BIOCHEMISTRY Ch 2 Mader

basic units

1 human
- there are 5 key biological molecules vital to the
body. Here
1. Proteins
2. Carbohydrates monosaccharide
3. Lipids fats fatty acids glycero
organic
atoms 4. Nucleic acids nucleotide
w
C 5. Water
H2O
inorganic
atoms
C
w removal of H2O
I) Synthesis & Hydrolysis
A) Synthesis (Dehydration Synthesis or
Condensation)
- process where biological MONOMERS (basic
units) join together to form POLYMERS
(macromolecules), releasing water.

e.g. monomer H OH

amino acid
g monosacch
nucleotide

H 11 004 04 11 04
monomer
 I
V

H 17 11 04
polymer

F OH
water

aka Digestion
B) Hydrolysis
- is a process where water is used to split a
POLYMER into its MONOMERS

e.g. H 11 11 11 17 0H polymer

H OH
H2O

H OH H 11 11 11 0H
monomer
smaller polymer

II) Proteins
- are used in the body to build new tissues.
 - if in excess, used to produce energy.
- made from basic units (monomers) called AMINO
ACIDS
--> each amino acid has three main groups:
- amine or amino group
- carboxylic acid or carboxyl group
- R (remainder) group qp.BZ Fig 2.2
- differ from each other in their R-groups (20
different R-groups)
It carboxylic acid
eg or
H
N C carboxyl
1
OH group
H R
amino amine
Remainder R
group group
- in order to create a polymer (i.e. protein) water is
removed during dehydration synthesis.

e.g. synthesize 2 amino acids to form a dipeptide

amino amino
acid dipeptide
af'd0 2 HIGH
E.ci E Ec
n c

k
c n
k In k Ot
difeptide
 H bond
peptide
H OH

- in hydrolysis, a polymer of protein is broken down

into many individual amino acids when water is
added.
--> water breaks down the peptide bonds.

Levels of Organization of Proteins

- there are 4 categories of proteins:

1. Primary ( 1 ) Structure
- amino acids linked together in a linear fashion
- is first formed.
etc
e.g. a.Ga a a
afafaaaaf a.ac a a

2. Secondary ( 2 ) Structure
- polypeptide chain (linear primary structure) forms a
long coil
--> called ALPHA HELIX
 EE

Hydrogen bonds

- in the secondary structure, you can also have beta-

pleated sheets.
i
sÑmB 3

3. Tertiary ( 3 ) Structure
- alpha helix or beta-pleated sheet (secondary
structure) folds on itself to form a globularly-
shaped structure.
- the globular shape is held together by H-bonds,
ionic bonds, etc.
- attraction and repulsion of the R-groups also
maintain this shape.
- there are active sites on these structures allowing
them to combine in a "lock-and-key" manner.
--> many tertiary structures are functional
proteins (e.g. enzymes and hormones) &
Ispidersilk

structural proteins (e.g. hair, nails, skin, etc)

3
NDpDD globular
4. Quaternary ( 4 ) Structure
- where 2 or more secondary structure polypeptides
interlink to form one large complex molecule.
hemoglobin Ira p 02 in blood

Fe atoms protein
structure
k1 PEDRO proteins
globin
Feed
Fe atoms heme
- when a group is added to a protein, it is called a

iishemelfeato
PROSTHETIC GROUP.

Denaturation
- is a process where the protein structure is disrupted.
--> variety of factors can disrupt protein structure:
1. heat - cook an egg
- curling iron to curl hair
- flat iron to straighten hair
2. acids - curdle milk
3. bases - perming or colouring hair
0 io Diabetes 20.1 Hypoglycemia
 hyperglyce
III) Carbohydrates homeostatic level
- are the most readily available source of energy
- are used to maintain blood sugar level at 0.1%
- complex carbohydrates and fibre are beneficial to
every day health.
- basic unit = MONOSACCHARIDE
0 glucose GH 6 sugar
hexose
if beta
glpha
α D B D glucose
glucose
H

0
HostC O
G H OH
H H
G C
OH C
E
H
HO

A OH
HOW
OH

Abbrev Abbrev
40
1
iffy
 Other monosaccharides: source
e.g. galactose (hexose) milk products
fructose (hexose) fruits
ribose (pentose) nucleic acids
deoxyribose (pentose) DNA RNA

- empirical formula =
C Han On
Co His 06
- similar to proteins, synthesis of 2 monosaccharides
produces a DISACCHARIDE with the removal of
water. alpha alpha
disaccharid
eg
α
glucose
α
glucose maltose
H2O
a

α
glue
α
glue
6641206
6641206

Disaccharide
µ toyHH maltose
Cottage HO 0
42119
a glycosidic
ester
1420 bond
612422011
Other disaccharides sucrose fructose
Lactose galactose glucose glucose
table sugar
Other Carbohydrates
Polysaccharides
- include:
1. Starch = a complex carbohydrate found in plant
products.
PF 2.18 --> storage form of glucose in plants.
--> branched polysaccharide.
2. Glycogen = storage form of glucose in animals.
--> more compact, easily stored
- stored in the liver and muscles of
P75.2.19 animals.
--> highly branched polysaccharide
(more so than starch)
fibre
aka
3. Cellulose = found in plant cell walls.
--> very strong in nature
13 2.20 --> very fibrous (fibre)
--> undigestible by humans - we lack the
enzyme (cellulase) to break it down.
her b --> unique structure as glycosidic bond
O
etc
B glut
glycosidic bonds unique
IV) Lipids
- there are 3 main types of lipids:
1. Neutral Fats = fats and oils
--> heat insulation
--> long term energy storage
--> protective cushioning
2. Steroids = lipids with a backbone of 4 fused
carbon rings Fig 2.237.3 0
e.g. cholesterol, testosterone
estrogen, progesterone IIones
3. Phospholipids = found in cell membranes

A) Neutral Fats
- basic unit = 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol
--> aka "triglyceride"

1. Fatty Acids
- are long chains of carbon and hydrogen
(called hydrocarbon chains)
H H
H H H H H H
H c c c c c c E E
l l l l
it it it it H H H H

carboxylic acid
common in amino acid
 - usually there are 16 or 18 carbons per fatty
acid, but smaller ones are also present.

