Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 52 (2015) 227–239

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Historical, technical and economic aspects of biogas development:

Case of Poland and Ukraine
O. Chasnyk a,n, G. Sołowski b, O. Shkarupa a
a
Department of Economics and Business Administration, Sumy State University, 2, Rimsky-Korsakov Street, UA-4007 Sumy, Ukraine
b
Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, Gdansk University of Technology, 11/12, Narutowicza Street, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The paper describes 3700 years of biogas manufacture with more details of last 120 years. Due to V.
Received 24 December 2014 Omelianskij's researches 120 years ago, Ukrainians achieved a share in biogas manufacture in the overall
Received in revised form biogas development. Poland started to take part in biogas development 96 years ago by finishing biogas
27 May 2015
plant in Posen 1928. History and current status of biogas plants achievements are collected and analyzed.
Accepted 27 July 2015
Faults and achievements of the two countries are exactly described in the background of global history
to draw conclusion for future that helps not to repeat the old errors. The development of green economy
Keywords: based on biogas is discussed. The paper brings back ideas that were previously extinguished due to low
History of biogas technological level and those could be used more successfully nowadays.
Biogas manufacture
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Green economy
Green tariff
Poland and Ukraine

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
1.1. General short history of biogas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
1.2. Place of Poland and Ukraine in history of biogas plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
1.3. Tendencies of development of biogas for energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
2. Short process and technological scheme description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
3. The analysis of biogas plants in Poland and in Ukraine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
3.1. History of biogas plants in Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
3.2. History of biogas plants in Ukraine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
4. Future of biogas plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
4.1. Possible paths of developments of biogas plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
4.2. Difficulties with biogas plants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
5. Biogas in Poland and Ukraine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
5.1. Development of biogas in Ukraine: basic features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
5.2. Biogas in Poland: aspects of production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
6. The main perspectives of development of biogas in Poland and Ukraine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
7. Development of biogas plants after world war II in other countries of Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
7.1. Germany. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
7.2. Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
7.3. France. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
7.4. Other сountries of Europe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

