Journal of Petroleum Geology, Vol.

27 (4), October 2004, pp 335-356 335

ASPECTS OF THE PETROLEUM GEOLOGY

OF THE BERMEJO FIELD, NORTHWESTERN
ORIENTE BASIN, ECUADOR

G. H. Lee*#, M. A. Eissa**, C. L. Decker**1, J. P. Castagna**,

D. J. O’Meara** and H. D. Marín***

The principal reservoirs in the Bermejo oilfield in the NW Oriente Basin of Ecuador are the
Cretaceous Hollín Formation and the basal sandstone in the Tena Formation (“basal Tena sand”).
Analysis of 3D seismic and wireline log data suggests that much of the Hollín Formation consists
of stacked fluvial channel deposits. In the overlying Napo Formation, the excellent correlation of
log signatures, continuous seismic reflections, and the absence of thick sandstone layers (except
for the coarsening-upward Napo “T” sand), suggest deposition from uniform processes, possibly in
a shelf environment. The upper Napo and lower Tena Formations are interpreted as a series of
transgressive deposits, punctuated by the basal Tena sand. Truncation in the Hollín Formation is
better observed on east-west seismic lines than on north-south seismic lines, suggesting a north-
south trending fluvial system. This, together with the northward thinning of the top Hollín shale
suggesting an east-west trending palaeo-shorezone, further predicts north-south oriented reservoir
distribution. The palaeogeography of the Oriente Basin was probably more complex than that
portrayed in previous depositional models which depict a north-south oriented palaeo-shorezone
and sediment supply from the east. Detailed depth structure maps reveal structural closures that
have not been tested.

INTRODUCTION from Cretaceous reservoirs, accounting for less than

The Bermejo field is located in the NW corner of the
Oriente Basin of Ecuador, about 130 km ENE of the
capital city of Quito (Fig. 1). The field comprises
Bermejo North and South, each of which consists of a
low-relief, NNW-SSE trending hanging-wall anticline
associated with a large reverse fault (Fig. 2). The
Bermejo field currently produces about 5,000 brl/d
*Dept of Environmental Exploration Engineering,
Pukyong National University, Busan 608-737, Korea.
** Institute for Exploration and Development
Geosciences, University of Oklahoma, Norman,
Oklahoma 73019, USA.
1
Current address: Gas Technology Institute, Houston,
Texas 77090, USA.
*** Tecpetrol, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
# Corresponding Author, email: gwanglee@pknu.ac.kr
1% of national oil output (US Energy Information
Administration, 1998).
This study is part of a larger investigation,
conducted jointly by Tecpetrol and the Institute for
Exploration and Development Geosciences at the
University of Oklahoma, to optimize the reservoir
development at the Bermejo field. The primary
objective of this study is to interpret the depositional
environments of the Cretaceous reservoir rocks using
3D seismic and wireline log data. Depositional
environment analysis can provide important
information regarding the origin and directional trends
of reservoirs and thus help to optimize completion
programmes and the placement of development wells.
Overview and previous work
The Oriente Basin is part of the Sub-Andean retro-
arc foreland basin system which extends from
Venezuela to southern Chile (Christophoul et al.,
2002). The basin is contiguous northward with the
Putumayo Basin in Colombia and southward with the
336 Bermejo field, Northwestern Oriente Basin, Ecuador

ECUADOR
0 COLOMBIA
SOUTH
AMERICA
1 N
PUTUMAYO
STUDY AREA
BASIN
BERMEJO
0
km
0 1000
QUITO LIBRATADOR

SHUSHUFINDI
COCA- SACHA
PAYMINO

GACEIA
ACUA

1 S CONANACO

ECUADOR ORIENTE
BASIN
2 GUAYAQUIL

~
3 MARANON
PERU BASIN
STUDY
AREA

N
BE
GRA
A RE NDEAN
TAL

4 ∆
TA

AL
-A
IDEN
ER
S

∆
INT
CO

ORIENTE
OCC

∆
R
SUB-ANDEAN
DILLE
ERA

∆
COR
DILL

∆
COR

5 km
PRODUCING FIELDS 0 100 100 km

81 W 80 79 78 77 76 75

Fig. 1. Index map showing the distribution of major oilfields in the Oriente Basin, Ecuador (adapted from
White et al., 1995) and the location of the study area (Bermejo field). Inset at bottom right shows the
principal tectono-morphological provinces in Ecuador (adapted from Balkwill et al., 1995).

