Case Studies in Construction Materials 20 (2024) e02754

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Case Studies in Construction Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cscm

Micromechanical modeling for analyzing non-linear behavior of

flexible pavements under truck loading
Ajab Khurshid a, Rawid Khan a, Diyar Khan b, *, Hamza Jamal c,
Mohd Rosli Mohd Hasan d, Khaled Mohamed Khedher e, *, 1,
Mohamed Abdelaziz Salem f
a
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology, Peshawar, KPK, Pakistan
b
Department of Road Transport, Faculty of Transport and Aviation Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, 40-019 Katowice, Poland
c
CECOS University of IT and Emerging Sciences, Pakistan
d
School of Civil Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia (Engineering Campus), Penang, Malaysia
e
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, King Khalid University, Abha 61421, Saudi Arabia
f
Department of Industrial Engineering, College of Engineering, King Khalid University, Abha 61421, Saudi Arabia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This research paper presents a precise three-dimensional (3D) pavement model designed to
Viscoelastic accurately account for the detrimental effects of the asphalt layer while representing various
Abaqus layers within a pavement structure. The primary objectives of this study include the development
Modeling
of an accurate 3D pavement model, the integration of asphalt concrete’s viscoelastic properties
Prony series
into the analysis, and the improvement of pavement distress prediction accuracy. To achieve
Subroutine
these goals, a comprehensive approach was undertaken, involving a stress relaxation test to assess
the viscoelastic properties of asphalt concrete. The study incorporates Prony series coefficients
into the analysis, employing Finite Element Modeling Software Abaqus for an accurate repre­
sentation of asphalt concrete behavior. The realistic geometry of asphalt concrete is captured
using the Simpleware application, enhancing precision compared to Abaqus mesh geometry.
Additionally, a user-defined material subroutine (UMAT) based on the Kelvin viscoelastic model
is integrated into the finite element analysis within Abaqus. This approach significantly enhances
predictions of vertical displacements and horizontal strains associated with common pavement
distresses, surpassing conventional linear pavement modeling methods. Moreover, it offers
improved accuracy in representing the actual geometry of asphalt concrete and enhances the
prediction of wearing course performance, especially in high-temperature regions. By custom­
izing the UMAT subroutine to simulate flexible pavement behavior, this research contributes to
the advancement of pavement analysis and design.

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: ajjabkhurshid@gmail.com (A. Khurshid), dr.rawid@uetpeshawar.edu.pk (R. Khan), diyar.khan@polsl.pl (D. Khan),
hamzajamal@cecos.edu.pk (H. Jamal), cerosli@usm.my (M.R.M. Hasan), kkhedher@kku.edu.sa (K.M. Khedher), moabdulaziz@kku.edu.sa
(M.A. Salem).
1
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000–0002-4167–1690

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2023.e02754
Received 2 August 2023; Received in revised form 7 October 2023; Accepted 1 December 2023
Available online 4 December 2023
2214-5095/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
A. Khurshid et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 20 (2024) e02754