CH CH2 n
C
OH
7 in aboveexample
- there are 2 types of fatty acids:
a) Saturated fatty acid BAD
- animal products
- saturated with lots of hydrogen atoms
- usually solid at room/body temperature
e.g. red meats, butter, cheeses
- there are some plant products that
are saturated fats (palm oil, coconut
oil,etc)
b) Unsaturated fatty acid GOOD 09
- there several double bonds between the
carbon atoms (not as many hydrogens)
- typically found in plant products
- usually0liquid at room/body temp.
e.g. corn oil, canola oil, olive oil
- some animal products contain
unsaturated fats (usu. in fish -
Omega
3 omega-3) double bonds
it
H C
1
E EEIE E E.ci OH
H H H
Boat
cis

double bond makes it an

fatty acid

Chair
J
1y
but is far worse than

caused by
trans hydrogenation of
unsaturated
oils to
vegetable
increase shelf life
Eg fried
foods
baked goods
sticks
margarine
 2) Glycerol H
I

HO H
G
HO C H
I
HO C H
I

H
neutral fats
3) Triglyceride
- 3 fatty acids + 1 glycerol triglyceride
saturated neutral fat
3 H2O
O
p
CH3 CHa C H

I
CH3 CHa n C H
I
CH3 CHa nÉ C H
3
fatty acids glycerol
I
V

O
 I

CHKCHalnd.JO d
CH3

CHz

ndJC
CH3

CHa nE C
fg I
H

H
triglyceride
ester OH
bonds 3H

B. Phospholipids
- found in cell membranes
- one of the fatty acids is replaced by a phosphate
group
it
CHs CHa nd O C H
I
CHICHI 04H
O C H

To
5. Soaps & Detergents
- are emulsifiers

droplets

1
I

V) Nucleic Acids
- are found in cells (esp. in nucleus) --genetic
material or energy molecule.
- are three types of nucleic acids: yucleus
1. DNA - DeoxyriboNucleic Acid
2. RNA - RiboNucleic Acid
3. ATP - Adenosine TriPhosphate
Jenergy
 - basic unit = nucleotide

VI) Water C atoms

- inorganic molecule unequal sharing
of electrons
- polar (partial positive and negative charges)
--> attracts other molecules (essential for
transport)
- has hydrogen bonding:
a) intermolecular

intermolecular

b) intramolecular

intramolecular
0

- the weak attraction between water molecules

means that water has some special properties
A) Properties of Water

1) Universal Solvent
- b/c water is polar, it can dissociate or
dissolve ionic compounds into separate
ions.
salt

- water will dissolve other polar molecules,

such as sugar and alcohol.
- crucial for life to separate ions.
e.g. potassium (nerve conduction)
sodium, calcium (nerve & muscle
conduction)

2) Temperature Regulator
- water has high specific heat/heat capacity
--> it takes a great amount of nrg to heat
water 10C
--> therefore, water buffers changes in
 temp.
- helps keep body temp. @ 37 C
(cooling effect of sweating)
3) Lubricant
- reduces friction between 2 surfaces
e.g. joints
synovial fluid
4) Surface Tension
- forms a layer of "skin" on the surface of
water.
--> insects can land, walk, lay eggs on
surface of water (food for others
below)

5) Adhesion & Cohesion

- water adheres to sides of tubes & coheres to
each other (allowing transport in capillary
tubes, such as blood vessels & xylem of
plants)
 IX.ie

6) Density
- water forms ice (which is less dense)
--> as a result, ice floats on water
- ponds don't freeze completely over in
the winter (life below can survive)

7) Liquid State @ Room/Body Temp.

- allowing for life
--> w/o H-bonds, water would freeze at
-100 C & boil at -80 C
 (impossible for life to exist)

B)Acids & Bases

- although water is a covalent molecule, it
occasionally dissociates into ions:

H2O Ht OH
T t
main ingred mainingred
of acids of bases

- but in pure water, every H ion and OH ion is

balanced.
--> pure water is NEUTRAL 7.4
BloodpH
pascale
pH 0
acid.ttd
asiT14
alkaline
neutral
C) pH & Living Organisms
- biological systems are extremely sensitive to pH
--> biochemical molecules (proteins can
change structure - denature - with even
small changes in pH)
--> enzymes (proteins) function best w/in
narrow pH range.
D) Buffers
- blood pH is maintained at pH 7.4 (slightly basic)
- blood has buffers to prevent changes in pH
substances that can absorb
excess H or 0H

carbonic acid H2 03 in blood

eg
HaCO I H HCO
buffer bicarbonate
ion
also a buffer

excess Ht excess 0H

buffer buffer

203 HCO5
weak acid H2O

E) Salts
- products of an acid and a base.
acid base salt water
eg
HC aOH t2O

neutralization rxn