Marañon Basin of Peru (Fig. 1). The Oriente Basin
produced over 3 billion brl of oil between the 1970s
and the mid-1990s (White et al., 1995). Much of the
recoverable petroleum in the Oriente Basin is trapped
in low-relief anticlines formed by Andean faulting
(White et al., 1995). These traps consist of footwall
anticlines associated with normal faults, and hanging-
wall anticlines associated with reverse faults
(Dashwood and Abbotts, 1990).
Primary reservoirs in the Oriente Basin are the
Cretaceous Hollín and Napo Formations, with lesser
production from the Tena Formation and the “M1”
sandstone of the Napo Formation (Fig. 3) (Higley,
2000). The main source rocks are believed to be the
Napo Formation marine shales and limestones
(Canfield et al., 1982; Dashwood and Abbotts, 1990;
White et al., 1995; Higley, 2000).
The Hollín and Napo Formations have traditionally
been interpreted as fluvio-deltaic deposits that
prograded westward into shoreline and shelf
environments along the proto-Pacific margin
(Macellari, 1988; Canfield, 1991; White et al., 1995).
 G. H. Lee et al. 337

Fig. 2. Distribution of 3D seismic data and location of wells used in this study. The two large reverse faults
bounding Bermejo North and South fields are modified from Marín et al. (2001). Solid lines indicate seismic
profiles and dotted lines well-log cross-sections shown in other figures.

