Lines and Waves – Notes for Vector Calculus Part 1

Professor Ian Craddock.

1. Vector Calculus
Because the electric and magnetic fields are vector quantities, because they are all around us (in three-
dimensional space), and because they are governed by differential equations, we have to introduce
some new mathematical concepts in order to describe them. While you will be used to differentiation
and integration, we need to be able to think about differentiating and integrating vector quantities -
the ideas we will use are called, for this reason, Vector Calculus. Vector calculus can look a bit
daunting, however we will avoid anything too unpleasant.

1.1 Scalars
Some of the basic quantities used in electromagnetics either scalars (quantities which have only a
magnitude). Scalars can be real or complex and they can be functions of space and/or time.
 An example of a scalar is the number 6 - this is a constant (not a function).
 An example of a scalar function is f(x)=x2 (this is a function of one variable, x). The ideas of
differentiation and integration of such a function are straightforward.
 If we wanted to describe the temperature (a scalar quantity) at all points in a room, at one point
in time, we would require a scalar function of 3 variables, say g(x,y,z). Differentiation and
integration of such functions are more involved (see below).
 If this temperature varied with time we would need 4 variables, say g(x,y,z,t).

1.2 Vectors
Many of the quantities in electromagnetics have direction as well as magnitude. We call these
“vectors” and print them in bold (or underline them if you are writing by hand).
Vectors can also be functions of space and/or time:
 If we wanted to describe the movement of air (a vector quantity) at all points in a room, at one
point in time, we would require a vector function of 3 variables, say G(x,y,z). In other words, at
any point in the room, the air can be moving in any direction.
 If the air movement varied with time we would need 4 variables, say G(x,y,z,t).
 Lines and Waves Notes 2020

A vector A has a magnitude A = A and a direction Â. Thus

A= Â A
where  is a dimensionless unit vector (its magnitude is unity) pointing in the direction of A.
When a co-ordinate system is chosen it is usual to express the vector in terms of the unit vectors of
the particular system. In a three-dimensional Cartesian system, for example, A may be written:
̂𝐴𝑥 + 𝒚
𝐀=𝒙 ̂𝐴𝑦 + 𝒛̂𝐴𝑧

where Ax, Ay and Az are the components of A in the direction of each of the three Cartesian unit
vectors.
Vector manipulation (addition, subtraction, multiplication) is necessary because many of the
electromagnetic quantities are vectors. Furthermore, the use of certain differential operators allows
the fundamental postulates and formulas to be expressed in a concise and general manner.

1.3 Vector Addition and Subtraction

Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and direction. The sum of two vectors A and
B is another vector C, i.e. C = A + B. The vector C can be obtained graphically by using either the
parallelogram rule or the head-to-tail rule as shown in Figure 1.

B B B
C C

A A A

(a) Two vectors, A and B (b) Parallelogram rule (c) Head-to-tail rule

Figure 1: Vector Addition

Vector subtraction is defined in terms of vector addition as follows:
𝐀 − 𝐁 = 𝐀 + (−𝐁)
Note: it is meaningless to add or subtract a scalar from a vector, or vice versa.

1.4 Vector Multiplication

Multiplication of a vector A by a positive scalar k changes the magnitude of A by k times but it does
not change the direction of A, i.e.
∧
𝑘𝐀 = (k𝐴)𝐀
Note: multiplying a vector by -1 changes the direction by  radians (1800) but the magnitude remains
unchanged.

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1.4.1 Scalar (dot) product

When multiplying two vectors together the result can be either another vector or a scalar and hence
it is important to distinguish between the two types of multiplication. When the result of multiplying
two vectors together is a scalar the multiplication process is known as the scalar or dot product and
is defined as
𝐀 ⋅ 𝐁 = 𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃𝐴𝐵
where θAB is the smaller angle between A and B and is less than  radians (1800).

If for example the first vector represents force and the second direction then the dot product is a
measure of work. The dot product is widely used in electromagnetic theory, for example when
calculating the work done in moving through a magnetic or electric field, and in calculating the flux
of a vector field.
Note: the order of the dot product is not important, i.e. A·B=B·A. Furthermore, the dot product of a
vector taken with itself is equal to its magnitude squared, i.e. A·A = A2

1.4.2 Vector (cross) product

The result of this vector multiplication is another vector whose direction is normal to the plane
containing the two original vectors. It is defined as
̂ 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃𝐴𝐵
𝐀×𝐁 =𝒏
where n̂ is a unit vector normal (perpendicular) to the plane containing A and B, and  AB is the
smaller angle between A and B (Figure 2).

A B
ABsin AB

n AB A
Figure 2: Vector multiplication - Cross Product
The vector cross product is an important mathematical operation in electromagnetic theory; for
example, the power density of an electromagnetic wave is defined in terms of the vector
multiplication of the electric and magnetic fields, i.e. EH.

1.5 Gradient of a scalar field

If we have a typical scalar function T(x, y, z), we might be interested in its rate of change, or
“gradient”. If we imagine that T represents a temperature distribution in a room, when we move
through the room we will experience a change in temperature - but this change will depend on the
direction we move in; starting in a particular place if we walk towards a window it will get colder, if
we start at the same place but now move towards a radiator it will instead get hotter.
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When talking about the rate of change of T(x, y, z), we therefore have to remember that it will depend
on the direction in which we move. This is the idea of partial differentiation:
𝜕𝐶 𝜕𝐶
gives the change in temperature as we move in the x direction, 𝜕𝑧 gives the change in temperature
𝜕𝑥
as we move in the z direction. If we collect together all the possible partial derivatives we get the
gradient of our scalar field T (usually written grad T or  T):
𝜕T 𝜕T 𝜕T
In Cartesian co-ordinates: ̂ +𝒚
∇𝑇 = 𝒙 ̂ + 𝒛̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

At a given point in space it is the vector which represents the direction and magnitude of the
maximum spatial rate of increase of that scalar. To find the rate of change in any particular direction,
given by a unit vector 𝒂 ̂, we form the dot product 𝒂
̂ ⋅ ∇T. The most obvious example of this is if
𝜕T
aˆ = xˆ , in which case 𝒂
̂ ⋅ ∇𝑇 = 𝒙
̂ ⋅ ∇𝑇 = - which is indeed the rate of change in the x direction.
𝜕𝑥

For example, the static electric field intensity E is derivable as the negative gradient of a scalar
electric potential V; that is E = -  V. Imagine a landscape where the height above ground represents
the electric potential V - this concept is illustrated in Figure 3; At any particular point the gradient
of the potential is the direction and magnitude of the steepest slope.

Lines of maximum slope (grad V)

Lines of constant V (potential)

Figure 3: Grad V is direction of steepest slope