n
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: olena.chasn@gmail.com (O. Chasnyk).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.07.122
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
228 O. Chasnyk et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 52 (2015) 227–239
8. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
1. Introduction
1.1. General short history of biogas
When people stopped migrating and they began spending a
residential life as farmers. Breeding of animals and cultivation of
plants are connected with the necessary utilization of wastes like
manure or plant shoot which is called as biomass. People tried to
make the wastes more useful as substrates for improving the life
conditions. One of ways to utilize waste is biogas fermentation in
which biomass is transformed into hydrogen and methane. Pro-
duced in such way methane or hydrogen could be used as a
heating or power source.
This paper describes development of biogas and biogas plant
(place designed for processing fermentation) from the beginning
of mankind up to today by paying attention to their development
in Poland and Ukraine.
History of biogas plants development can be described into
three stages: unconscious, transient and conscious stage. Uncon-
scious stage is the first stage of biogas. It was present from XVII B. C.
up to 1808 year. At this stage people used fermentation to process
like heating source of bath at Assyria in XXX B. C. and at Persia in
XVII B. C. The biogas fermentation was also used in ancient China in
X B. C. At that time people knew just that if they leave the cattle
manure in a tank after some time the explosive heat would release
from it and it would be useful. Such “biogas plants” survived in
Marco Polo times in the XIII century and due to him the idea
transmitted to Europe. However, Alemans near Elba River in V AD
used swamp gas, prepared in leather vessels, for cooking. In 1630, J.
B. van Helmont discovered that from the flammable manure gas
escapes. The observation of B. van Helmont was confirmed by T.
Shirley in 1667. R. Boyle with D. Papin announced, in 1682, that
there is a possibility to obtain gas from vegetable and animal
wastes. Next relevant remark was made almost one hundred year
by B. Franklin in 1764 after T. Shirley's works. In 1764, B. Franklin
mentioned in a letter to J. Priestly the enlightening of surface of
muddy lake near New Jersey. In 1776 A. Volta after observations
provided at Vorbio, lake near Como in Italy discovered that factor
responsible for such enlightening of surface of lake is gas called as
swamp gas [1]. In 1801 J. Cruikshank determined that swamp gas
does not contain oxygen. In 1804, J. Dalton formulated the formula
of methane as CH4, confirmed by A. Avogardo in 1821. In 1808,
analyzing gas from fermentation of straw earlier called asmarsh gas,
was recognized by H. Davy as methane. Discovery of Davy in 1808
was a “milestone” of the biogas development because the people
then discovered the relevant element of the process. This was the
end of the unconscious stage and new stage of biogas development
started named as the transient stage. Another important issue to
biogas in XVIII century was replacement of alchemy by chemistry
by A. Lavoisier and rejecting phlogiston theory by A. Lavoisier and
M. Lomonosov [2].
The In the transient stage people investigated and discovered
conditions in which methane could be obtained from the biomass.
The transient stage lasted up to 1921. During this stage basic
principles of the process were discovered and first biogas plants
were built. In1840, first digester was built at Otago in New Zealand.
The research of H. Davy was continued by M. Faraday and then
by W. Henry. William Henry in 1860 approved discoveries of J.
Reiset from 1856 that methane is formed by decomposition of
manure. Due to J. Reiset proposal W. Henry in 1860 compared
gases from marshes and gas from cow manure in laboratory.
Laboratory research of W. Henry proved that methane was the
flammable gas in both cases. Meanwhile the first digestion vessel
was built. Critical review of the pre-1970 and 1980 [3] showed that
in 1859 a unit digestor was built to heat leper colony Mantunga
Homeless Leper Asylum in Bombay. In 1860, J-L. Mourait designed
and built an airtight chamber using anaerobic digestion at sewage
treatment plant in Vesoul. In 1868, A. Béchamp found that
decomposition of biomass at fermentation is done by microbiolo-
gical process. In 1875, L. Propoff determined range of temperature
where biogas fermentation is performed. Additionally L. Propoff
discovered that biogas composition and gas composition are
independent of temperature. Also in 1875, W. Sluis started to
illuminate his farm by biogas in Beemster.
In 1881, L. Mouras with A. Moigno was awarded by a patent
constructed first septic tank which was an improved version of an
airtight chamber from 1860.
In 1882–1884 L. Pasteur and U. Gayon were experimenting on
fermentation of horse manure with different temperature and
mixtures. When the manure was mixed with water and the
temperature was 35 1C they obtained 100 l of methane from
1 m3 of manure. The volume of obtained methane was high
enough high for L. Pasteur to make it a source of heating and
illuminating cities. In 1884, B. Pastnier published work about
biogas produced from wastes. In 1886, M. Herter with F. Hoppe-
Seyler observed that in waste water acetate is transformed to
methane and carbon dioxide. In 1888 biogas plant that produced
methane for illuminating street lamps was build in Birmingham. In
1890, D. Cameron designed septic tank used as biogas plant for
producing electricity in 1895–1895 in Exeter. Septic tank of D.
Cameron differs from chamber of L. Mouras and A. Moigno due to
better treatment efficiency. In 1897, biogas sewage treatment at
Mantunga Homless Leper Asylum was stopped in Bombay. In
1895–1897, V. Omeljanskij investigated bacterias that provide
biogas fermentation and discovered that they are anaerobic and
classified them according to their optimum temperatures. In 1901,
N. Schongon characterized methanobacterias. In 1904, G. Travis
combined methane production with the sewage treatment system.
In 1906 and 1910, N. Söhngen confirmed V. Omeljanskij's results
and explained the whole fermentation process to the oxidation–
reduction reaction in four steps as hydrolysis, acidogenesis, octa-
nogenesis, and methanogenesis [4].
In 1906, first anaerobic treatment plant was built in Germany.
In 1908, Agricultural college of Pogliano constructed a 3 hp
motor working on biogas plant.
In 1911, a biogas plant was used for sewage treatment in
Birmingham.
In 1913–1921, K. Imhoff and H. von Blunk designed process of
treating sludge in Essen-Ruhr and patented it. The design was in
part developed by Prussian sewage treatment plants.
K. Oeschsner, in 1916, obtained fermentation of cellulose to
butyric acids and then this material was decomposed to methane
according to V. Omelianskij's method. In 1916, V. Omeljanskij
investigated isolated methanobacterias. In 1920, L. Gourui found
Biogas Lamp Company in Shanghai that built biogas plants to
illuminate part of the city (patented in 1929).
Also in 1920 gas produced from anaerobic treatment plant was
connected with city's gas supply in Germany.
After these discoveries biogas fermentation and biogas plants
were a common subject of analysis and solution at waste water
 O. Chasnyk et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 52 (2015) 227–239
treatment and as a source of light, heat and power, therefore the
transient stage could be considered as finished in 1921.
Next stage was the conscious stage that began from 1921 and lasts up
to now. This stage may be divided into two substages pre-WW2 and
post-WW2. The pre-WW2 time was less interested in biogas than the
post. In pre-WW2 greater activity was in Weimar Republic and later in
Germany due to works of K. Imhoff, H. von Blunk in 1926 and 1927
(behavior of mesophilic and thermophilic bacterias at high temperature)
in Essen. Works of K. Imhoff and H. von Blunk were also developed by
their students like H. von Bülow [5]. Greater impact of development was
caused by the will of Germany to be independent energy source after
experiencing loss of world war I and losing much coal reserves in Silesia
or Saara region and then as preparations to future WW2. Other countries
were less interested in the topic. However, in 1922, Y. Khouvine with V.
Omeljanskij, in Moscow, isolated bacteria that gives yellow color when
60% of cellulose was decomposed [6]. In 1929, first biogas plant of L.
Gourui project was built in Guandong. In 1931 M. R. Dubaquié affirmed
that rest of the manure after biogas fermentation can be an effective
fertilizer due to high nitrate content in it(according to Hatfield and
Buswell [7]). A. M. Buswell, in 1936, provided several experiments with
fermentation due to combination of mixture of wastes and digestion at
Usmana in USA. At 1936H. Heukelekian and K. Heinmann developed
techniques to calculate methanobacterias. Next in 1938 M. A. Isman and
G. L. R. Ducelier built Algier solid-waste biogas plant. During WW2 biogas
fermentation was intensified in Germany. In India Agricultural Research
Institute of Delhi designed several projects of biogas plants that were
promoted as brochures in villages across the country in 1939.
After the WW2 period biogas achievements of Germany were spread
all over the world and biogas became the object of interest all over the
world. However, in Germany biogas plants were also developed by K.
Imhoff. Between 1948 and 2014 biogas plants were developed very
rapidly in the whole world, but varied according to region and countries.
Asian countries built many plants mostly microbiogas plants therefore
these countries outnumbered the other continents and countries. The
leaders in number of biogas plants in the world are China with
12,000,000 biogas plants, India with 3,700,000 plants, Nepal with
140,000 plant and Brazil with10,000 biogas plants [8].
According to Zheliezna et al. [9] there are 5000 biogas plants in
Europe. 70% of the European biogas plants (3500) are in Germany
that allows them to keep low price of energy, 0.12 Ec/kW h,
however it produces only 12% of the consumed energy. Other
interesting result is obtained by Austria that has 121 biogas plants
that produce 34% of energy. 40 biogas plants are in Denmark and
they produce 26% of the consumed energy. In USA there are
around 200 biogas plants and 10 in Canada.
1.2. Place of Poland and Ukraine in history of biogas plants
In the first unconscious stage neither Poland nor Ukraine does seem
to play any role. This is because Poland and Kiev Russia (that was placed
on Ukraine) appeared in the Xth century as seen in the history. Ancestors
of these two nations—Slavs appeared in Europe in VI century. Therefore
there is no evidence that people of these two regions have had any part
Fig. 1. Total world energy consumption, millions tones oil equivalent [13].
229
during this period of biogas plants. However, there are possibilities that
hypothetically they could play role in this story due to some historians
like Davies [10] Slavs who came from Persia in XVII B. C. Therefore Slavs
