of teeth
remain in contact at all times.
• This will be assured if the profile contact
ratio mp, defined as the angle of action θ
divided by the pitch angle γ, or,
alternatively, the length of action Z divided
by the base pitch pb, exceeds unity.
𝜃 𝛼+𝛽
𝑚𝑝 = =
𝛾 𝛾
2 2
𝑃𝑑 𝑟𝑃 + 𝑎𝑃 2 − 𝑟𝑃 cos  2 + 𝑟𝑔 + 𝑎𝑔 − 𝑟𝑔 cos  − 𝐶 sin 
𝑍
𝑚𝑝 = =
𝑝𝑏 𝜋 cos 

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Helical Gears
• Helical gear teeth are angled with respect to the axis of
rotation at an angle ψ, called the helix angle, measured at
the surface of the pitch cylinder.
• This angle is made between either of the pitch plane
reference lines (ab or cd) and an intersecting line parallel
to the axis of rotation of a mating gear.

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Helical Gears
• The additional parameters to be defined for helical
gears are related to angles and distances measured
on transverse, normal, and axial planes.
• For example, the circular pitch in transverse,
normal, and axial planes is calculated as:
𝜋𝑑 𝑝𝑡 𝑝𝑛
𝑝𝑡 = 𝑝𝑐 = 𝑝𝑛 = 𝑝𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜓 𝑝𝑥 = =
𝑧 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜓 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜓

• As for spur gears, diametral pitch is a more common index for sizing helical gear teeth.
𝑃𝑡 𝑝𝑡 = 𝜋 𝑃𝑛 𝑝𝑛 = 𝜋 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜓
where Pt is diametral pitch in the transverse plane (same as for spur gears) and Pn is diametral pitch in
the normal plane.
• It may also be deduced geometrically that:
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛  = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑛 Τ𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜓

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Helical Gears
• The pitch diameter d for a helical gear is:
𝑧 𝑧
𝑑 = 2𝑟 = =
𝑃𝑑 𝑃𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜓
• The equation for center distance C:
𝑧1 + 𝑧2 𝑧1 + 𝑧2
𝐶 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 = =
2𝑃𝑡 2𝑃𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜓
• Standard helical tooth proportions mimic spur gear tooth proportions but are based on
Pn and n as illustrated below.

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Helical Gears
• The (transverse) contact ratio mp, sometimes called profile contact ratio, remains a valid
definition for helical gears.
• Helical gears are characterized by an additional contact ratio in the axial (face) direction.
• This is sometimes called the face contact ratio, where:
𝑏 𝑃𝑡 𝑏 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜓 𝑃𝑛 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜓
𝑚𝑓 = = =
𝑝𝑥 𝜋 𝜋
Where b is the face width of the gear
• Typically, helix angles ranging from about 10° to about 35° are selected to balance
smoother, quieter operation at larger helix angles with lower axial thrust loads produced
by smaller helix angles.
• The sum of the profile contact ratio plus the face contact ratio is called the total contact
ratio mT, a measure of overall load sharing among the helical teeth in contact.

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Helical Gears
• In addition to smoother, quieter operation, the teeth of a helical gear, geometrically
defined in the normal plane, are thicker and stronger in the transverse plane [plane of
transmitted torque] compared with the teeth of a straight spur gear with the same
normal pitch, pitch diameter, and number of teeth.
• It may be noted that the normal plane intersects the pitch cylinder in an elliptical trace
whose radius re at point P is:
𝑟
𝑟𝑒 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜓
• This results in a virtual number of teeth ze on virtual spur gear of pitch radius re as follow:
𝑧
𝑧𝑒 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜓
• The larger number of virtual teeth reduces the tendency for undercutting, allowing the
use of a smaller minimum number of teeth for helical gears than for spur gears.

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Bevel Gears
• In contrast to the cylindrical pitch surfaces of spur and helical gears, the pitch surfaces of
meshing bevel gears are conical.
• The two contacting conical pitch surfaces
roll together without slipping.
• They share a common apex, Q, at the point
of shaft-centerline intersection.
• It is standard practice to define the size and
shape of the tooth profile at the larger end.
• The face width b is usually restricted to
about 0.25 to 0.3 of the outer cone
distance L:
𝑑
𝑏 ≤ 0.3𝐿 = 0.3
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛾

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Bevel Gears
• The increases in geometrical complexity just described make design calculations for
bevel gears more complicated and more empirical than for spur or helical gears, but the
underlying concepts are the same.
• Tooth profiles resemble spur gear tooth profiles of virtual spur gears having pitch radii
equal to the developed pinion back cone radius rbp, and the developed gear back cone
radius rbg.
• The virtual numbers of teeth in these imaginary spur gears are:
𝑧𝑝 𝑧𝑔
𝑧𝑝′ = 2𝑟𝑏𝑝 𝑃𝑑 = 𝑧𝑔′ = 2𝑟𝑏𝑔 𝑃𝑑 =
cos 𝛾𝑝 cos 𝛾𝑔

• The gear ratio for bevel gears can be determined from the number of teeth, the pitch
diameters, or the pitch cone angles:
𝜔𝑝 𝑧𝑔
𝑚𝐺 = = = tan 𝛾𝑔 = cot 𝛾𝑝
𝜔𝑔 𝑧𝑝

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Bevel Gears
• Tooth proportions for standard bevel gears are given in the table below.

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Worm, Worm-Gears
• The worm resembles a power screw
and the worm gear resembles a helical
gear, except that it is throated to
partially envelop the worm.
• If a rotating worm is constrained axially
by thrust bearings, the worm gear is
caused to rotate about its own axis, as
the worm threads slide sidewise
against the gear teeth.
• Because of the screw action, worm
gearsets are quiet, vibration free, and
produce a constant output speed free
of pulsations.

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Worm, Worm-Gears
• Customary tooth dimensions for worms and worm gears may be given as a function of
diametral pitch Pd of the gears, as shown below, or as a function of axial pitch px.

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Worm, Worm-Gears
• A basic requirement of a properly designed worm gearset is that the axial pitch px of the
worm must be equal to the circular pitch pc of the gear, so:
𝑝𝑛 𝑝𝑛 𝜋𝑑𝑔
𝑝𝑥 = = 𝑝𝑐 = =
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜆𝑤 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜓𝑔 𝑧𝑔
• Worms may be manufactured with a single thread or with multiple threads.
• The number of teeth in the worm gear is determined by the required reduction ratio, together with
the minimum number of teeth dictated by good design practice.
• The lead is the axial advance of any point on the worm thread for one revolution of the
worm, or the axial pitch of the worm multiplied by the number of threads on the worm:
𝐿𝑤 = 𝑧𝑤 𝑝𝑥
• The mean worm lead angle is given by:
𝐿𝑤
λ𝑤 = tan−1
𝜋𝑑𝑤

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 engfac.mans.edu.eg

Mostafa ElBahloul
Assistant Professor
mostafaelbahloul@mans.edu.eg