1. Introduction

Asphalt pavements face various issues such as rutting, swelling, shoving, cracking, and potholes, with heavy-duty vehicles
significantly contributing to their damage. Accurate assessment of the impact of truck loads on road structures requires a thorough
analysis of the generated stresses and strains, considering both load frequency and magnitude. The asphalt layer’s behavior, exhibiting
both stiffness and flexibility under vehicular loading, plays a fundamental role in determining pavement durability. Protecting existing
road structures and conducting comprehensive investigations for new bituminous roads are essential imperatives.
Over the years, researchers have made substantial efforts to develop structural mechanistic models capable of predicting asphaltic
pavement performance. Initial models, such as the layered elastic solutions proposed by Burmister in the 1940s, laid the foundation for
understanding pavement behavior. However, these early models simplified Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) materials as pure elastic solids,
neglecting their viscoelastic nature, and treated vehicular loading as static, which is an oversimplification [15]. Recent advancements
have seen increased reliance on linear elastic theory for characterizing HMA composites accurately. Kim et al. [11] emphasized the
importance of applying appropriate boundary conditions to simulate specific testing conditions, but the model’s applicability under
extreme or non-standard conditions warrants further investigation and refinement. Al-Qadi and Wang [1] highlighted the significance
of incorporating 3-D tire contact stresses into the analysis, particularly in understanding longitudinal fatigue cracking and rutting in
thin asphalt pavement. However, the applicability of these findings to different tire types and pavement materials under real-world
conditions remains a topic of concern. Tiliouine et al. [20] found that a linear assumption overestimated pavement design life, pri­
marily focusing on the effects of interface conditions on flexible pavements with granular bases. Still, it requires further exploration of
other pavement structures and materials and refinement to address a broader range of loading and environmental conditions. Ban et al.
[5] conducted creep and recovery tests to obtain viscoelastic material properties of asphalt mixtures, which were incorporated into
modeling conventional pavement structures under realistic tire loading conditions. While valuable, these studies need further
consideration of factors like Traffic Loading Variability, Environmental Conditions, Layer Interface Conditions, and other material
behaviors impacting pavement damage characteristics. Khan et al. [10] explored the conversion of X-ray CT images of asphalt
specimens into finite element meshes, primarily addressing the challenge of including air voids in finite element modeling for asphalt
mixtures. However, potential limitations related to computational complexity, model accuracy, and generalizability to different
asphalt mixtures and conditions remain unexplored. Varma and Kutay [21] introduced a practical design model for flexible pavements,
focusing on a computationally efficient simulation of elastic multi-layer pavement systems. Yet, the simplification of the asphalt layer
as linear viscoelastic may lead to inaccuracies in predicting pavement responses under dynamic and non-uniform loading conditions.
Asim and Khan [18] concentrated on modeling asphalt concrete as viscoelastic under specific laboratory-determined properties.
However, this approach may not fully capture asphalt behavior variations beyond laboratory settings. Deng et al. [8] proposed a Finite
Element method to evaluate flexible pavement deterioration under dynamic loads, but its applicability to different stages of pavement
deterioration is uncertain. Asim et al. [2] provided a comprehensive review of rutting models and deformation aspects in flexible
pavements but didn’t introduce new rutting models or methodologies addressing factors like stress state, moisture content, material
type, and environmental conditions. Singh & Sahoo [19] employed 3D finite element analysis to predict rut depth in flexible pavement
but assumed only an elastic multi-layer pavement system, potentially oversimplifying real pavement behavior. Asres et al. [3]
developed a sustainability framework for flexible pavement design but may face challenges in practical implementation and accep­
tance by highway agencies. In Ban et al.’s [4] study, ANSYS software was employed to examine flexible pavement responses to
different loads and speeds. While valuable, the study’s applicability may be limited to specific road sections with regional material
properties. Bhandari et al. [6] used statistical methods to assess the influence of structural factors, traffic loading, and environmental
conditions on pavement performance, with Random Forest (RF) proving to be the most accurate model. However, the study does not
propose specific mitigation strategies or consider potential interactions between these factors.
Optimizing flexible pavement structural layers is crucial for withstanding heavy vehicle loads. Accurately capturing the nonlinear
material response of asphalt pavement is essential, particularly under low-speed and high-temperature conditions. This study employs
finite element modeling to assess asphalt concrete’s nonlinear viscoelastic behavior, considering user subroutine development, real­
istic truck loading, and validation against laboratory results. The approach allows for analyzing the impact of asphalt concrete’s
microstructural configuration on pavement behavior.

2. Scope and objectives

The primary objective of this study is to develop a dynamic model for predicting the behavior of flexible pavements, with a specific
focus on the impact of temperature and heavy truck loads. More specifically, the aim is to investigate the influence of truck-loading
arrangements and the accurate viscoelastic behavior of asphalt layers, which exhibit nonlinear inelastic properties. A significant
advancement in this research involves the development of a precise three-dimensional (3D) model that not only considers the
detrimental effects of the asphalt layer but also accurately represents all layers within a pavement structure. The study intends to
develop a User Subroutine (UMAT) [12] capable of performing nonlinear viscoelastic analysis. This subroutine is a crucial tool for
conducting advanced simulations and assessments of asphalt pavement behavior in this study. Previous literature primarily focused on
two-dimensional (2D) or simplified 3D models, which did not fully account for the complex interactions within the pavement
structure. To ensure the reliability of the model, a finite element (FE) modeling program (Abaqus) was employed, incorporating a
virtual microstructure model of asphalt concrete generated through Simpleware, an advanced image-processing tool. This approach
allowed for a direct comparison between the resulting stress relaxation curves obtained from the model and the corresponding lab­
oratory experimental results. This validation process confirms the accuracy and effectiveness of the developed model.