could take part in building of first biogas installation to heating baths.
In XVIIth and XVIIIth centuries when the biogas research was
“restarted”, Ukraine was a part of Poland, Lithuania, and some part
Russia. At the end of XVIIIth century Poland and Lithuania started
disappearing and Poland became the part of Prussian, Austria and
Russia while Ukraine was partly in Austria and most in Russia. At
this time in Poland, nobilities that ruled Poland were not inter-
ested in science and not at all in the biogas fermentation. There-
fore the idea did not rise in this country at this time. Russian rulers
also were not interested in biogas. Therefore these two countries
were absent in biogas development at the unconscious stage.
During the transient stage Poland and Ukraine did not exist as
independent countries. Poland regained independence in 1918 while
Ukraine gained independence for a short time and lost again after the
Riga Treaty in 1921 between Poland and USSR. During the transient stage,
t Poland and Poles did not participate in the biogas development. Only
part of Poland belonging to Germany was interested in biogas develop-
ment in plants. The Germans planned building biogas sludge in sewage
treatment plants like in Posen. Contrary to Poles, Ukrainians played the
role in transient stage of biogas development due to V. Omeljanskij or A.
Isantchenko (he tried unsuccessfully decomposed cellulose with aerobes
in 1920) who were Ukrainians. Under Marchaim [11] the achievements of
V. Omeljanskij were honored by naming one of the strain bacteria that
decomposes ethanol which was discovered in 1916 and isolated in 1940
by H.A Barker – Methanobacterium omeljanskij.
In the conscious stage, Poland existed as an independent country
in most of the conscious stage besides the WW2 period. Ukraine up
to 1993 was a part of USSR. In the beginning Poland only finished
building of biogas plant in sewage waste treatment at Posen in 1928
inherited after Prussian occupant that acted after several modifica-
tions of 1958–1972 up to now (Biuletyn Informacyjny Instytutu
Techniki Cieplnej Politechniki Warszawskiej [12]). Poland was more
active in biogas plant development after WW2 and was indepen-
dent but mostly followed USSR examples. A bit independent activity
was noted after 1989. The great development of biogas plants was
observed after joining EU in 2004. In 2014, Poland had 42 biogas
agricultural plants, 107 biogas plants near sewage treatment plant,
and 90 landfill biogas plants. Ukraine developed biogas plants
between years 1948 and 1993 as a part of USSR scientific plan with
center at Tbilisi in 1948 which moved to Zaporozhe in 1984 (in
accordance with http://xn–80afbefj3axv1j.xn–p1ai/razvitie-biogazo
vyh-tehnologij.php [8]). The Ukraine, Belarus, Kirgizstan were
regions where experimental biogas plants of different size were
placed. In accordance with the paper [9] there are 10 biogas plants
and 10 landfill biogas plants in Ukraine now.
1.3. Tendencies of development of biogas for energy
The last years are characterized by an increasing interest in
finding innovative and ecological-oriented technologies to prevent
230 O. Chasnyk et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 52 (2015) 227–239
Fig. 2. World biogas production, thousand tones oil equivalent [13].
Fig. 3. Reaction scheme [14,15].
environmental pollution. The world community is interested in
finding ways to solve economic and environmental problems.
Trends of energy production show that developed countries actively
use alternative energy sources, the use of which is increasing every
year (Fig. 1). The world community practice brings change in
consumption structure and production of energy with a tendency
to increasing the share of renewable energy sources (RES) that leads
to stable and predictable economic conditions.
Biogas plays an important role as an energy source which
would increase the supply stability of gas fuels. As well known,
biogas is a product of decomposing organic matter – biomass
(sewage, animal byproducts and agricultural, industrial and muni-
cipal solid waste). In particular, biomass is a very diverse restora-
tive energy source that creates the prospects and possibilities of its
use in the energy sector (Fig. 2). Biomass can provide a lot of
benefits, if the countries perform research to develop and advance
the technologies for the biomass energy.
Biogas use a wide range of raw materials, provide stability in
electricity production especially during periods of unstable RES
operation, promotes greenhouse gas emissions redaction creating
jobs (for example, in Germany the bioenergy sector created a
number of jobs) [43] and of course, biogas projects reduce the
negative environmental impacts.
2. Short process and technological scheme description
The basic rules of biogas process were described by L. Propoff
and V. Omelianskij. “Historia del Biogás” [6] presented V. Omel-
janskij's description of process which was discerned many years as
it was too simple but after some time was finally proven to be
correct. Main process is fermentation in which organic macro-
molecules are decomposed to simple compounds. In case of biogas
formation fermentation need to be anaerobic. Only in anaerobic
conditions carbon dioxide and hydrogen are formed that is in
methanogenesis converted into methane. There are also ideas to
stop the process before methanogenesis to use hydrogen. But
today there are problems with the storage of hydrogen, and hybrid
cells are still not as effective and worth to be used in the industrial
scale. Therefore main interest of fermentation is to produce
methane. General reaction is described below (Fig. 3).
Conversion of biomass up to 50%.
Yield of methane from 45% up to 85%, average 65%
pH ¼6.6–7.6
T ¼4–98 1C
The process is anaerobic. In digester antibiotics and heavy metals
should not be present that inhibit the process. Besides methane main
component in products is CO2 which is in average 35%. Ammonium
containment in reaction is in trace. The presence of Na and K cations
improves the effectivity of the process. For example NaCl concentra-
tion of 5000 mg/dm3 allows to obtain high selectivity of methanogen-
esis—methane 80.7% [16]. Ammonium containment in products
should be in trace amounts up to 1000 mg/dm3. Optimum ammonium
concentration in digester is between 50 and 200 mg/dm3. Other
product in small amounts is hydrogen sulfide. The optimum tempera-
ture differs due to kind of bacteria. According to Castañeda [15] the
optimum temperature differs due to the kind of bacterias. There are
three kinds of bacterias: psychrophilic, mesophilic and thermophilic.
Optimum temperatures are as follows: for psychrophilic bacteria from
20 to 25 1C, for mesophilic from 35 to 37 1C and thermophilic from 55
to 60 1C. Fermentation undergoes as a psychrophilic in the range from
4 to 25 1C, while mesophilic fermentation from 25 to 45 1C, thermo-
philic from 45 to 90 1C (however, Canganella et al. [17] reports
Methanopyrus kandleri with optimum at 122 1C). Bacteria take part
in three stages acidogenesis (acidogenic bacteria), acetogenesis (aceto-
genic bacteria), and methanogenesis (methanogenic bacteria). Acido-
genic bacteria are, for example, Lactobacillus, Clostridum Rumino-
coccaceae, and Lachnospiraceae [18]. Due to researches like Ittlechild
et al. [19] acetogenic bacteria are Acetobacter like Alphaproteobacteria.
Methanogenic bacteria are Methanobacterium (mesophilic, thermo-
philic), Methanobrevibacter (mesophilic thermophilic), Methanomi-
crobium (mesophilic), Methanogenium (thermophilic, mesophilic,
psychrophilic), Methanospirilium (mesophilic), Methanosarcina (some
mesophilic as most common methanogenic bacteria Methan-
osarcina barkeri or thermophilic like Methanosarcina thermophile),
 O. Chasnyk et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 52 (2015) 227–239
Fig. 4. Scheme of digester [20].
Fig. 5. Picture of 2-stage process [20].
Fig. 6. Scheme of UASB tank.
231
Fig. 7. Picture of small scale digester. M–hand stirrer, L–drained liquid, E–outlet of
digested manure (fertilizer), T–Thermometer [12].
Methanococcus (usually mesophilic except M. thermolithotrophicus),
Methanothrix (mesophilic 2 set thermophilic 3 set), Methanothermo-
bacter. Most commonly used bacteria in Poland and Ukraine are
mesophilic. The reason of that is to keep optimum temperature in the
digesters. In case of thermophilic bacteria up 15% of energy is used to
maintain the process. The fermentation can also be divided to
substrate humidity into dry, wet and extremely wet (Federalnoe
Gosudarstwennoe Bljudzetnoe Uchrezdenie Nauki [20]). The degree
of humidity is fraction of dry mass in biomass. Dry fermentation
occurs when dry mass fraction is greater than 50%. Wet fermentation
occurs when dry mass content is between 25% and 50%. Extremely
wet fermentation occurs when dry mass fraction is lower than 25%.
Wet fermentation and extremely wet fermentation are often simpli-
fied to one term of wet fermentation. In case of agricultural biogas
plant wet fermentation is used. Dry fermentation can be used in case
of landfill biogas plant. The time of conversion biomass to biogas
depends upon the type of biogas. The shortest time of conversion of
1 kg of biomass is for pig manure i.e. 16 days producing 0.203 m3 of
methane. The biggest yield is from grass and beet leafs. From 1 kg of
grass 0.427 m3 of methane can be produced in 26 days while from
1 kg of beet leafs 0.418 m3 methane in 21 days. The cow manure and
waste water conversion into biogas is the longest—1 kg of biomass is
converted in 121 days for cow manure producing 0.159 m3 methane
232 O. Chasnyk et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 52 (2015) 227–239
and 116 days for waste water producing 0.175 m3 methane. There are
6 types of digesters due to volume and organization of process. Due to
volume there are small digesters with volume from 50 to 150 m3,
medium 500–1500 m3 with conversion of 10,000 m3 of biomass per
year, large with volume 1000 up to 5000 m3 with conversion of
50,000 m3 of biomass per year. The digesters can also be differentiated
as batch, continuous stirred tank reactor, and lagoon. Two types of
digesters neither used in Europe nor in Poland and Ukraine are plug
flow digester and covered lagoon. Piston engines with power 5 kW of
gas type are usually used for current production [14]. The process can
be led with or without separation due to stages to single digester, two-
staged digester and three-staged digester. In Ukraine and other USSR
countries process is usually led in one vessel like in the figure shown
below (Fig. 4).
In Poland more common is the use of two-stage vessel where in
one tank acidogenesis and in other methanogenesis takes place.
The typical two-stage solution is UASB Upflow Active Sludge
Blanket. The process undergoes in two tanks. In acid tank is
acidogenesis while in neighboring UASB tank is methanogenesis
like in figure the shown below (Figs. 5 and 6).
Other parts of biogas plant are grinding machine, storage tanks,
dehydrator, desulfurization tower that prepares and stores raw
material which is to be fed to the digester, biogas to gas holder,