In the western Oriente Basin, the uppermost section
of the Hollín Formation grades upward into open
marine strata (White et al., 1995). The overlying Napo
Formation in the eastern Oriente Basin has also been
interpreted as fluvio-deltaic deposits (Canfield et al.,
1982; Smith, 1989; White et al., 1995). However,
passing westward, the Napo Formation changes
abruptly to marine shales and limestones and lowstand
valley-fill sandstones (White et al., 1995).
Unconformably overlying the Napo Formation is a
red-bed succession referred to as the Tena Formation
(Canfield et al., 1982; Canfield, 1991).
Shanmugam et al. (2000) and Shanmugam and
Poffenberger (2002) reinterpreted the Hollín and Napo
(“T” and “U”) sands as tide-dominated estuarine
deposits, based on lithofacies analysis of conventional
cores from the Sacha field in the north-central Oriente
Basin (Fig. 1), and an outcrop study of the basal Hollín
Formation exposed at a road cut 70 km to the SW.
They suggested that east-west tidal sand bars oriented
parallel with the direction of tidal flows are the most
important reservoir facies. They further proposed four
stages of deposition for the Hollín Formation which
were, from oldest to youngest: (i) a tide-dominated
estuary with minor fluvial channels; (ii) a well-
developed tide-dominated estuary; (iii) drowning of
the tide-dominated estuary; and (iv) an open shelf.
During Napo “T” and “U” deposition, stages ii, iii,
and iv were repeated. Based on cores and well-log
data, Hunter et al. (2000) suggested that mudstones
and rippled-to-laminated sandstones in the Napo
Formation represent deposition in a shallow-marine
environment with occasional tidal influence, whereas
trough cross-bedded sandstones represented a high-
energy fluvial channel environment. Higgs (2002)
proposed a tidal shelf model for the Hollín and Napo
Formations, based on regional considerations and on
general sedimentological and sequence-stratigraphical
reasoning. Higgs (2002) argued that the great areal
extent and uniformity of the Hollín and Napo facies
association across the Oriente Basin, and the lack of
evidence for valley incision and intertidal sedimentary
structures, are more compatible with a shelf than with
estuaries or deltas.
338 Bermejo field, Northwestern Oriente Basin, Ecuador
Fig. 3. Stratigraphic column, Oriente Basin (from Smith, 1989). Hollín Formation “Main” and “Upper”
terminology is from White et al. (1995).
TECTONIC AND GEOLOGIC SETTING
Ecuador can be divided into three tectono-
morphological provinces which are from east to west:
the Oriente, the Cordillera (Andes), and the Costa
(Balkwill et al., 1995) (Fig. 1). The Cordillera
comprises the sub-parallel Western Cordillera
(Cordillera Occidental) and Eastern Cordillera
(Cordillera Real) which are separated by the inter-
Andean Graben (Aspden and Litherland, 1992). During
the Triassic (and Permian?), the region now occupied
by the Cordillera Real experienced continental margin
rifting along a passive proto-Pacific margin (Jaillard
et al., 1990). This rift regime resulted in a number of
basement-involved half grabens, filled with coarse
clastic sediments and carbonate rocks (Balkwill et al.,
1995). During the Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous,
intracratonic convergence within the western South
American craton, caused by the accretion of
allochthonous oceanic rocks, folded and uplifted the
Triassic rift assemblages and older rocks (Aspden and
Litherland, 1992).
A second phase of convergence in the Cordillera
Real began in the Late Cretaceous (Balkwill et al.,
1995) and lasted until the early Tertiary (Canfield,
1991; Aspden and Litherland, 1992). This transpression
created a network of low-relief basement reverse faults
and structural highs in the Oriente Basin (Balkwill et
al., 1995), providing lines of basement weakness for
later reactivation. All of the major oil- and gasfields in
the Oriente Basin are related to this basement
deformation.
The wider Oriente Basin province can be divided
into the Sub-Andean zone and the Oriente Basin
sensu stricto (Balkwill et al., 1995; Christophoul et
al., 2002; Hungerbühler et al., 2002), separated by a
reverse fault system (Fig. 1). The Oriente Basin is
asymmetrical in cross-section and dips gently to the
west and south (Canfield, 1991). In the western
Oriente Basin, an upper Cretaceous unconformity
continues in the subsurface, truncating an
increasingly older section in a westward direction.
The Late Cretaceous transpressional convergence
terminated the pericratonic sag history.
During the Eocene, Cretaceous and older rocks
were uplifted and exposed along the western margin
of the Oriente Basin (Smith, 1989). Major volcanic
activity began in the Miocene while uplift and erosion
of the older section continued. Since the Pliocene,
thrusting has affected the exposed Cretaceous section
(Smith, 1989).
DATA BASE AND DATA ANALYSIS
Data used in this study consist of (i) a 3D seismic
data set covering both Bermejo North and South fields
and (ii) wireline logs and stratigraphic tops from 45
wells (16 and 29 wells from Bermejo North and
South, respectively) (Fig. 2). Cores and
biostratigraphic data remain proprietary and thus
 G. H. Lee et al. 339

Fig. 4. (A) Seismic reflection profile and (B) corresponding line drawing interpretation. Seismic reflections
within the Main Hollín and the lower part of the Upper Hollín are characterized by variable amplitude and
low continuity, whereas those within the upper part of the Upper Hollín are more continuous and uniform.
The Napo Formation is generally characterized by very continuous, parallel, moderate-to-high amplitude
reflections. See Fig. 2 for location.

were not available in this study. The 3D seismic data
consist of 540 inlines, trending NNW-SSE with an
azimuth of 345°, and 809 crosslines. A subset of the
survey (540 inlines and 595 crosslines) was analyzed
in this study. The bin size was 30 x 30 m; the data are
32-fold over much of the area. ProMAX 2D/3D
(version 7.2) and GeoFrame (version 3.8.1) were used
for seismic data processing and for data interpretation
and mapping, respectively.
Data from the 45 wells include nine stratigraphic
tops, time-depth tables, and various wireline logs (SP,
gamma ray (GR), resistivity, sonic, neutron porosity,
and density). The well log curves were imported into
GeoFrame for display and analysis. Well-log
correlation and interpretation were based primarily
on the GR log because it is the most consistent. The
time-depth relationship at each well was refined by
synthetic-to-well tie using Hampson-Russell(version
340 Bermejo field, Northwestern Oriente Basin, Ecuador

Depth (m)

0 15' N

BERMEJO
NORTH

DATA BOUNDARY
BERMEJO
SOUTH

0 10' N

LOCATION WELL

NON-PRODUCING WELL km
0 5' N
PRODUCING WELL 0 5

77 20' W 77 15' W

Fig. 5. Depth-structure map of top Main Hollín. A structural closure, defined by the 1,400m contour and the
reverse fault, is seen in Bermejo South. The depth of the crestal part of the anticline in Bermejo North reaches
about 1,470 m. Contour interval 10m.