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3. Research methodology

A schematic representation of the research methodology adopted in this study is illustrated in Fig. 1. The study initiates with data
collection, encompassing the determination of viscoelastic material properties and the development of a user subroutine, as elaborated
in the subsequent sections. The research then proceeds with following main analyses conducted in ABAQUS. 3D FE simulation is
performed on a pavement structure, actual tire footprints were incorporated and cyclic loading was subjected for more accurately
representing the realistic conditions in order to demonstrate the significance of nonlinear viscoelastic modeling in predicting pavement
performance, particularly in relation to rutting and fatigue cracking. The developed user subroutine is integrated into ABAQUS to
conduct the nonlinear viscoelastic analysis, further enhancing the modeling accuracy. Lastly, the actual geometry of asphalt concrete,
obtained from Simpleware software, is incorporated into ABAQUS to validate the model against laboratory results and compare it with
the ABAQUS model mesh. These analyses collectively contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the behavior of asphalt
pavement under various loading and environmental conditions, thereby facilitating the development of improved pavement design
and performance prediction methodologies.

3.1. Materials selection and preparation

The procedure for the stress relaxation test was conducted in accordance with ASTM E328. A 100-penetration grade bitumen with a
continuously graded granulate was selected to form a Dense Bituminous Macadam (DBM) asphalt mixture, with the overall binder
content for the entire mixture fixed at 5.5%. To ensure the desired compactness and quality of the specimens, the air void content was
targeted at 6% [10]. Specimens were created using a Gyratory compactor, which compacted the mixture into cylindrical shapes with a
diameter of 100 mm and a height of 100 mm. This standardized compaction process ensured consistent specimen dimensions for
accurate testing and analysis. The utilization of a specific 100-penetration grade bitumen, continuously graded granulate, and
controlled binder and air void content allowed for the replication of realistic asphalt mixture conditions commonly employed in
flexible pavement construction. These carefully chosen parameters facilitate accurate evaluation and validation of the micro­
mechanical finite element model developed for this study.

3.2. Asphalt concrete uniaxial stress relaxation test

In this experiment, the objective was to observe how the material deforms over time as the stress decreases due to the internal
structure relaxing. This provides the material’s time-dependent stress-strain relationship, which exhibits relaxation in stress due to the
nonlinear properties of viscoelastic materials. When continuous strain is applied, the stress response occurs suddenly and gradually
reduces during the relaxation period. The viscoelastic properties of the asphalt concrete material were determined using the results of

Fig. 1. Illustration of the sequential steps and methodology employed in the investigation.

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the stress relaxation test, and these properties were then incorporated into a finite element (FE) model to predict the material’s stress-
strain behavior under variable loading conditions. By developing a more accurate and comprehensive model of how asphalt concrete
pavements respond to loads in real-time, the aim is to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of design and maintenance strategies.
The relaxation behavior of the material under a constant load can be measured by a relaxation test as illustrated in Fig. 2.

3.3. Characterization of viscoelastic properties

Experimental data from uniaxial stress relaxation tests on asphalt specimens were used to describe and confirm the viscoelastic
behavior of the material. The primary objective of this study was to evaluate the viscoelastic properties of bitumen concrete. To
achieve this, time domain analysis [13] employed Prony series coefficients, as shown in Table 1. Prony Analysis was originally
developed by Gaspard Riche de Prony in 1795, but its practical application in the real world became possible with the advent of digital
computers. The material’s time-dependent stress-strain characteristics were determined using Finite Element Application Abaqus via
stress-time plots, as depicted in Fig. 3. These parameters could then be applied in numerical simulations to model the material’s
viscoelastic properties within finite element analysis. The assessment of asphalt concrete’s viscoelastic properties involved utilizing the
Abaqus software. This process aligned the stress relaxation test curve obtained in the laboratory experiments. Abaqus was employed to
establish Prony series coefficients that corresponded to the outcomes of the laboratory experiments. The simulation results from
Abaqus were consistent with the experimental findings, thereby verifying the viscoelastic characteristics of asphalt concrete and
providing the foundation for further simulations.
Based on the Kelvin viscoelastic model, a UMAT subroutine has been integrated to the Abaqus finite element analysis to enhance
the nonlinear viscoelastic modelling. As shown in Fig. 4, the Kelvin-Voigt model is a mathematical representation of a viscoelastic
material which includes a parallel relationship among a purely elastic spring and a purely viscous damper [16].