fermented manure rests which is suitable to be used as a fertilizer.
The digesters or bioreactors for wastewater can also be divided
due load as low-rate loaded digesters and high-rate loaded digesters.
Low-rate loaded bioreactors can be used in case of high concen-
tration of COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand). COD is in range 2–4 kg/l
per day. The disadvantage is low retention time. Biomasses used as a
source contain high content of solids and fatty acids. Bacteria in
cluster forms disperse in the specially designed area of bioreactor.
Among low-rate loaded bioreactors there are ABR (Anaerobic Baffled
reactor), FB (Fluidized Bed reactor), AC (Anaerobic Contact reactor),
CSTR, and AnMBR (Anaerobic Membrane Reactor).
High rate-loaded anaerobic bioreactors are used for low con-
centration of COD. COD is in the range 0.01–0.03 kg/l per day.
Retention time is short but can be used for low content of solids
lower than 500 mg/l and fats lower than 50 mg/l. Bacteria occur in
granular form. High rate-loaded bioreactors are as mentioned
earlier UASB, EGSB reactor expanded granular sludge bed reactor,
and IC (Internal Circulating reactor) [16].
3. The analysis of biogas plants in Poland and in Ukraine
3.1. History of biogas plants in Poland
As mentioned earlier history of biogas plant in Poland began in
the conscious stage in 1928 in Posen. The biogas plant in Posen
was the next part of sewage waste treatment plant built in 1908
when the Posen was German. The biogas plant was planned at this
time but was built later. The Poznan biogas plant still works
producing 1000 m3of biogas/day [12]. The biogas plant in Posen
was renovated in 1956–1972. But this was a single episode before
WW2. According to van Brakel [3] the “year of birth” of biogas in
Poland can be determined as 1955. But the main goal was not the
production of methane from manure but obtain post-process
manure with high content of nitrates, so to obtain effective
fertilizer. Most digester was projected as small scale with volume
(3–10 m3) like one used in Skierniewice. In Skierniewice there was
several pilot-plants and full scale digesters. These digesters were
used for four years from 1956 to 1960. The plant was built due to
German and French models. The example of small-scale digester is
shown in Fig. 7.
Other biogas plant was built in 1955–1956 as a part of the
sewage treatment in Czestochowa. Those biogas plants work upto
today. They produce 5500–8000 m3 of biogas per day. In 1970s
biogas plant with two digesters of volume 30 m3 producing
together 10–17 m3 of biogas per day worked in Nowy Modlin.
Biogas plant stopped working in 1982. Up to 1983 other sixteen
biogas plants were built. One was built at Niwach Okrąglik near
Czestochowa on a swine farm (700 pigs) of Energetic Institute. It
produced 40–50 m3 of biogas per day. The plants consisted of two
digesters of volumes 70 m3. Several other research biogas plants
were built in Duchowo and Tworog with one digester of volume
100 m3, in Palmiry of 50 m3, Prażniowo of 25 m3, and Marecz with
two digesters of 25 m3. In Przyborów there were three digesters of
10 m3 using slurry. At Bochnia a creamery was built with one
digester of 2.5 m3. In obedience to Brodowicz [12] there was one
research biogas plant on landfill at Żołkiwno near Bydgoszcz. From
these biogas plants only one in Żółkiwno still works.
In 1995, a biogas plant in sewage waste treatment was built in
Zamość. Fermentation occurs in mesophilic conditions at two cham-
bers. When concentrated sludge fulfills the chambers, digested
sludge leaves the first chamber through a second one and finally
fermented sludge goes into an open pit [21]. From the 108 biogas
plants in Poland the most effective seems to be one located in
“Klimzowiec” sewage treatment plant in Chorzów at Silesia. Biogas
plants that possess two digesters “Klimzowiec” produce energy that
fulfills 40% of power demand of the city. Pursuant to Krzeminski [22],
40% of energy comes from biogas plant; the cost of current are not
lower than in other part of the region.
The first commercial biogas plant near landfill in Poland was in
Toruń, completed in 1999 but working from 1997 [21].
The first agricultural biogas plant was built by Poldanor S. A.
company with Danish capital and projected by Niras company in
2005 in Pawłówko. Pawłówko biogas plant consisted of two
digesters each with active volume 750 m3. Surface of lagoons is
20,000 m3. Biogas plant produces 4106 m3of biogas/day in meso-
philic conditions. The substrate is mainly swine manure with corn
slurry. Biogas is used to produce electricity and heat. Pawłówko
produces 6.843 MW h/day of electric power and 10.675 MW h/day.
20% of produced electricity and all heat are used to maintain swine
farm and plant. Rest electric power is sold to power industries.
Poldanor builta plant in Koczała in 2009 which is one of the
biggest electric powers 2126 MW. Poldanor is the biggest biogas
company with 8 biogas plants in Poland (“Rejestr biogazownii
rolniczych w Polsce” [23]). Other biogas plants were built in
Płaszczyca, in 2008, of power 0.6 MW. The Płaszczyca produces
methane under mesophilic conditions. Poldanor built 8 to 18 planned
biogas plants in Pomerania. In 2 of 8 biogas plants at Nacław and
Swiezno, built in 2010, fermentation undergoes in thermophilic
conditions. Biogas plant in Giżyno was built in 2011 (Czapiewska
[24]). The biggest in Poland is only owned by Nadmorskie Elektrow-
nie Wiatrowe Darżyno Sp. z o.o. in Potęgowa, registered in 9th august
2013, with power electric power 2400 MW and 2446 MW. In 2009,
biogas plant by Agrogaz sp.z o.o. based on technology of Schmack S.
A was built in Liszkowo. In 2010 biogas plant was taken over by Enea.
Biogas plant electric power is 2.1 MW and heating power is 1.8 MW.
Fermentations undergoes in mesophilic conditions [25].
In 2011, biogas plant in Łany Wielkie near Gliwice (Bio-Butt Sp.
z o.o.), Otyń (Biogaz Agri Sp. z o.o.), Szydłowo, (Biogaz Zanaris Sp.
z o.o.), Uhnin (Bioelektrownia Sp. z o.o.), Grzmiąca (Eko-Grzmiąca
Sp. z o.o.), Świdnica (Bio-watt Sp. z o.o.) were also built. In 2012–
2014, number of biogas plants grows at least 10 per year. Most
biogas plants in Poland, built in 2011–2014, produce methane
under mesophilic condition. biogas plant built at Mełno were only
used for fermentation under thermophilic condition. The Mełno
plant was built in 2011 with electric power 1.6 MW and heating
power 1.8 MW. As a result in 2014 agricultural biogases produce
222,856,466 m3 of biogas per year, 59.6 MW of electric power, and
61.26 MW of heating power [23].
 O. Chasnyk et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 52 (2015) 227–239
3.2. History of biogas plants in Ukraine
In Ukrainian history, of biogas plants they are much different
than those of Poland. The achievements of Ukrainians and Ukraine
are until 1993 common with achievements of Russia and USSR. It is
hard to differentiate because in discoveries made in nonukrainian
part of Russia or USSR often were obtained with Ukrainian and
other nations of USSR which took relevant part in projects made in
the Ukrainian republic. The achievements could not be unambigu-
ously ascribed to only one specific nation but probably they should
be determined as international achievements. However, in devel-
opment of biogas in Russia, many individuals can be marked in
USSR that came from Ukrainian region like V. Omeljanskij, S.
Vinogradskij, P. Issatchenko, and I. Rubenchik [7]. Probably most
remarkable is V. Omeljanskij with greatest achievements. However,
V. Omeljanskij was born in Poltava in Ukraine part; he made his
discoveries in Petersburg University, formed a research group and
educated several generations of scientists that play role in devel-
opment of biogas plants in USSR [26]. Therefore beginning of biogas
plants in Ukraine can be considered in transient stage in 1895 when
V. Omeljanskij started the research. However in the transient time
the biogas development was limited to laboratory issues and
theoretical aspects; there were not any commercial attempts made.
The first bigger-scale biogas plant development can be observed in
the conscious stage after WW2. Omeljanskij [27] described, in
1897–1916, quite exactly stages that occur during anaerobic fer-
mentation. S. Vinogradskij isolated butyric acid bacteria in mixed
cultures from esters and proposed them to cooperate with nitrogen
fixing Clostridium pasteurianum in 1916. Worth to mention was the
opinion of the contemporary scientist V. Omeljanskij that process
route of biogas was too simple to be true.
P. Issantchenko performed research near Saki Lake on Crimea in
1920. The subject was aerobic bacterias and their ability to
decompose cellulose. In research he determined that these bac-
teria digest rather filter paper than cellulose to glucose [7].
Later in 1922–1923, V. Omeljanskij and A. Khouvine discovered
and investigated properties of B. cellulosae disolvens that decom-
poses cellulose. Due to yellow color of bacteria colony when 60% of
the cellulose is decomposed this bacteria is commonly used in
biogas plant as an indicator [15]. The first biogas plants were built in
USSR after WW2 in the places where there were difficulties with
assuring energetic independence of regions therefore they were
built in remote agricultural regions in Georgia, Ukraine, Belarus and
Kirgizstan. In 1948 research group of G.D. Ananiashvili supervised
building of first digester in institute WIEH kolkhoz Makharadze
near Tbilisi. 60% produced energy was used for heating digester and
gas holder. The source of manure was 10 milk cows. According to
“Istorija razwitija biogazovyh technologij” [28] fermentation under-
went in mesophilic conditions in temperature from 32 to 34 1C.
First biogas plant in Ukraine was built as a part of sewage
treatment plant in Bortnychi near Kiev. The sewage treatment plant
was developed in 1970 and 1989. Fermentation is led under
thermophilic conditions. The source of biogas is waste water. The
flow of waste water was 20,000–25,000 m3/h. Up to 2013 was
owned by DKO Kievwaterchannel. In April 2013, after breakdown of
biogas plant sewage treatment was closed and bought by Japanese.
In 1981, State Soviet Committee decided to enforce biogas
research special research group. This research group decided to build
10 smaller institutes in USSR and three of them in Ukraine. In 1984,
for process development committee assigned Institute of Microbiol-
ogy in Kiev and Scientific-designing association “Ukrinnagroproject”.
The biggest institute of construction development in USSR was
settled in Zaporozhie Technological Design Institute of Agricultural
Machinery (TDIAM). These three institutions between 80s and 90s
realized three projects “Kobos-1”, “Biogas-301”, and “Biogas-2-401C”.
The most successful was “Kobos-1”. At “Kobos-1” manure for
233
fermentation came from 400 cows or 4000 pigs. The institute of
Zaporozhe was built in 1956 as an experimental farm to improve
fertilizer with 80 cows and 20 pigs and digester with volume 250 m3.
In 1983, Zaporozhie tank were place of testing Kobos-1. The design
was later used in Grebenki near Kiev. In 1992–1993 Zaporozhistal