2.0.3). To generate the synthetic seismograms, a
wavelet was extracted directly from a subset of the
seismic data and convolved with reflection coefficients
computed from sonic and density log data. For wells
without a sonic log, data from nearby wells were used.
The time-depth relationship at each well was further
refined for time-depth conversion, using the depths
of stratigraphic tops and the two-way travel times of
the tops interpreted from the seismic data.
STRUCTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY
Structure of the Bermejo field area
Seismic data for pre-Cretaceous (pre-Hollín) rocks are
generally of poor quality (Fig. 4). Thus, although its
top is well constrained, the internal structure of the
acoustic basement is not well determined and the
truncation of pre-Cretaceous beds, documented in
other parts of the Oriente Basin (Balkwill et al., 1995),
is not observed in this study. The eastward-dipping,
high-angle reverse faults forming the western
boundaries of Bermejo North and South together with
other minor faults gradually die out upward into the
shallow part of the section.
We constructed depth structure maps for the top
of the Main Hollín interval (Fig. 5), the top of the
Upper Hollín interval (or top Hollín) (Fig. 6), and top
of the basal Tena (not shown), using the interval
velocities estimated from well data and two-way travel
times from seismic data interpretation. These maps
show detailed structural features that would not be
recognizable from those constructed using 2D seismic
reflection profiles and well data. The most prominent
structural features are the two anticlines corresponding
to Bermejo North and South, respectively, and the
reverse faults bounding the anticlines. These reverse
faults trend NW in the south, but curve NE in the
north.
The depths of the top Main Hollín (Fig. 5) in the
mapped area range from less than 1,350 m over the
anticline in Bermejo South to more than 1,700 m in
the northeast. A NW-SE trending structural closure,
defined by the 1,400 m contour and the reverse fault,
is seen in Bermejo South. The main part of this closure
 G. H. Lee et al. 341

Fig. 6. Depth-structure map of top Upper Hollín (top Hollín). Two closures are seen in Bermejo South. The
closure in Bermejo North is defined by the 1,450m contour and the reverse fault. Contour interval 10m.