σ(t) = Eε(t) + ηdε(t)/dt

According to Meyers and Chawla [17], in their book "Mechanical behavior of Materials", Section 13.11 (pages 570–580), published
by Prentice Hall, Inc., the Kelvin-Voigt model provides a more realistic prediction of a material’s tendency to undergo deformation
under persistent mechanical stresses compared to the Maxwell model.

3.4. Development of code for the Kelvin-Voigt model

The Kelvin-Voigt model can be expressed in terms of dashpot elements and spring to represent stress as following.

σij = σs + σd
Potential for Dissipation = = (1/2)(λθλέ2+4μθμέij)

Two important indicators of a material’s viscosity properties are its thermal expansion coefficient (θλ) and pressure coefficient
values(θμ). The material’s sensitivity to changes in pressure is determined by (θλ), while the material’s responsiveness to temperature
changes is determined by (θμ).

Fig. 2. Relaxation test setup in laboratory; (a) unconfined, (b) confined.

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Table 1
Table depicting the coefficients of the Prony series.
Sample No. Relaxation modulus ratio (Gi) (Relaxation time) τi

1 0.60660 0.0938976
2 0.30767 21.966
3 0.0757249 367.32

Fig. 3. Normalized relaxation curve versus Time.

Fig. 4. Schematic Illustration of Kelvin Voigt Model (Rao, 2006).

σd = ∂φ/∂ε = λtr(έ)θλδij + 2μθμέij
σs = λtr(ε)δij + 2μεij
Thus,σij = λ[tr(ε)+ θλtr(έ)]δij + 2μ[εij+ θμέij] [14].
The stress was incrementally increased using the backward difference approach, where the rates were calculated as the ratio of the
finite change to the corresponding time increment. Additionally, other quantities were similarly increased during the analysis. This
method facilitates the measurement of stress changes over time as well as other important parameters, which can be useful for un­
derstanding how materials and systems respond in various conditions.

εij => εij+Δεij

tr(ε) => tr(ε)+Δtr(ε)

έij => Δεij/Δt

tr(έ) => Δtr(ε)/Δt

σij => σij+Δσij

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So, the equation becomes,

Δσij = λ[tr(ε)+Δtr(ε)+θλΔtr(ε)/Δt]δij + 2μ[εij+Δεij+θμΔεij/Δt] - σij (1)

3.4.1. Incremental increase in normal stresses

The indices i and j in the normal stress and strain components are identical due to the fact that they represent the direction
perpendicular to the surface on which they are applied. For instance, if we consider a rectangular solid having dimensions L, W, and H,
a normal stress applied in the x-direction on the face with area LW would result in the normal stress component σxx and normal strain
component εxx, whereas a normal stress applied in the y-direction on the face with area LH would result in the normal stress component
σyy and normal strain component εyy. This is because stress and strain act in the same direction, leading to the same index i and j for
both components.
So,

δij=1

and strain trace is represented by,

tr(ε) = εxx+εyy+εzz

Δtr(ε) = Δεxx+Δεyy+Δεzz

While focusing on the x-component and after solving, the equation (i) turns out to be,

Δσxx = (λ+2μ)εxx + λ(εyy+εzz) + [λ(1+θλ/Δt)+2μ(1+θμ/Δt)]Δεxx + λ(1+θλ/Δt)(Δεyy+Δεzz) – σxx

Let,

A = λ(1 +θλ/Δt)+ 2μ(1 +θμ/Δt)

B = λ(1 +θλ/Δt)
C = λ + 2μ
D=λ

Thus,

Δσxx = AΔεxx + BΔεyy + BΔεzz + Cεxx + Dεyy + Dεzz – σxx

Similarly, solving for y and z components; the final equation in matrices form results in;
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
Δσxx A B B Δεxx C D D εxx 1 0 0 σxx
⎣ Δσyy ⎦ = ⎣ B A B ⎦⎣ Δεyy ⎦ + ⎣ D C D ⎦⎣ εyy ⎦ − ⎣ 0 1 0 ⎦⎣ σyy ⎦
Δσzz B B A Δεzz D D C εzz 0 0 1 σzz
Let,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
A B B C D D 1 0 0
⎣ B A B ⎦ = DDSDDE⎣ D C D ⎦ = DDSDE⎣ 0 1 0 ⎦ = DDSDS
B B A D D C 0 0 1

Therefore, the Stress Increment is calculated as follows: DDSDDE*Strain Increment + DDSDE*Strain - DDSDS*Stress.