bought and modernized biogas complex of Zaporozhe institute with
pig farms. The Zaporozhistal company decided to amount Danish
technologies of Bigadan and Clauhan companies. Biogas plant is
supplied with manure from 8000 to 10,000 pigs. Daily from 20 to
22 t of manure 575–680 m3 is produced under mesophilic conditions
in an average temperature of 35 1C. Volume of digester is 595 m3.
Hold time is from 20 to 25 days [9].
Other project which less successful was “Biogas-2-401C”. The
project was realized by Technological Design Institute in Sumy.
The biogas plant yield was 20 m3 of methane per day. The build
plant was used in company in Ufimy. Other biogas plant was
placed in poultry-house in Kiev, “Kievskaya” with digester volume
20 m3. The maximum yield of plant was 60 m3 of methane per day.
Next biogas plant was built in Zolotno near Cherkasy in pig farm.
Volume of digester in Zolotno was 160 m3 and yield 200–250 m3
of biogas per day [29].
By now in Ukraine exist six agricultural biogas plants, 10 landfills
biogas plant and 3 biogas plants of sewage treatment. The largest
farm supplied by biogas plant is one in Oleniwka owned by Argo-
oven. The biogas plant was built in 2003 by Dutch BTG in
corporation with Scientific-designing association “Ukrinnagropro-
ject” and NTC “biomass”. Earlier Argo-oven had bought pig and
poultry farm from Zigmar, built in 1997. The biogas plants is
supplied by 80 t of manure from 15,000 pigs. The process is led
under mesophilic conditions in two reactors of volume 1000 m3.
The electrical capacity of the plant is 180 kW while heating capacity
is 320 kW. Plant was designed to produce 3300 m3 of methane per
day. In 2009 2 biogas plants were built in Terezno and biggest in
Ukraine in Krupol. According as Muradov et al. [29] the biogas in
Terezno is owned by Elita, built by German technology Lipp 54.
By now 10 land fill biogas plant have been built [9].
4. Future of biogas plants
4.1. Possible paths of developments of biogas plants
By 2050s crude oil reserves will exhaust. By 2120s natural gas
reserves and by 2220s coal reserves will also be exploited. There-
fore there are some about 35 years to replace oil by other energy
carrier and source of many raw materials for chemical industry.
There are several routes to replace the source: wind energy, solar
energy, wave energy, geothermal energy, biomass energy. From all
the renewable sources most promising is the solar energy—the
most powerful and biomass energy that is most stable. Disadvan-
tages of solar energy are periodicity and instability of power
production. The energy can be only produced during day while
the greatest demand of energy is during night. The suitable way of
storage of energy has not been discovered. The other source of
energy and raw materials are completely stable, therefore hydro-
gen or methane produced by fermentation seem to be suitable. In
case of using hydrogen as a source of energy, the extreme demand
of energy would be fulfilled continuously by biogas plants. How-
ever in the case of energy sources there are ways to omit and
replace fossil fuels by methane hydrogen, therefore in the case of
chemical industry there will not be any more choices.
Biogas plants are a way to replace fossil fuels. Today, aim of the
biogas plants is to produce methane as most stable source of energy
and effective fertilizer. But the biogas process before methanogen-
esis produced hydrogen that is being considered as a source of
future energy. But today hydrogen is produced mainly by steam
234 O. Chasnyk et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 52 (2015) 227–239
methane reforming in US which is about 95% [29]. But steam
methane reforming uses fossil gas much more than in case of biogas
generation therefore one of the products is carbon dioxide.
When storage, transport and effective hybrid cells problems will
be solved the biogas plants could be easily transformed to hydrogen
production. The biogas plant reactors could produce much more
hydrogen than hydrogen production with microreactors. Due to
Kuzniecov et al. by 2020 microreactors will be the base of Russia to
fulfill needs of this country on this element [32]. The only advantage
of microreactor is that accidental damages would be less. Microreac-
tors cannot produce as much hydrogen as biogas plants. The other
methods of producing hydrogen from renewable energy is photo-
chemical hydrolysis of water, [33]. The advantages of this method are
possibility to produce not only hydrogen but also oxygen and there is
no carbon dioxide produced. Disadvantage of method in comparison
to the biogas plants are that photochemical hydrogen generation
method is unstable, sun dependent and there are no methods to store
energy, and hydrogen cannot be produced at night. If there is a need
to satisfy world's need of energy by hydrogen the amount of
produced hydrogen should be enormous. Therefore hydrogen pro-
duction only in day will be insufficient for the human needs.
Methane produced in biogas plant is quite pure and can be
used in chemical industries. For example it can be the part of
process to obtain ethylene using oxidative coupling of methane
using Belcher's ideas [32]. By this way, it is independent of oil to
manufacture ethylene. Therefore biogas plants give possibility not
only as a renewable source of energy but also a way to produce
necessary materials for human needs.
4.2. Difficulties with biogas plants
An enormous difficulty of Polish biogas plants is their ineffective
way of supporting and inappropriate law of selling of electricity,
forcing biogas plants to rebuy energy for their own needs due to
which the electricity production is often very less profitable.
Another difficulty that inhibits development of biogas plants in
Poland is the lack of trust of many Poles in being environment
friendly. In many cases, biogas plant building was stopped by the
local citizens since they were afraid that it will worsen their living
conditions. The leaders of opponents of biogas plants in Poland are
more active and easily get support of famous people like in case of
biogas Plant in Klepaczewo near Serpetelice where opponents get
support of Polish film stars. The opponents of biogas plants have
pages on social network sites, like Facebook against biogas plant in
Łebcz, Białogard, Kietrz, Serpetelice, than the supporters therefore
many projects of biogas plants were not realized.
5. Biogas in Poland and Ukraine
The biogas sector in Poland and Ukraine is still developing and
has a huge potential. Despite the low level of renewable energy
trends and disadvantages of energetic strategies, Poland and
Ukraine have good preconditions for the future development of
RES and, especially, bioenergy.
This countries have large potential of biogas for energy produc-
tion. But in spite of a similar situation there is a difference in
figures. As stated by Geletukha [33] in 2010 the share of biomass in
the total consumption of energy was about 1.78% in Ukraine and
about 11% in Poland, with installed electric capacity on biogas
3.8 MW in Ukraine and 21 times in Poland (81 MW).
However providing a renewable energy development today is
an important issue to ensure environmental safety and sustainable
development of society for both the countries.
5.1. Development of biogas in Ukraine: basic features
Ukraine is a country with deficit of its own energy resources.
Also, there are a lot of problems for the economy of our country
today. One of them is the lack of effective system of green
economy and resource-saving technologies development.
According to the Energy Information Administration [34]
Ukraine's energy consumption consist of natural gas (about 40%),
coal (about 28%), and nuclear (about 18%), and only a small share
of the country's total energy consumption accounts for RES.
Biogas technology is still new and expensive for Ukraine. That
is why economic stimulation of this sector without the subsidy is
quite difficult. International Finance Corporation [35] selected
mechanisms that can stimulate the production of renewable
electricity: 1) green tariff; 2) tax privileges; and 3) preferential
mode of connection with an electric network.
According to the Law of Power industry, “… green tariff is a
special tariff by which the electric energy made on the power
generation facilities using alternative energy sources is bought
(except the domain and coked gases, and with hydraulic power use
—made only by small hydroelectric power stations)… [36]”. Coeffi-
cient of such tariff for the electric power made by power plants that
were put into operation or are significantly modernized after 2014,
2020 and 2024, will decrease respectively by 10%, 20% and 30%.
But, unfortunately, the existing law has been holding back the
development of bioenergy in Ukraine and contained some essen-
tial disadvantages in green economy:
 complicated procedure for green tariff;
 the law introduces the incorrect definition of term “biomass”
(it does not apply to the products of forestry and agriculture).
Kuznetsova [60] suggested that final consumers can buy
electricity from RES by a direct route from power plants or
according to the contracted prices or the green tariff. At the same
time, there is no motivation factors for consumers to pay the green
tariff with the exception of own environmental consideration.
With point of electricity sales prices and treaty prices lower than
“green” tariffs higher capacity and lower production costs for
power plants could be more elastic. Fig. 8 shows the mechanism of
green tariff for electricity sale from RES in Ukraine (Table 1).
According to the Geletukha et al. [37] Ukraine generated only
0.175% of its electricity from RES, including 0.005% of biogas at the
beginning of 2011. Researchers suggested that in the near future it
will be implemented and required generating capacity of solid
biomass (about 75%) and biogas (about 25%) and will be put into
operation, which will make about 0.2% of the total electricity
generation (Fig. 9).
The economic parameters of biogas energy projects in Ukraine
estimated to about 2 million EUR per MW of installed capacity in
which available biomass sources were wood, agricultural residues,
and energy crops. Cost price of biogas production (according to
agriculture policy paper [37]) is about $25 for one thousand cubic
meters and payback period of project in the current market
conditions in many cases is 3 or 6 years.
Ukraine's economy needs a huge volume of investments. Biogas
has been chosen by OECD as one of the most attractive sectors for
investment in Ukraine. Researchers [37] estimate the total required
volume of investments for biogas sector by 2030 will be approxi-
mately 69.5 billion UAH, on the average 3.8 billion UAH per year.
Biogas projects implementation must involve private investments
and bank capitals. Fig. 10 shows the growth of investments that
were connected with implementation of more efficient equipment
with higher parameters.
In Ukraine state standards for biofuel made from biogas quality,
the requirement to rated composition of fuel, border of its
 O. Chasnyk et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 52 (2015) 227–239 235