has not been drilled. To the SE is a smaller closure,
outlined by the 1,400 m contour. The depth of the
crestal part of the anticline in Bermejo North reaches
about 1,470 m; the closure here is defined by the 1,490
m contour and the reverse fault.
The structure of the top Upper Hollín (Fig. 6) is
very similar to that of the top Main Hollín. However,
the reverse faults and the axial regions of the anticlines
are offset slightly westward due to the eastward dip
of the reverse faults. The depth of the top Upper Hollín
in the mapped area varies from less than 1,300 m in
Bermejo South to over 1,650 m in the NE part of
Bermejo North. Two closures, outlined by the 1,350
m contour, are seen in Bermejo South. The main part
of the larger closure has not been drilled. The closure
in Bermejo North is defined by the 1,450 m contour
and the reverse fault.
The structure of the top basal Tena sand also
reveals two closures corresponding to Bermejo North
and South. The main parts of theses closures have not
been tested.
Reservoir description
Fig. 7 shows a segment of seismic section traversing
well BS-30 (location in Fig. 2), together with type (GR
and resistivity) logs from this well. Also shown are
type logs for the Hollín Formation and a part of the
Napo Formation from the Sacha field and a composite
log for the western Oriente Basin.
The primary reservoirs at the Bermejo field are
the Hollín and basal Tena sands. Small volumes of
oil have also been produced from the “A” Limestone
of the Napo Formation at the BN-02 well (Marín et
al., 2001). Unlike many other fields in the Oriente
Basin, the Napo sands in the Bermejo field are
generally either thin or nearly absent.
Hollín Formation
The Hollín Formation overlies a pre-Cretaceous
basement consisting of granite, metamorphic rocks
and conglomerates (Beicip-Franlab, 1994). It is
divided into the Main Hollín and the thinner Upper
Hollín (Fig. 7), separated by a thin shale layer. Seismic
reflections within the Main Hollín and lower part of
the Upper Hollín are characterized by variable
342 Bermejo field, Northwestern Oriente Basin, Ecuador
amplitude and low continuity, whereas those of the
upper part of the Upper Hollín are more continuous
and uniform (Fig. 4). Seismic profiles show numerous
erosional surfaces in the Main Hollín and the lower
part of the Upper Hollín (Fig. 8). These erosional
surfaces are more easily recognized on the east-west
lines than on the north-south lines. The top of the
Upper Hollín is represented by a very continuous
reflector.
The GR curves of the Main Hollín are generally
characterized by blocky or barrel-shaped sands.
Relatively high (> 120 API units) GR fingers or shales
of various thicknesses are also present (Figs. 7, 9, 10).
The individual sand units and interbedded shales in
the Main Hollín cannot be correlated across the area.
The textural and structural features of the Hollín
Formation in the study area, observed from core
samples (Beicip-Franlab, 1994), are characterized by:
(i) an upward decrease of sandstone percentage; (ii)
an upward increase of calcite fraction; (iii) an upward
decrease of the number and thickness of coal beds;
and (iv) a change of sedimentary structures from cross-
bedding in the Main Hollín to flaser bedding in the
Upper Hollín.
The gross thickness of the Main Hollín varies from
less than 50 m to over 80 m across the Bermejo field
(Fig. 11A). Overall, the Main Hollín thins gradually
to the south. The net sand thickness (Fig. 11B) was
estimated from the GR data. Because the GR readings
of the blocky intervals are consistently less than 40
API units, we used a 40 API cut-off for sand. Net
sand thicknesses range from less than 10 m in the
central part of Bermejo South to over 60 m in the
northern part. The net-to-gross ratios of the Main
Hollín (not shown) range from 0.3 to 0.7.
The GR curves of the lower part of the Upper
Hollín are characterized by a blocky and/or irregular
signature (Figs. 7, 9, 10), similar to those of the Main
Hollín. Correlation of the individual sand units is
difficult but some sand units in the upper part of the
Upper Hollín appear to be correlatable over a few
kilometers (e.g. BN 7 to BN 17 in Fig. 9; BS 13 to BS
19 in Fig. 10). High GR readings or shales become
more abundant towards the upper part of the Upper
Hollín.
The gross thickness of the Upper Hollín displays
a pattern nearly opposite to that of the Main Hollín
(Fig. 12A). The 40m isopach contour outlines a
WNW-ESE trending region of thicker Upper Hollín
in Bermejo South. Bermejo North shows two regions
of thicker sand (> 40 m). The net sand distribution
(Fig. 12B) suggests a more-or-less north-south
trending elongate feature, outlined by the 5m contour.
The net-to-gross ratios of the Upper Hollín range from
0 to 0.4, much lower than those of the Main Hollín.
The uppermost part of the Upper Hollín in the
study area is a well-defined shale layer (Figs. 9, 10),
corresponding to a very continuous reflector in seismic
data (Fig. 4). This shale layer gradually thins
northward from about 15 m to less than 2 m (Fig. 13).
Napo Formation
The Napo Formation conformably overlies the Hollín
Formation. Seismic reflections within the Napo
Formation are characterized by moderate-to-high
amplitude and good continuity (Figs. 4, 7). The GR
signatures of the Napo Formation contrast sharply with
those of the Hollín Formation in that: (i) high (> 100
API units) GR shales are dominant; (ii) individual log
signatures can be easily correlated across the study
area; and (iii) very high (> 200 API units) GR readings
are locally present (Figs. 7, 9, 10).
The Napo “T” generally exhibits a coarsening-
upward log signature. The gross thickness (not shown)
varies from less than 8 m to 15 m. It is thick (> 12 m)
over much of Bermejo North and in the central part
of Bermejo South.
Overlying the Napo “T” is the “B” Limestone,
characterized by irregular GR readings (Figs. 7, 9,10).
The “B” Limestone in turn is overlain by a thick (about
40–50m) unit of high and fairly uniform GR
signatures, similar to the shale layer underlying the
Napo “T”.
The interval between this shale and the “M1”
Limestone is characterized by relatively high and
irregular GR readings, including some very high
values (> 200 API units). Within this interval, the Napo
“U” and other sand units (M1 and M2 or San Fernando
Members; Smith, 1989) (Fig. 7), which are important
reservoirs in other fields in the western Oriente Basin,
are apparently replaced by limestones and/or not
recognizable. The “A” Limestone is about 25m thick
and occurs throughout the study area.
The zone between the “M1” Limestone and the
Tena Formation consists of a series of fining-upward
cycles that can be correlated across the area. Minor
blocky or coarsening upward log signatures are also
seen locally.
Tena Formation
The logged interval of the Tena Formation is
characterized by relatively high GR readings except
for the basal Tena sand, which is the uppermost
producing sandstone in the Oriente Basin. Fining-
upward GR motifs occur, like those of the upper
interval of the Napo Formation, although the overall
GR readings are higher.
The GR curves of the basal Tena sand are
characterized by one or more low GR peaks (Figs. 7,
9, 10) and by a sharp base and fining-upward signature
where it is relatively thick. In some wells, the basal
Tena sand is very thin (< 1 m) or hardly recognizable.
 G. H. Lee et al.