3.4.2. Shear stresses incremental increase

Shear stress and strain components are measured using the indices i and j, however they are not the same. since they act in different
directions. Shear stress and strain components occur due to forces causing parallel layers of a material to slide past each other. For
instance, if we apply a shear stress to a rectangular block with dimensions L, W, and H on the face with area LW, acting in the xy plane,
the corresponding shear stress component would be τxy, and the shear strain component would be γxy. Shear stress and strain act in
opposing directions that are perpendicular to one other, hence they do not have the same indices (i and j) as conventional stress and
strain components. In addition, we can apply shear stress to other faces of the block such as those in the xz and yz planes, resulting in
different corresponding shear stress and strain components with different indices. Therefore, the indices i and j for shear stress and
strain components are not identical, reflecting the different directions of the forces causing parallel layers of a material to slide past
each other.
So,
δij= 0.
As a result of equation (i),

Δσij = 2μ[εij+Δεij(1+θμ/Δt)] – σij

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The definition of the engineering strain tensor εij in Abaqus, similar to other solid mechanics software, is a symmetric tensor that
characterizes the deformation of a material due to both shear stresses and normal stress. On the other hand, the shear strain tensor γij
describes the deformation of a material caused by shear stresses only. To establish a connection between the two tensors, Abaqus, and
other software packages follow the convention of dividing the shear strain tensor by 2, so that εij = γij/2. This convention is based on
the established convention of tensor algebra that requires any symmetric tensor to have a factor of 1/2 in front of any term that appears
twice. The factor of 1/2 in front of the shear strain tensor term ensures that the resulting tensor is symmetric, consistent with tensor
algebra conventions.

εij = γij/2
Δεij = Δγij/2

So, the above equation becomes,

Δσij = [μγij+Δγijμ(1+θμ/Δt)] – σij

Or,

Δσxy = [μγxy+Δγxyμ(1+θμ/Δt)] – σxy

Let,

F = μ(1+θμ/Δt)

G=μ

Hence,

Δσxy = [FΔγxy + Gγxy] – σxy

Similarly, solving for Δxz and Δσyz, the final equation in matrices form results in;
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
Δσxy F 0 0 Δγxy G 0 0 γxy 1 0 0 σxy
⎣ Δσxz ⎦ = ⎣ 0 F 0 ⎦⎣ Δγxz ⎦ + ⎣ 0 G 0 ⎦⎣ γxz ⎦ − ⎣ 0 1 0 ⎦⎣ σxz ⎦
Δσyz 0 0 F Δγyz 0 0 G γyz 0 0 1 σyz
Therefore, similar to the normal stress increment calculation, the shear stress increment is calculated as follows;Stress Increment
= DDSDDE*Strain Increment + DDSDE*Strain - DDSDS*Stress.
The above equations were incorporated into the analysis in the form of coding via the UMAT subroutine, which is used to define any
mechanical constitutive behavior of a material that cannot be defined directly with the available ABAQUS material models.

3.5. Pavement structure FE modelling and 3-D numerical simulation

A time-dependent computational model was integrated with the 3-D finite element model using ABAQUS to predict the variability
in stress/strains and deviations in displacements. The study aimed to compare the performance behaviors of linear and nonlinear
viscoelastic practices, highlighting the significance of the nonlinear viscoelastic nature of asphalt concrete. To explore the impact of
material non-linearity and observe its dynamic behavior, a uniaxial stress relaxation test was conducted on the specimen. For the
pavement modeling, a standard layered asphalt pavement design was selected. The mechanical properties used in the model were
E = 2759 MPa, ν = 0.35, and γ = 22.1 kN/m3, as adopted by Khan, Grenfell, and Collop in 2015. The dynamic viscosity (η) was set to
0.1 GPa.sec based on the findings of Gladkikh et al. in 2017 [9]. Additionally, the Prony series coefficients, as presented in Table 1,
were incorporated into the model.
The mechanical properties used for modeling the Base Course and Subgrade were obtained from the NHA Pavement Design Report
(Revised) of Sep 2018 [7] for the Peshawar-Torkham Section-I. The value of Young’s modulus (E) for the Base Course was set to
193 MPa, with a Poisson’s ratio (υ) of 0.3. Similarly, for the Subgrade, the Young’s modulus (E) was set to 88 MPa, with a Poisson’s

Fig. 5. Tyre Footprint.