Fig. 8. Green tariff mechanism in Ukraine [60].

Table 1
Green tariffs that applied in 2013 (based on [35]).

Type of alternative energy sources Capacity power stations and other factors that affect the size of the “green” tariff The rate of the tariff (€/kW)

Solar energy Power stations 0.426492–0.465264

Wind energy Up to 600 inclusive 0.06462
More than 600 kW but not exceeding 2000 kW 0.07539
Over 2000 kW 0.113085
Biogas Waste 0.123855

Fig. 9. Electricity generation from RES and biogas in Ukraine, TWh [37].

Fig. 12. Indigenous production of biogas in Poland, TJ [38].

biomass necessary for effective working of fuel burning equip-

ment. And in spite of all deficiencies the country's agricultural
sector, with increasing of agricultural production in Ukraine,
biogas production potential will grow proportionally.

Fig. 10. Total volume of investments for implementation bioenergy projects,

million UAH [37].
5.2. Biogas in Poland: aspects of production

Poland's primary energy production consists mostly of fossil

Fig. 11. Share of RES in the total primary energy production for Poland in 2011, %
[38].
deviation from normalized values, admissible sizes of toxic ingre-
dients etc. are not established. In turn, it creates risks for
producers of thermal energy connected with low ability to adhere
to the stable and constant physical and chemical characteristics of
fuels. National balance of renewable energy sources was a con-
tinuous increase in the production of RES with simultaneous
decrease of the total primary energy production, which flows
out systematic increase of the share of renewables in total primary
energy production. Renewable energy sources develop quite
rapidly. According to the [37] production potential of biogas
market is an average of 2.3% (Figs. 11 and 12)
The development opportunities of biogas market indicates the
dynamic growth of Polish economy. The shift towards the use RES is
also motivated by EU requirements, especially as regards of emissions.
Polish «Development Strategy of Renewable Energy Sector»
(2001) is the key document that supports renewable energy
[39]. The main objective is to increase the share RES in Poland's
primary energy balance. Biogas was established as the most
promising and the most important RES.
236 O. Chasnyk et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 52 (2015) 227–239

