MODULE 4

The Anatomy of the Nervous System

BIOPSY
PHYSIOLOGICAL
PSYCHOLOGY

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

to your fourth module!

KARL MICHAEL M. VALDULLA, CHRA

Course Instructor/Professor

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY

SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE

Gen. Luna St. Guitnangbayan I, San Mateo, Rizal No part of this module may be reproduced,
Tel. No. (02) 997-9070
www.smmc.edu.ph distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any
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© San Mateo Municipal College All Rights Reserved

MODULE FOUR

THE ANATOMY OF THE

NERVOUS SYSTEM
“The good life is a process, not a state of being. It is a
direction not a destination.”
Carl Rogers

SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

Bachelor of Science in Psychology Karl Michael M. Valdulla, CHRA
© San Mateo Municipal College All Rights Reserved

INPUT INFORMATION

MODULE FOUR
THE ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

SECTION I: MAJOR DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The next figure summarizes the major divisions of the nervous system.

CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The vertebrate nervous system is composed of two divisions: the central nervous
system and the peripheral nervous system.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The division of the nervous system located within the skull and spine. It is
composed of two divisions: the brain and the spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The division of the nervous system located outside the skull and spine. It is made
up of nerves that branch off from the spinal cord and extend to all parts of the
body.

SOMATIC AND AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

The peripheral nervous system is also composed of two divisions: the somatic nervous system and the autonomic
nervous system.

Somatic Nervous System

The division of the peripheral nervous system that interacts with the external environment. It is composed of
afferent nerves that carry sensory signals from the skin, skeletal muscles, joints, eyes, ears, and so on, to the central
nervous system and efferent nerves that carry motor signals from the central nervous system to the skeletal
muscles.

Autonomic Nervous System

The division of the peripheral nervous system that regulates the body’s internal environment. It is composed of
afferent nerves that carry sensory signals from internal organs to the central nervous system and efferent nerves
that carry motor signals from the central nervous system to internal organs.

SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

Bachelor of Science in Psychology Karl Michael M. Valdulla, CHRA
© San Mateo Municipal College All Rights Reserved

SYMPATHETIC AND PARASYMPATHETIC NERVES

The autonomic nervous system has two kinds of efferent nerves: sympathetic nerves and parasympathetic nerves.

Sympathetic Nerves
The autonomic motor nerves that project from the central
nervous system in the lumbar and thoracic regions of the spinal
cord. It controls “fight-or-flight” responses, carrying signals
that put body systems on alert.

Parasympathetic Nerves
The autonomic motor nerves that project from the brain and
sacral region of the spinal cord. It regulates “rest and digest”
functions, carrying signals that relax body systems and
stimulate digestive activities.

CRANIAL NERVES
Most of the nerves of the peripheral nervous system project from the spinal cord, but there are 12 pairs of exceptions:
the 12 pairs of cranial nerves, which project from the brain.

Number Name General Function Specific Functions

I Olfactory Sensory Smell

II Optic Sensory Vision
III Oculomotor Motor Eye movement and pupillary constriction
Sensory Sensory signals from certain eye muscles
IV Trochlear Motor Eye movement
Sensory Sensory signals from certain eye muscles
V Trigeminal Sensory Facial sensations
Motor Chewing
VI Abducens Motor Eye movement
Sensory Sensory signals from certain eye muscles
VII Facial Sensory Taste from anterior two-thirds of tongue
Motor Facial expression, secretion of tears, salivation, cranial blood vessel dilation
VIII Auditory-Vestibular Sensory Audition; sensory signals from the organs of balance in the inner ear
IX Glossopharyngeal Sensory Taste from posterior third of tongue
Motor Salivation, swallowing
X Vagus Sensory Sensations from abdominal and thoracic organs
Motor Control over abdominal and thoracic organs and muscles of the throat
XI Spinal Accessory Motor Movement of neck, shoulders, and head
Sensory Sensory signals from muscles of the neck
XII Hypoglossal Motor Tongue movements
Sensory Sensory signals from tongue muscles

The functions of the various cranial nerves are commonly assessed

by neurologists as a basis for diagnosis. Because the functions and
locations of the cranial nerves are specific, disruptions of
particular cranial nerve functions provide excellent clues about
the location and extent of tumors and other kinds of brain
pathology.

SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

Bachelor of Science in Psychology Karl Michael M. Valdulla, CHRA
© San Mateo Municipal College All Rights Reserved

MENINGES
The brain and spinal cord are the most protected organs in the body. They are encased in bone and covered by three
protective membranes, the three meninges.
Dura Mater
The outermost layer of the three meninges and is located directly underneath
the bones of the skull.
Arachnoid Membrane
The spider-web-like membrane that sits between the dura mater and the pia
mater.
Subarachnoid Space
A space beneath the arachnoid membrane which contains many large
blood vessels and cerebrospinal fluid.
Pia Mater
The innermost layer of the three meninges and the only layer that clings tightly to the brain and follows all of its
convolutions.

