How the Special Needs Brain Learns by

David A. Sousa

Introduction, Chapter 1, Chapter 2

Intro: pg. 1-5
Ch. 1: pg. 6-23 “The Brain and Learning”
Ch. 2: pg. 25-44 “When Learning Difficulties Arise”
Key Points from reading:
1. Provide 3 quotations that stuck out to you across the text assignment and then
note the page numbers where you found them
a. “Students with learning problems comprise such a heterogeneous group
that no one strategy, technique, or intervention can address all their
needs”(pg 2).
b. “If we teach today’s students as we taught yesterday’s, we rob them of
tomorrow” (John Dewey, pg 6, qtd. in Sousa).
c. “Meaning (or relevancy) becomes the key to focus, learning, and
retention”(pg 16).
2. Make at least one connection to personal experience, other texts you’ve read,
and/or to what you know about schools from each quotation
a. In ED 491, we talked about the variety of strategies that may be needed in
order to help students with varying needs in the classroom. Each student
needs something different to help them learn, which is not always
possible, but it is important to provide as many opportunities as possible
for accessibility to learning as possible.
b. This one just stood out to me for a lot of reasons. I feel like it is important
for educators to always keep evolving their teaching practices and never
be stagnant because each group of students will have different needs
than the last group of students. Most of my education classes that I have
taken at Butler have mentioned this mindset.
c. In Ed 408, we are learning about how to teach students how to read. An
important part of this is understanding that students with certain
learning disabilities may be easily distracted or uninterested in the
topics that are being taught. It is the job of the teacher to have their
students become fully engaged in their learning.

Common Characteristics of Children with Disabilities

 ● For kids who have been diagnosed with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, impairments
regarding behavior, reaction times, executive control functions, such as
problem solving and abstract thinking are common (Sousa 28).
● “The frontal lobe deals with planning and thinking. It comprises the rational
and executive control center of the brain, monitoring higher order thinking,
directing problem solving, and regulating the excess of the emotional system.
Because emotions drive attention, the efficiency of this area is linked to the
limbic centers”(Sousa 6).
● Factors that affect brain development (found on page 27 in Sousa):
○ Genetic links
○ Tobacco, alcohol and other drug use
○ Problems during pregnancy or delivery
○ Toxins in the child's environment
○ Stress in the child's environment
● “Early studies showed that boys were referred more often than girls for a
reading disability because they were more likely than girls to express
frustration associated with their reading problems and to display disruptive
behavior. This is referred to as ascertainment bias”(Sousa 31-31).

Chapter 3, Chapter 9
Ch. 3: pg. 53-65 “Attention Disorders”
Ch. 9: pg. 203-217 “Autism Spectrum Disorders”
1. Write your thoughts about what the author says in Sousa’s book “How the
Special Education Brain Learns”
a. I really like how much factual information was given
b. Its more scientifically states than stated based on opinion
c. It talks about the assumptions about both disorders
2. Note the page numbers and provide three quotations or more across the text
assignment.
a. “But several studies focusing on this notion have shown that children
with ADHD are no more likely to have an above average IQ than other
children”(55).
b. “Attracts new friends but has difficulty bonding. Reacts strongly to
criticism”(56).
c. “The earlier the disorder is diagnosed, the sooner the child can be helped
through treatment interventions”(204).
3. Make at least one connection to personal experience, other texts you’ve read,
and/or what you know about schools.
a. One of my closest friends growing up was recently diagnosed with ASD.
It caused a lot of conflicts between her family members but she did share
 that it feels validating to know her diagnosis. This diagnosis has not
impacted our friendship which is exciting because sometimes people will
get very anxious about a new diagnosis. I am glad to have someone like
her to talk to about things that we have in common (mentally). She goes
to a lot of therapy and even has a therapy snake! She has had therapy
mice before, but they have all passed away unfortunately. She would
argue that her “special interest” is aquatic life.
4. What are the words, phrases, and sentences that strike you? Include any pieces
you do not want to forget that deal with characteristics, adaptations, and
strategies on this graphic organizer. Do not worry if you have just a few, as
other chapters will be full of these for your learning going forward.
a. As kids grow, the differences between children with and without ASD
become more noticeable
b. Kids with ASD commonly avoid eye contact
c. There are programs for parents, teachers and therapeutic recreation to
work with students who have ADHD and the best strategies to use.