The National Action Plan (NAP) regarding energy from renew-
able sources also introduces a way in which Poland attains the
increase share for energy from renewable sources.
Poland stimulates RES generation providing investors with the
Renewable Energy Certificates (REC's) system. REC prices do not for
long term and the Polish Energy Regulatory Office reconsiders them
every year. Polish energy law sets the minimum and maximum
price range for the types of green certificate, which conform to the
average price of the electricity. Such green certificates granted
investors producing electricity from RES, including biogas produ-
cers. Gramwzielone.pl's Report [40] shows current price for this
green certificate's—74 EUR per MW h (megawatt-hour).
The state support for renewables cost in Poland will rise to 10.8
billion zloty (about $3.4 billion) in 2020 from 5.5 billion zloty in
2014. Minimum cost of biogas project value with highly efficient
energy production with activity 9.1 is 10 million PLN (2.5 million
EUR) (in accordance to Gramwzielone.pl's Report [40]).
Based on Central Statistical Office source [38] electricity gen-
erated from RES increased every year, from 2.8% in 2006 to 8.3% in
2011 of the national gross electricity consumption. As well-known
electricity generated from biogas can be derived mainly from
landfill biogas and biogas from sewage treatment plants, the first
one in 2011 make up 51.8% and the second one about 33.2%.
The Polish biogas market attracts the investors and require
significant investments. But there are some barriers; investments
cannot be performed because investors do not get permission for
construction. Oniszk-Popławska [41] calculated that the total
investment costs for the biogas project amounted to 7.6 MPLN–
13.1 MPLN (15 MPLN/MWel–19.5 MPLN/MWel).
According to the J. Lössel and National Report of Poland [42,6] there
are two main disadvantages for the development of biogas market:
1. Difficult administrative and legal procedures, as well as finan-
cial barriers, large number of formal requirements in realiza-
tion of biogas projects (too extensive documentation to prepare
an application and the lack of trust of banks for biogas
projects).
2. Difficulties in the system of issuing green certificates.
Europe is more than 11 thousand units [43]. Implementation of
special arrangements for renewable sources made the biogas
sector a booming market.
In Germany with the feed-in law the government introduced
an excellent support scheme with fixed feed-in tariffs for different
feedstocks and capacities, long-term payment periods and guar-
anteed grid access and regulated grid connection rules [61].
According to [62] in France, there is a strong development of on-
farm and centralized biogas plants, and for landfills to recover biogas
in electricity production. There is a feed-in-tariff system for electricity
produced from biogas (subsidies are dependent on the nature of the
investment, and limit amount or by the percentage of aid).
In Denmark the RES production is supported by feed in tariff
premiums. The Danish government aims at current funding of
biogas (including subsidy for all uses of biogas), and providing
capital installation subsidies [61].
Analyzing the data from Table 2 it should be noted that Poland
and Ukraine's level of industrial development demonstrates the
lowest rate of production. The most problems of biogas project
implementation are the necessity of huge investments and effec-
tive capacity of development for resource-saving technologies.
That is why an actual problem is the implementation of the
principles of green economy and their financing.
Biogas market in Poland and Ukraine is still at an early stage of
development and competes with the fossil fuels in energy balance
of countries. In our opinion there are three main indicators for
stable development of biogas market in Poland and Ukraine:
possibility, time and costs (Fig. 13).
There is no effective policy supporting biogas development in
Poland and Ukraine. In essence, implementation of biogas projects
must be accompanied by stimulation of investments, producing
equipment for biogas plant and clear procedures for granting all
permissions for it; so we divided the main barriers of the
development of biogas market in Poland and Ukraine into three
groups (Table 3).

6. The main perspectives of development of biogas in Poland

and Ukraine

Due to the rapid scientific development and increasing prices of

the fuel and energy market, a large number of countries imple-
ment the environmentally friendly biogas projects.
The leader of the production of biogas can rightly be considered Fig. 13. Pyramid of basic indicators of development biogas market in Poland and
as the European Union. The total number of biogas plants in Ukraine.

Table 2
Comparative characteristics of energy balance in 2012 [13].