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ratio (υ) of 0.3. These values were adopted to accurately represent the material properties of the respective layers in the pavement
model.
The model was subjected to the tyre pressure of a double axle truck tyre, as depicted in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6, that show the actual pattern
of a double tyre with a 35.5 kN axial load [22] and resulting contact pressure of 71.7 MPa at a temperature of 50 ◦ C. The truck had two
tandem axles with double-tire configurations and a front steer axle. In the FE modelling, tyre footprints along with tyre pressure
application were used on the asphalt course. To simplify matters, a circular or quadrilateral load distribution arrangement is typically
adopted to represent tyre contact pressure, despite the fact that neither of these approaches closely resembles actual tyre footprints.
Using a three-dimensional finite element model that incorporated actual tyre imprints, this study accurately simulated the pavement
when a 15.4-metre truck trailer crossed a predetermined spot at a speed of 80 km/h, taking 0.693 s, followed by another truck after a
30-second interval.
The pavement loading was analyzed in a step-by-step manner to allow for larger time steps during the unloading phase between
each loading step. To achieve this, the load cycle from the literature was divided into multiple steps. This approach reduced the
computational time and physical memory required and allowed for simulations to be run for longer periods of time. Each loading cycle
lasted for approximately 0.058 s, with an unloading phase lasting 30 s. Once the basic model with all necessary components was
constructed, the loadings and steps were specified in the subsequent step. This was accomplished after the initial raw model had been
created. The three-dimensional FE approach was used to investigate the mechanical behavior of a standard bitumen road subjected to
heavy truck loads.
The representative volume of the pavement structure used in the study has dimensions of 3500 by 3500 mm and an overall height
of 1300 mm. In Fig. 7, the asphalt layer is depicted as a green mesh with a thickness of 100 mm, while the base course is represented by
a beige mesh with a thickness of 200 mm. The sub-grade layer is shown as a red mesh. All layers, except for the asphalt layer, are
assumed to have complete elasticity, meaning they behave like traditional rigid materials. However, the asphalt layer has a viscoelastic
nature, allowing it to dissipate energy under loading. The 3D finite element mesh, shown in the figure, includes restrictions on the right
side of the vertical face in the horizontal plane, and the mesh is positioned on bedrock in the vertical plane. Infinite mesh fragments
were incorporated to address any issues at the edges of the load application section. Finer fragments were used closer to high pressure
intensities like the tires’ contact region, while coarser meshes were used for the smaller-stress regions [5]. The mesh was designed to
allow for cyclic analysis to be conducted in a limited area.
The micromechanical computation utilized a total of 49536 elements (C3D8R in ABAQUS). Boundary conditions were imple­
mented with various considerations, including vertical displacement constraints on the model foundation and the adoption of sym­
metry conditions from the literature on the model’s side. The tire’s contact pressure and the truck’s weight, distributed over a quarter
of the contact surface, were the primary loads in the model. The total body weight force was estimated based on literature assumptions
that only 39% of the maximum weight of a 3-axle tandem truck, which is 27.5 tons, is transferred to the rear wheels. By adding pressure
to the elements in the model that represent the tyre imprint on the asphalt, only half of one row was taken into account, as shown in
Fig. 8.
Opting for a rectangular mesh is an effective way of dividing the tire imprint, leading to faster convergence of results in finite
element analysis. This approach allows the software to capture the pavement material’s behavior more precisely under tire loading,
producing more reliable and accurate results. Scaled meshes are used to build the FE model, which reduces processing time while
maintaining simulation accuracy. It’s common practice to use a finer mesh in high stress intensity areas and a coarser mesh in low
stress areas, known as mesh refinement. This technique enhances result accuracy while reducing computational time and resources,
resulting in more reliable outcomes and a better comprehension of the behaviors of the system.
The study employs a trapezoidal loading sequence and takes into account the time intervals between load applications to evaluate
the influence of truck loading on the pavement. It aims to predict the pavement’s response over time. To achieve this, an Iterative
integration approach is used in the study, and incorporates the model three-dimensional nonlinear viscoelastic equations, making the
simulation more accurate and realistic.