Fig. 7. From left to right: (i) a segment of seismic profile traversing the Hollín-Napo-Tena interval in the BS-30 well in the Bermejo field; (ii) GR and resistivity logs
from this well; (iii) GR and resistivity logs from a typical well in the Sacha field (from Shanmugam et al., 2000); and (iv) a composite log for the western Oriente Basin
(White et al., 1995). Datum for the logs is top Hollín. See Fig. 2 for the seismic line location.
343
 BS-20 BS-03 BS-06 BS-17 BN-07 BN-13
344
WSW ENE
0.8

0.9

1.0
2 km

TWO-WAY TRAVELTIME (sec.)

(A)

WSW ENE
TOP "M2"
LIMESTONE
0.8 TOP "A"
LIMESTONE

TOP "B"
LIMESTONE
TOP UPPER
'
HOLLIN
0.9
TOP MAIN
'
HOLLIN
Bermejo field, Northwestern Oriente Basin, Ecuador

'
BASE HOLLIN
1.0
PRE-CRETACEOUS 2 km

TWO-WAY TRAVELTIME (sec.)

(B)

Fig. 8. (A) Seismic reflection profile flattened on top Upper Hollín with well logs superimposed and (B) line drawing interpretation showing numerous irregular
surfaces in the Main Hollín and the lower part of the Upper Hollín. Log traces at each well are GR (left) and resistivity (right) curves. No resistivity log is available at
BN-13. See Fig. 2 for location.
 G. H. Lee et al. 345

GR (API) GR (API) GR (API) GR (API) GR (API) GR (API) GR (API) GR (API) GR (API)

0.0 200.0 0.0 200.0 0.0 200.0 0.0 200.0 0.0 200.0 0.0 200.0 0.0 200.0 0.0 200.0 0.0 200.0