Chapter 8
Ch. 8: pg. 181-202 “Emotional and Behavioral Disorders”
1. Write your thoughts about what the author says in Sousa’s book “How the
Special Education Brain Learns”
a. I thought that this chapter was interesting because it went into depth
and great detail about different disabilities that can be found in typical
classrooms. It's important to know what the symptoms and signs are of
these disorders so you can help students more in the classroom.
2. Note the page numbers and provide three quotations or more across the text
assignment.
a. “Because the amount of quality time at home is so small, many students
are not getting their emotional needs met” (Sousa 185).
b. “All children are occasionally oppositional by arguing, talking back, or
defying their parents, teachers, and other adults” (Sousa 192).
c. “Autism is a spectrum disorder that usually appears before the child’s
third birthday. Children with autism have difficulty communication with
others and display inappropriate and repeated behaviors over long
periods of time”(Sousa 194)
3. Make at least one connection to personal experience, other texts you’ve read,
and/or to what you know about schools.
a. My hometown is a very privileged place that has many support systems
for students who may have varying disorders. Students in these schools
 are able to have access to resources and professional individuals who can
help them in any way. I am very curious to know what growing up in a
school system/town would be like if these supports were not available to
me and peers, and how it would be different or the same as I am today.
4. What are the words, phrases, and sentences that strike you? Include any pieces
you do not want to forget that deal with characteristics, adaptations, and
strategies on this graphic organizer.
a. “Environmental causes can include exposure to violence, extreme stress,
or the loss of an important person, such as by death or
divorce”(185-186).
b. “The symptoms of major depressive disorders are common to children,
adolescents, and adults. Five or more of these symptoms must persist for
an extended period of time before a diagnosis of depression is
indicated”(Sousa 190).
c. “The consequences of childhood abuse can appear in many ways. Victims
may suffer anxiety, depression, suicidal thoughts, or posttraumatic
stress. Outwardly, they may display aggression, delinquency,
hyperactivity, or impulsivity”(Sousa 195).

Chapter 5
Ch. 5: pg. 91-133 “Reading Disabilities”
1. Note the page numbers and provide three quotations or more across the text
assignment.
a. “Just because some children have difficulty understanding that spoken
words are composed of discrete sounds doesn’t mean that they have
brain damage or dysfunction” (Sousa 95).
b. “Momentous events in our culture, such as the invention of writing, can
apparently cause important cerebral adaptations to occur as a result of
cultural learning. These adaptations occur because of the brain’s
plasticity - that is, its ability to adapt to significant changes in its
environment” (Sousa 98).
c. “Dyslexia appears in all languages, including those that are read from
right to left, such as Hebrew and Arabic” (Sousa 107).
2. Make at least one connection to personal experience, other texts you’ve read,
and/or to what you know about schools.
a. In my ED 408 class, we are directly working with students who either
have learning disabilities, like ADHD or dyslexia, or MLL students. I have
learned from this class that it is harder to diagnose (or assume) a student
may have a learning disability if they are an MLL. This is because they are
 still learning the new language and if they are struggling with reading, it
is typically associated with the new language acquisition and learning
that is happening. I also learned that MLL students have the potential to
develop a learning disability in one language and not the other.
3. What are the words, phrases, and sentences that strike you? Include any pieces
you do not want to forget that deal with characteristics, adaptations, and
strategies on this graphic organizer.
a. “Learning to read involves connecting two cerebral capabilities that are
already present in young brains: the spoken language networks with the
visual recognition circuits” (Sousa 93).
b. Difficulties in reading result essentially from environmental or physical
factors, or a combination of both. Environmental factors are often social
and cultural and include limited exposure to language in the preschool
years (resulting in little phoneme sensitivity), clashes of language in the
household, letter knowledge, print awareness, vocabulary, and reading
comprehension. Physical factors include speech, hearing, and visual
impairments and substandard intellectual capabilities” (99).
c. Figure 5.3 (Sousa 101).
i. Linguistics causes of reading problems
1. Lesion in visual word form area
2. Phonological deficits
3. Differences in auditory and visual processing speeds
4. Structural differences in the brain
5. Phonological memory differences
6. Genetics and gender
4. Write your thoughts about what the author says in Sousa’s book “How the
Special Education Brain Learns”
a. I enjoyed this chapter because I was able to learn a lot about how
different reading disabilities are formed or how they are discovered. I
also learned that there is a large variety of reading disabilities, some are
more commonly known than others.