3.6. Incorporation of actual asphalt concrete geometry in the analysis

The utilization of a microstructure-based numerical modelling technique provides the benefit of a more precise evaluation of the
behavior of heterogeneous asphalt mixtures. This approach involves constructing micromechanical models that provide a more
realistic representation compared to conventional laboratory methods. These models help identify and distribute microstructural
components and determine the overall response of the material. Additionally, advanced finite element modeling techniques enable
accurate representation of material behavior. In this study, the real geometry of the asphalt concrete specimen was incorporated into
Abaqus using the Simpleware tool for analysis purposes. Fig. 9 illustrates the use of the Simpleware program to reconstruct the three-

Fig. 6. Diagram illustrating the tyre loading configuration.

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Fig. 7. Pavement’s finite element model with mesh details.

Fig. 8. Half of one axle tire imprint.

dimensional specimen from stacks of 2D images. The specimen geometry consisted of 210,310 components, and a 4-node linear
tetrahedron (C3D4) element was used to create the mesh.
Figs. 10 and 11 illustrate a comparison between two meshing techniques. The first mesh (Fig. 10) was created using assumptions in
Abaqus, while the second one (Fig. 11) was generated from precise scans of the asphalt specimen. The comparison helps to assess the
accuracy of the two approaches in predicting the behavior of the material under load.
In order to capture the nonlinear behavior of asphalt concrete and incorporate its virtual microstructure, a model will be created
and meshed in Abaqus. The results obtained from this model will then be compared to those obtained from Simpleware. The me­
chanical properties used in the modeling, including E = 2759 MPa, υ = 0.35, and ρ = 22.1 kN/m3, are based on research by Khan,
Grenfell, and Collop [10]. Analysis will incorporate normalized relaxation modulus values obtained from relaxation test data to model
viscoelastic behavior. The same boundary conditions used in the laboratory’s relaxation test have been adopted in the modeling, with
the bottom surface fixed and a constant vertical strain of 0.004 mm/mm applied at a confinement pressure of 200 kPa.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Uniaxial stress relaxation experiment

Below are the graphs ( Figs. 12–14) showing the application of strain and the corresponding stress behavior obtained from the
uniaxial stress relaxation experiment.

4.1.1. Stress vs time

Figs. 12–14.

4.1.2. Stress relaxation curve

Fig. 15 presents the Stress Relaxation vs. Time graph, generated using data from the uniaxial stress relaxation test. The relaxation
curve has been fit using the Power function.

4.1.3. Normalized relaxation curve

Fig. 16 depicts the Normalized Relaxation Modulus Curve, obtained using normalized relaxation modulus values from the stress
relaxation test results.

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Fig. 9. Workflow demonstration using the Simpleware software tool.

Fig. 10. Abaqus FE assumed C3D4 elements.

4.2. Effects of Nonlinear Viscoelasticity

The study focused on rutting and fatigue cracking analysis by evaluating vertical displacement and horizontal strain. Incorporating
stress-dependent nonlinear viscoelastic model parameters resulted in increased rut depth and horizontal strains compared to scenarios

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Fig. 11. Simpleware 3D Mesh.

Fig. 12. Strain Versus Time Relation.

Fig. 13. Stress vs Time curves obtained from uniaxial stress relaxation test.

without these parameters. As the number of loading cycles increased, the differences in permanent deformation between the visco­
elastic and non-viscoelastic approaches became more significant. Viscoelastic response was 103% and 252% higher than the maximum
vertical displacement and horizontal strain predicted without viscoelastic parameters after the first loading cycle. At the end of cyclic
loading, the viscoelastic response was 112% and 277% higher than the maximum vertical displacement and horizontal strain predicted
without viscoelastic parameters. The viscoelastic response through UMAT was 34.8% and 38% higher than the maximum vertical
displacement and horizontal strain predicted by the viscoelastic model (Prony). It was 185.9% and 421% higher than without
considering viscoelastic parameters at the end of cyclic loading. Horizontal strain profiles revealed significant tensile strains beneath
the tire and compressive strains between the tires.

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Fig. 14. Stress relaxation under constant strain.

Fig. 15. Stress relaxation vs Time graph.

The inclusion of viscoelastic parameters significantly impacted the outcomes of the study, emphasizing the importance of visco­
elastic behavior in asphalt layers, particularly regarding permanent deformation and strain response. Loading cycles further high­
lighted the differences between viscoelastic and non-viscoelastic situations, with increased viscoelastic response over time. The UMAT-
based viscoelastic response outperformed the Prony model. Horizontal strain profiles showed non-uniform strain distribution within
the asphalt layer, with implications for pavement design and durability ( Figs. 17–23).