Country Production Consumption

% of world total % of world total

Renewable energy (million tones oil equivalent) World – – 237.4 100

Germany – – 26.0 10.95
France – – 5.4 2.27
Denmark – – 3.4 1.43
Poland – – 3.1 1.31
Ukraine – – 0.1 0.04
Biogas (thousand tones oil equivalent) World 60,220 100 – –
Germany 2894 4.81 – –
France 1820 3.02 – –
Denmark About 103 0.17 – –
Poland 630 1.05 – –
Ukraine About 200 0.33 – –
 O. Chasnyk et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 52 (2015) 227–239
Table 3
The main barriers of biogas production for Poland and Ukraine (based on papers [44,9]).
Poland
1.Economic
High investment costs, difficulties with getting financial support and support for smaller investments, long term investment risk
2.Technical
Lack of producing equipment companies for biogas plants
3.Legal
Lack of clear definitions, standards, environmental regulations etc., not clear and too long procedures for getting all permissions
Modern trends of biogas produced in Poland and Ukraine clearly
indicate that there are some barriers to the successful operation of
biogas projects. This is because many entrepreneurs are still not
acquainted with this technology and, most importantly, would have
serious difficulty with financing. So, the main reasons for positive
influence of biogas on production will be as follows:
 positive worlds trend on growing importance of renewable
energy sources;
 huge potential of development of biogas market in Poland and
Ukraine;
 ecological management (minimization of the environmental
impact through reduction of wastes and emissions);
 gradual adoption of environmental standards;
 introduction of corporate social responsibility into business.
National governments must focus on sustainable energy pro-
ject implantation, including renewables with supporting all
actions toward it. They can provide domestic renewable energy
consumption, improve energy efficiency and can also provide a
technical, regulatory, investments support to the energy projects
or demonstrations thus reducing environmental risk in future.
7. Development of biogas plants after world war II in other
countries of Europe
Biogas plants in Poland and Ukraine are mostly developed by
Danish or German technologies or other European countries. In
Poland, biogas plants are widely built using European Union funds.
Germany, Czech Republic, Austria, Denmark and France develop
biogas plants mostly in Europe. In European Community, in 1983,
there were 440 biogas plants. In 1988 number of biogas plants in
European 12 increased to 743 biogas plants [45]. In 2005 there
were 1600 biogas plants and in 2013 there were 14,563 biogas
plants with total capacity of 7857 MW [46].
7.1. Germany
After the IInd world war K. Imhoff and F. Pöpel continued their
work on biogas plants in sewage treatment plant, West Germany. In
1947, first symposium about biogas plants was organized in
Ludwisburg. In 1951 three research groups were established which
were dedicated to biogas development: F. Reinhold and W. Noach at
Darmstadt; Strell, Goetz and H. Liebmann at Munich; and F. Schmidt
and W. Eggersgluss at Allerhop [47]. The groups improved small
scale and large scale digesters. F. Schmidt and W. Eggergluss
patented digesters called Allerhop digesters of Bihugas plants in
1949/1950 [3]. The digesters working volumes were from 100 to
1000 m3 fed with 1.5–2.5 kg mixture of manure and straw per day.
Digester was insulated with concrete. 20 digesters including 15 of
Allerhop type in were built during 1950–1954. In West Germany
there were 48 waste water treatment plants with biogas plants.
Research interest of anaerobic digester can be observed between
1949 and 1956. After H. Liebmann’s book was published 1956
237
Ukraine
biogas scientists concerned their interest mostly to the theoretical
works. In 1969, only five large scale biogas plants in Allerhup in
West Germany were working. In 1978 only one small scale digester
was working at Benediktburen. In 1984 according to Demunyck
et al. [48] there were 97 biogas plants including 75 for agricultural
waste, 12 for Industrial waste and 5 for domestic refuse. In East
Germany researches were held in biogas development after World
War II but all finished by 1957 [3]. In 1990–1992 there was
discerned return of the biogas idea [6]. In 1990s–1992s 140 biogas
plants in both West and East Germany were built [49]. In 1992–
1999 number of biogas plants increased from 140 to 850 with an
average capacity of 50–60 kW [49]. In 2000 Renewable Energy Act
(EEG Erneuerbarer Energien Gesetzt) was introduced. EEG encour-
aged grid operators by profitable fixed tariffs for using higher
percentage of energy from renewable sources. In 2004, there were
2050 biogas plants in Germany. According to Hahn [49] bonus for
energy crop digestion from 2004 accelerated development of biogas
plants. In 2006, there were 1893 biogas plants. In 2009 there were
4984 biogas plants. Between 2005 and 2011 the total capacity of
biogas plants increased from 300 MW to 3233 MW [9,50]. In 2013
Germany there were 9035 biogas plants [46].
7.2. Denmark
First biogas plants were designed based on Allerhop digester
bihugas plant in 1970s by some farmers and research centers in
Denmark [51]. Biogas plants were considered to be a way of
achieving cheaper source of energy after energy crises in 1973. At
1973 Anders Lassen constructed a small plant of area 100 m2 from
glass fiber at Aby Fyn. Then in 1974 Aby Fyn, Hans Age Jespersen,
constructed first full-scale biogas plant fed with manure from 40
cows and pigs [52]. Between 1978 and 1986 Ministry of Trade of
Denmark established program STUB (Samarbejdsgruppen for
Teknologisk Udvikling af Biogasanlæg—Cooperation for Technologi-
cal Development of Biogas Plants) [51,53]. The cooperation was
promoting and supported biogas plant to all farm owners in
Denmark. Stub in 1978 supported three experimental biogas plants
at Assendrup Farm in Haslev (two digesters of 220 m3), at Gråsten
Agricultural School (two digesters of 180 m3) and at Gadebjerg
(360 m3). Flexible membrane to catch gas was implanted in Haslev
(batch) and continued at Grasten. Plastic membrane was used in
plug flow biogas plant. All three biogas plants had several technical
problems in Haslev and Grasten work periodically. In all the test
periods biogas plants worked but only Gadebjerg closed in 1983.
The research of the three plants allowed the discovery of influence
of kind of manure on dark fermentation ( pig manure gives higher
yield than cow manures). Between 1978 and 1981, 21 research
plants being the combination of Grasten and Gadebjerg farms of
fermenter size from 20 m3 to 360 m3 were built. From 21 biogas
plants only 9 biogas plants were stable in working [53]. The highest
production was at Grasten 350 m3/day. The numerous technical
problems encouraged group of farmers from North Jutland to set
project of centralized biogas plants, Village Energy project in 1984in
the project Bigadan company. In the Village Energy Project four
biogas plant worked in Vester Hjemitslev (1984), Vegger (1985),
238 O. Chasnyk et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 52 (2015) 227–239
Skov sga rd (1986), Davidende (1987). Vester Hjemitslev was
digesting 40 t of manure and 15 t of industrial wastes per day.
The decrease of costs of oil caused biogas plant to aim at the
reduction of pollution from agriculture wastes in between 1986 and
1990; there was period of activity Coordination Committee realizing
plan of Danish Environmental Protection Agency of reducing nitrate
and phosphorus pollution at agriculture areas by small biogas
plants. Coordination Committee used experiences of Village Energy
Project to optimize pumps and propellers for agitating small scale
biogas plants. Committee built nine research biogas plants utilizing
412,000 t of manure per year. Works of Coordination Committee
were continued by Biomass Committee between 1991 and 1998 and
then by Biogas Plant program 1998–2001. In 2009 Green Growth
Strategy that includes biogas plant to Energy Policy was introduced.
In 2011 there were 25 biogas plants and 60 micro scale plants with
capacity of 77 MWel [53]. In 2013 there were 155 biogas plants.
7.3. France
In France during the second world war and post war period
1942–1949 ,1000 micro scale batch type digesters of 12 [m3] based
on Ducelier design [3] were built. Among 1000 plants only 100
were working at the same time. In 1954–1958 Ballu and Feraud
tried to restore biogas development but their efforts were unsuc-
cessful [3]. According to Brakel in 1980 only one anaerobic digester
was still working. In 1980, similarly to the other European
countries idea of biogas revived. In 1987 there were 28 full-scale
biogas plants [45]. Overall number of biogas plants in 1986 was 97
[48]. In 2011 similar Germany feed-in tarrifs that accelerated
growth of number of biogas plants [54] were introduced. In France,
in 2013, there were 610 working biogas plants [46].
7.4. Other сountries of Europe
In Italy, in 1987, there were 61 biogas plants, while in 2013
there were 1391 biogas plants [45,46].
In the United Kingdom, in 1983, there were 35 biogas plants
and in 1990 there were 50 biogas plants [45]. In 2013 there were
360 biogas plants.
In 1990, in Netherlands, there were 48 biogas plants [45].
Currently there are 252 biogas plants [46]. In Belgium there were
25 biogas plants in 1986 [48]. In 2013 in Belgium there were 118
biogas plants [46].
In Switzerland there were 108 biogas plants in 1983 [48]. In
2005, in Switzerland, there were 100 biogas plants [55]. In 2013
their number increased to 620 biogas plants [46].
In Ireland between 1986 and 2013 number of biogas plants
increased from 5 to 27 [46,48].
In Austria first biogas plant was built in 1990 in Untergrafen-
dorf. In 2002, there were 97 biogas plants with total electrical
capacity 12 MW in Austria. There were 320 biogas plants with
total capacity 103 MW in 2010 while in 2013, 436 biogas plants
[56,46,57]. Other country with big share of biogas plants in Europe
is Czech Republic [46]. In Czech Republic period from 2005 and
2010 total electricity production from biogas plants increased from
161 kW h to 599 kW h [57]. Recently in 2013 Czech Republic were
554 biogas plants with over 400 MW [46].
8. Summary
To sum everything up, it should be mentioned that development
of alternative power engineering in the world is growing. Scientists
develop new technologies, that help to increase efficiency of use of
renewable energy sources, and it has long-term prospects. Important
argument, in favor of development of alternative power engineering,
is that it develops in many countries of the world among which are
the developed countries and the developing countries.
In our opinion, Poland and Ukraine have long-term perspec-
tives in alternative power engineering, especially in introduction
of biogas projects. The main forms of development of biogas sector
are the projects which will be implemented by the government
and private firms. It will allow: to realize the solutions for the
problem of a power and also the problems of economic, social and
political situation; to balance fuel and energy of the country; to
provide environmental protection; decrease the probability of
ecological disasters; create new workplaces; stimulate the recy-
cling of resources due to the development of other industries etc.
Thus, a biomass as the restored energy source creates fine
prospects and various opportunities to use energy for Poland and
Ukraine. Modern biogas installations can effectively work by
1. Using waste of agricultural production which at the same time
helps to solve environment problems (in biogas installations
reproduced raw materials, for example corn, rye, sugar beet etc
are applied and opportunity to utilize such substances as the
manure, made on livestock farms, also exists). Also, waste that
remains from fermentation is high-quality fertilizer which can
be sold or used instead of expensive artificial fertilizer.
2. Developing the measures to support biogas projects, adaptation
to the modern legislation, promotion and finding programs of
crediting, financing the developed countries by means of trade
in certificates on CO2 emissions.
3. In this paper history of biogas plant and biogas development
was registered. The history of biogas of better understanding
was divided into three stages i.e. unconscious, transient and
conscious. The biggest aim of paper was to show the share of
Poland and Ukraine in biogas plant development. The Ukrai-
nian have more outstanding scientists than Poland therefore
they play a greater role in transient stage and conscious stage
in forming theory of biogas processes and biogas plants. The
story of V. Omeljanskij is a proof that sometimes simple
solutions are correct however earlier in life of the scientist
they seemed to be incorrect. However, due to German occupa-
tion Poland built biogas plants earlier than Ukraine. Several
biogas plants in Poland were closed after a couple of years of
functioning. In Ukraine less biogas plants have been built but
biogas plant in Bortnuchi among them is closed. Ukraine biogas
plants are more independent from foreign countries than those
in Poland. Agriculture is a very important source of economy of
both the countries. Therefore agriculture biogas plants improve
the effectivity of agriculture in Poland and Ukraine; however
there should be some improvement of legislation. Biogas plants
made the industries in the both countries more innovative and
competitive. Therefore the effective development of biogas
plants should be one of the major points in country develop-
ment of governments in Poland and Ukraine.
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