Chapter 6
Ch. 6: pg. 134-157 “Writing Disabilities”
1. Note the page numbers and provide three quotations or more across the text
assignment.
a. “Learning to write consists of integrating two components: the
consolidation of mental functions that select the content of the writing
 (the writing process) with the physical act of moving a writing
instrument across a surface to form words (handwriting)” (Sousa 136).
b. “Teachers of writing should realize that, like reading, the brain does not
perceive writing to be a survival skill. That is, the brain has no “writing
centers” comparable to those for spoken language. Instead, writing
requires the coordination of numerous neural networks and systems, all
which have to learn new skills. Learning to write therefore requires
direct instruction; it is not innate to the brain. Hard work and lots of
practice are needed just to learn the fine motor skills for reproducing the
printed and cursive letters of the alphabet”(138).
c. “Other studies confirm that invented spelling is developmentally based
and can increase a child’s achievement in spelling, reading, and writing.
When their invented spelling is accepted, children feel empowered to
write more and with purpose, communicating their messages from the
very beginning of school” (139).
2. Make at least one connection to personal experience, other texts you’ve read,
and/or to what you know about schools.
a. I do not believe that I have any of the more common writing disabilities
but I will say that my ADHD does impair my ability to write sometimes. I
can be in the middle of a sentence and be distracted and then not know
what I was even trying to say. Or I also struggle with physically writing
the last letter onto the ends of my words. This happens a lot and I don’t
realize it until I am reading it over later down the line.
3. What are the words, phrases, and sentences that strike you? Include any pieces
you do not want to forget that deal with characteristics, adaptations, and
strategies on this graphic organizer.
a. “Dysgraphia (also known as agraphia) is a spectrum disorder describing
major difficulties in mastering the sequence of movements necessary to
write letters and numbers. The disorder exists in varying degrees and is
seldom found in isolation without symptoms of other learning
problems” (Sousa 140).
b. “Students with dysgraphia but who are otherwise linguistically talented
find enormous frustration when trying to convert their thoughts into
written expression. Their frustration can eventually turn them away
from writing. Teachers sometimes misinterpret this behavior as
laziness, carelessness, or poor motivation” (Sousa 142).
c. Assistive technology that helps with writing disabilities (Sousa 145).
i. Contrast aids
ii. Handheld word identification aids
iii. Graphic organizers
 iv. Portable word processors
v. Standard word processing software
vi. Voice recognition software
4. Write your thoughts about what the author says in Sousa’s book “How the
Special Education Brain Learns”
a. I thought it was interesting to learn how there is not a part of the brain
that has specific neural pathways for writing similar to reading. I would
have assumed that there would be a correlation between the two entities
but apparently there is not. There was a lot of other good information
about students’ emotional responses to coping with writing disabilities
which is helpful to me because I feel like this is often overlooked by
teachers and students themselves.

Chapter 7
Ch. 7: pg. 158-180 “Mathematical Disabilities”
1. Note the page numbers and provide three quotations or more across the text
assignment.
a. “Furthermore, regardless of the efforts toward gender equity, female
high school students still rate themselves as less confident in
mathematics than their male peers” (Sousa 163).
b. “One critical factor in how well students learn mathematics is the quality
of the teaching. Studies show that student achievement in mathematics
is strongly linked to the teacher’s expertise in mathematics. Students of
an expert teacher perform better on achievement tests than students of a
teacher with limited training in mathematics” (Sousa 164).
c. “Mathematical disorders often arise when students fail to understand
the language of mathematics, which has its own symbolic
representations, syntax, and terminology. Solving word problems
requires the ability to translate the language of English into the language
of mathematics” (Sousa 171).
2. Make at least one connection to personal experience, other texts you’ve read,
and/or to what you know about schools.
a. I remember being pretty good with math growing up. I would be able to
grasp more of the complex topics easier than the simple topics. I
remember in 4th grade learning about long division and I was able to
grasp that concept because of how pattern-based it was. However, my
teacher pulled me to the side to talk about my subtraction skills being
sub-par compared to my other classmates. So I do recognize that I do
 have pretty good math skills but I also think that I struggled in some
areas (I think it's because of the teachers themselves).
3. What are the words, phrases, and sentences that strike you? Include any pieces
you do not want to forget that deal with characteristics, adaptations, and
strategies on this graphic organizer.
a. “Although language may be helpful in developing mathematical ability,
it is not necessary for calculation, and it is processed in different parts of
the brain. The implication for schooling is to remember that there are
students with mathematical difficulties who may not necessarily have
difficulties with language, and those with language problems who may
still be capable in mathematics” (Sousa 160)
b. “Dyscalculia is a difficulty in conceptualizing numbers, number
relationVideo: ships, outcomes of numerical operations, and
estimation— that is, what to expect as an outcome of an operation”
(Sousa 162).
c. “One of the more surprising research findings is that many children with
learning disabilities— including those with mathematical disorders—
can learn basic arithmetic concepts. What is needed for these children is
an approach that relies less on intensive drill and practice and more on
searching for, finding, and using patterns in learning the basic number
combinations and arithmetic strategies” (Sousa 174)
4. Write your thoughts about what the author says in Sousa’s book “How the
Special Education Brain Learns”?
a. I think its very important to understand that there is a difference
between reading and math disabilities. The two concepts are a part of
two different parts of the brain, so while students may struggle with
both concepts, it is more likely that their issue would be with one
concept and not the other. Also, math disorders are typically either
developmental (from birth) or they are influenced by environmental
factors. I learned about a lot of ways to combat both of these and it was
interesting to learn about how to incorporate different and more
effective teaching strategies.