4.3. Microstructure effects on asphalt mixture damage

The study highlighted the influence of asphalt mixture microstructure on damage initiation and propagation. Incorporating actual
microstructure weakened the model, resulting in increased stress concentrations and material damage. Fig. 24 compared the irregular
damage pattern with microstructure incorporation to the regular pattern without it. Weak zones near air voids could cause distress
without clear failure indications. Incorporating actual geometry from X-ray CT images enabled precise consideration of material
properties and stiffness modulus.
Stress relaxation curves obtained through Abaqus closely matched laboratory experimental curves. This indicates that relaxation
tests in the laboratory can effectively determine asphalt’s viscoelastic properties for Finite Element (FE) analysis. The study demon­
strated that simulation techniques using laboratory testing data can assess the realistic performance of asphalt mixtures. Fig. 25
compared three stress relaxation curves, showing the effects of different mesh assumptions and the incorporation of actual geometry.
The study emphasizes the importance of viscoelastic parameters in predicting rutting and fatigue cracking in asphalt layers. Results
indicate the significance of considering these parameters for accurate pavement performance assessments. Incorporating micro­
structure data from X-ray CT scans enhances damage prediction and stress analysis in asphalt mixtures.

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Fig. 16. Normalized Relaxation curve from laboratory tests.

Fig. 17. Comparison of Vertical Displacement against loading cycle.

5. Conclusion and recommendations

This study highlights the critical importance of incorporating nonlinear viscoelastic behavior into pavement design methodologies.
Asphalt concrete exhibits time and temperature-dependent modulus characteristics, particularly challenging in warmer regions.
Neglecting viscoelastic parameters can lead to underestimated rutting and fatigue values in flexible pavements, potentially over­
estimating their design life and predicted performance. The Simpleware Model demonstrated a high degree of similarity to laboratory
observations, with a 96.48% similarity percentage for stress recovery over time under constant strain, compared to 89.27% for the
Abaqus assumed elements. As the simulation results showed a high degree of similarity with laboratory observations, thus validating
the model’s predictions and confirming the model’s accuracy.
The agreement between the model and laboratory experimental data demonstrates the accuracy of the simulation in capturing the
physical behavior of asphalt material. Incorporating viscoelastic material properties is essential for accurately characterizing pave­
ment behavior. The use of a nonlinear viscoelastic user-defined material subroutine (UMAT) results in notable increases in vertical
displacements and horizontal strains, especially important for materials like asphalt concrete. Considering the actual microstructure of
asphalt mixtures in Finite Element (FE) analysis improves predictions of material behavior and potential damage.
Future research should include validation through field measurements on actual pavement structures. This would provide valuable

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Fig. 18. Comparison of Vertical Displacement against cyclic loading.

Fig. 19. Comparison of Horizontal Strain against loading cycle.

Fig. 20. Comparison of Horizontal Strain against cyclic loading.

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Fig. 21. Trend in Vertical displacement against Cyclic Loading.

Fig. 22. Trend in horizontal strain Against Cycle Loading.

insights into the real-world behavior of asphalt concrete and enable direct comparisons with proposed designs. Consideration of
various types of asphalt mixes, including modified asphalt, recycled mixes, and cold mixes should be taken into account. Data based on
other tests like creep recovery should be analyzed to broaden the understanding of asphalt behavior. Implementing a denser mesh
along the line of movement using the DLOAD procedure, although constrained by time and resource limitations in this study, should be
considered in future research to improve the comprehensiveness and realism of pavement analysis.
This study’s findings emphasize the need for more accurate and comprehensive pavement design methodologies, particularly in the
context of asphalt concrete and its viscoelastic properties. Future research endeavors should build upon these insights to further
enhance the reliability of pavement design and analysis.

Funding

This research work was supported by the Deanship of Scientific Research at King Khalid University under grant number RGP. 2/
422/44.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors do not have any conflict of interest with other entities or researchers.

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Fig. 23. Damage Propagation in Abaqus Mesh.

Fig. 24. Simpleware Mesh Damage Propagation and Microstructural Impact.

Fig. 25. Comparison of Stress Relaxation Curves.

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Data Availability

Data will be made available on request.

Acknowledgments

The Authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at King Khalid University for funding this work
through a large research group. Project group number RGP. 2/422/44.

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