CEREBROSPINAL FLUID AND CEREBRAL VENTRICLES

Cerebrospinal Fluid
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is an ultrafiltrate of plasma contained within the ventricles of the brain and the
subarachnoid spaces of the cranium and spine. It performs vital functions, including providing nourishment, waste
removal, and protection to the brain.

Cerebral Ventricles
The cerebral ventricles are structures that produce cerebrospinal fluid, and transport it around the cranial cavity.
Lateral Ventricles
The left and right lateral ventricles are located within their respective
hemispheres of the cerebrum. They have ‘horns’ which project into the
frontal, occipital and temporal lobes.
Third Ventricle
The lateral ventricles are connected to the third ventricle by the foramen
of Monro. The third ventricle is situated in between the right and the left
thalamus.
Fourth Ventricle
The fourth ventricle is the last in the system – it receives cerebrospinal fluid from the third ventricle via the cerebral
aqueduct. It lies within the brainstem, at the junction between the pons and medulla oblongata.

SECTION II: ANATOMY OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

THE SPINAL CORD

The spinal cord is the part of the central nervous system within the spinal
column. The spinal cord communicates with all the sense organs and
muscles except those of the head. It is a segmented structure, and each
segment has on each side a sensory nerve and a motor nerve. According
to the Bell-Magendie law, the entering dorsal roots carry sensory
information, and the exiting ventral roots carry motor information. The
cell bodies of the sensory neurons are in clusters of neurons outside the

SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

Bachelor of Science in Psychology Karl Michael M. Valdulla, CHRA
© San Mateo Municipal College All Rights Reserved

spinal cord, called the dorsal root ganglia. (Ganglia is the plural of ganglion, a cluster of neurons. In most cases, a
neuron cluster outside the central nervous system is called a ganglion, and a cluster inside the central nervous system
is called a nucleus.) Cell bodies of the motor neurons are inside the spinal cord.

In the cross-section through the spinal cord shown in Figures on the left, the
H-shaped gray matter in the center of the cord is densely packed with cell
bodies and dendrites. Many neurons of the spinal cord send axons from the
gray matter to the brain or other parts of the spinal cord through the white
matter, which consists mostly of myelinated axons.

Each segment of the spinal cord sends sensory information to the brain and
receives motor commands from the brain. All that information passes through
tracts of axons in the spinal cord. If the spinal cord is cut at a given segment,
the brain loses sensation from that segment and below. Th e brain also loses
motor control over all parts of the body served by that segment and the lower ones.

MAJOR DIVISIONS OF THE BRAIN

The brain is a complex organ that acts as the control center of the body. As a
component of the central nervous system, the brain sends, receives, processes,
and directs sensory information. The brain is split into left and right
hemispheres by a band of fibers called the corpus callosum. There are three
major divisions of the brain, with each division performing specific functions.
The major divisions of the brain are the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.

FOREBRAIN
The forebrain, or prosencephalon, is by far the largest brain division. It includes the cerebrum, which accounts for
about two-thirds of the brain's mass and covers most other brain structures. The forebrain consists of two subdivisions
called the telencephalon and diencephalon. The olfactory and optic cranial nerves are found in the forebrain, as well
as the lateral and third cerebral ventricles.

Telencephalon
A major component of the telencephalon is the cerebral cortex, which is further divided into four lobes. These lobes
include the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal lobe. Functions of the cerebral cortex include
processing sensory information, controlling motor functions, and performing higher-order functions such as reasoning
and problem-solving.

Frontal Lobe
The frontal lobe is located in the forward part of the brain. The frontal lobe is involved in reasoning, motor
control, emotion, and language. It contains the motor cortex, which is
involved in planning and coordinating movement; the prefrontal
cortex, which is responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning; and
Broca’s area, which is essential for language production.

Parietal Lobe
The parietal lobe is located immediately behind the frontal lobe, and
is involved in processing information from the body’s senses. It
contains the somatosensory cortex, which is essential for processing
sensory information from across the body, such as touch, temperature,
and pain.

Occipital Lobe
The occipital lobe is located at the very back of the brain, and contains the primary visual cortex, which is
responsible for interpreting incoming visual information.

SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

Bachelor of Science in Psychology Karl Michael M. Valdulla, CHRA
© San Mateo Municipal College All Rights Reserved

Temporal Lobe
The temporal lobe is located on the side of the head, and is associated with hearing, memory, emotion, and some
aspects of language. The auditory cortex, the main area responsible for processing auditory information, is located
within the temporal lobe. Wernicke’s area, important for speech comprehension, is also located here.

Limbic System
The limbic system is the part of the brain involved in the behavioral and emotional responses, especially when it
comes to behaviors people need for survival, including feeding, reproduction and caring for one’s young, and fight
or flight responses. Two of the major structures of the limbic system are the hippocampus and the amygdala.

Hippocampus
This refers to the brain structure, which resembles the shape of a curvy seahorse, that is essentially the memory
center of our brains. Here, episodic memories are formed and catalogued to be filed away in long-term
storage across other parts of the cerebral cortex.

Amygdala
The almond-like shape structure located right next to the hippocampus that plays a central role in emotional
responses, including feelings like pleasure, fear, anxiety and anger. The amygdala also attaches emotional
content to one’s memories, and so plays an important role in determining how robustly those memories are
stored. Memories that have strong emotional meaning tend to stick.

Basal Ganglia
The basal ganglia are a group of structures near the center of the brain that form important connections. These
connections allow different areas of the brain to work together. The basal ganglia manage the signals the brain
sends that help in moving muscles.

Diencephalon
The diencephalon is the region of the brain that relays sensory information and connects components of the endocrine
system with the nervous system. The diencephalon regulates a number of functions including autonomic, endocrine,
and motor functions. It also plays a major role in sensory perception. Components of the diencephalon include:

Thalamus
This is referred to as the body’s information relay station. All information from the body’s senses (except smell)
must be processed through the thalamus before being sent to the brain’s cerebral cortex for interpretation. It also
plays a role in sleep, wakefulness, consciousness, learning and memory.

Hypothalamus
Acts as the control center for many autonomic functions including respiration, blood pressure, and body
temperature regulation. It serves as the main link between the endocrine system and the nervous system. The
hypothalamus keeps the body balanced in a stable state called homeostasis.

Pituitary Gland
This is referred to as the “master gland” because it monitors and regulates many bodily functions through the
hormones that it produces, including growth, metabolism, and reproduction.

Pineal Gland
This small endocrine gland produces the hormone melatonin. Production of this hormone is vital to the regulation
of sleep-wake cycles and also influences sexual development.

MIDBRAIN
The midbrain, or the mesencephalon, is the area of the brain that connects the forebrain to the hindbrain. The
midbrain and hindbrain together compose the brainstem. The brainstem connects the spinal cord with the cerebrum.
The midbrain regulates movement and aids in the processing of auditory and visual information. The oculomotor and

SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

Bachelor of Science in Psychology Karl Michael M. Valdulla, CHRA
© San Mateo Municipal College All Rights Reserved

trochlear cranial nerves are located in the midbrain. These nerves control eye and eyelid movement. The cerebral
aqueduct, a canal that connects the third and fourth cerebral ventricles, is also located in the midbrain. Other
components of the midbrain include:

Tectum
The dorsal part of the midbrain that is composed of the superior and inferior colliculi. These colliculi are rounded
bulges that are involved in visual and auditory reflexes.

Superior Colliculus
The superior colliculus processes visual signals and relays them to the occipital lobes.

Inferior Colliculus
The inferior colliculus processes auditory signals and relays them to the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe.

Tegmentum
The ventral part of the midbrain and is responsible for many vital functions including arousal, consciousness, sleep-
wake cycles, coordination of certain movements, and cardiovascular control

HINDBRAIN
The hindbrain, or rhombencephalon, is composed of two subdivisions called the metencephalon and
myelencephalon. Several cranial nerves are located in this brain region. The trigeminal, abducent, facial, and
vestibulocochlear nerves are found in the metencephalon. The glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory, and hypoglossal
nerves are located in the myelencephalon. The fourth cerebral ventricle also extends through this region of the brain.
The hindbrain assists in the regulation of autonomic functions, maintaining balance and equilibrium, movement
coordination, and the relay of sensory information.

Metencephalon
The metencephalon is the upper region of the hindbrain and contains the pons and cerebellum.

Pons
The pons is a component of the brainstem, which acts as a bridge
connecting the cerebrum with the medulla oblongata and cerebellum. It
assists in the control of autonomic functions, as well as states of sleep and
arousal.

Cerebellum
The cerebellum relays information between muscles and areas of the
cerebral cortex that are involved in motor control. This hindbrain structure
aids in fine movement coordination, balance and equilibrium
maintenance, and muscle tone.

Myelencephalon
The myelencephalon is the lower region of the hindbrain located below the metencephalon and above the spinal
cord. It consists of the medulla oblongata

Medulla Oblongata
The brain structure that relays motor and sensory signals between the spinal cord and higher brain regions. It also
assists in the regulation of autonomic functions such as breathing, heartbeat, blood pressure, and reflex actions
including swallowing and sneezing.

SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

Bachelor of Science in Psychology Karl Michael M. Valdulla, CHRA