Fig. 9. NNW-SSE stratigraphic GR log cross-section A-A´ across Bermejo North. Gamma-ray curves in the Main
Hollín and the lower part of the Upper Hollín are characterized by blocky or barrel-shaped signatures, and by
poor correlatability. Gamma-ray signatures of the Napo Formation are characterized by good correlation.
The interval between the “M1” Limestone and top basal Tena consists of a series of fining-upward cycles.
Datum is top Upper Hollín. See Fig. 2 for location.
The isopach and net-sand maps (Fig. 14) suggest a Hollín Formation
NE-SW trending elongate feature. An area isolated The textural and structural features of the Hollín
by the 5m contour is seen in the central part of Bermejo Formation in the study area, observed from the core
South. The cored intervals of the basal Tena sand samples (Beicip-Franlab, 1994), may reflect upward
consist of fine- to medium-grained quartz sandstones increasing marine/tidal influence and the deterioration
with cross-stratification and intercalations of shales of reservoir quality toward the later part of Hollín
(Beicip-Franlab, 1994). deposition. However, it is difficult to determine how
extensive marine/tidal processes would have affected
RESERVOIR FACIES INTERPRETATION Hollín and Napo deposition because of very brief
AND DISCUSSION published descriptions of the core data and the lack
of biostratigrahic information.
Reservoir facies interpretation The numerous erosional surfaces in the Main
Facies interpretations for the Hollín and Napo Hollín and the lower part of the Upper Hollín may
Formations by White et al. (1995), Shanmugam et al. not be compatible with the tidal shelf model of Higgs
(2000), and this study are summarized in Table 1. (2002) because erosion would not be widespread and
346 Bermejo field, Northwestern Oriente Basin, Ecuador
Table 1. Facies interpretations for the Hollín and Napo Formations by White et al. (1995), Shanmugam et al.
(2000), and this study.
extensive in a tidal shelf where thick sands are
deposited mainly as sand bars and broad sand flats
(Dalrymple et al., 1992, p. 1136). Moreover, bar-like
or smooth and mounded seismic facies, characteristic
of tidal sand bars, are not seen in the Hollín Formation
in the Bermejo field.
The tide-dominated estuary model of Shanmugam
et al. (2000) is based mainly on lithofacies analysis
of conventional cores (> 150 m) from the Sacha field.
The fluvio-deltaic model of White et al. (1995), on
the other hand, is based on an extensive data set
including seismic, well logs, and over 1,100 m of cores
from various fields in the western Oriente Basin. The
sedimentary features observed from the Hollín and
Napo Formations in the Sacha field, such as mud
drapes on bed forms, bidirectional cross-bedding and
sandy and muddy rhythmites, strongly suggest tidal
influence. However, because the Sacha field occupied
only a very small area along the outer margin of an
apparently large estuary or embayment (Shanmugam
et al., 2002, p. 675), it may not be appropriate to
generalize the depositional environments in the
Oriente Basin on the basis of the Sacha field study
alone. Tide-related sedimentary structures can also
occur in fluvially-dominated deposits because tidal
processes can significantly influence fluvial
environments several tens of kilometers from an open
estuary or coeval shoreline (Shanley et al., 1992;
Shanley and McCabe, 1993). Thus, flaser bedding
observed in the cores from the Upper Hollín in the
Bermejo field does not necessarily indicate that tidal
processes dominate over fluvial processes. In addition,
channels in a tide-dominated estuary would be much
muddier than fluvial channels (Brownridge and
Moslow, 1989) and thus may not be as blocky as the
sands in the Hollín Formation in the Bermejo field.
White et al. (1995) interpreted the stacked cross-
bedded sandstone with interbedded mudstone in the
Main Hollín in the western Oriente Basin as braid-
plain deposits. We also propose that the Main Hollín
and the lower part of the Upper Hollín in the Bermejo
field represent stacked or amalgamated channels,
deposited in a multiple-channel system probably in a
braid-plain environment. The apparently north-south
trending erosional truncation in the Hollín Formation
further suggests that the channels trend more-or-less
north-south. The lack of continuity in seismic
reflections, however, makes it difficult to map the
truncation. Seismic attribute maps for the Hollín
Formation do not clearly reveal individual channels
either.
The transgression during the later part of Hollín
deposition gradually drowned the study area. The good
continuity and uniform nature of the seismic
reflections in the upper part of the Upper Hollín are
possibly due to increasing marine influence (Brown
and Fisher, 1985). The flaser bedding in the Upper
Hollín probably suggests tidal influence. The areas
of thick net sand in the Upper Hollín, outlined by the
5m contour (Fig. 12B), may be part of a fluvio-tidal
channel system. The distinct shale layer with very high
GR values that caps the Hollín Formation probably
marks fully marine conditions at the end of Hollín
deposition, as marine flooding events are
characterized by widespread shale deposition
(Galloway, 1989) and high GR readings. This shale
layer thins northward, suggesting a northward marine
transgression and thus an east-west trending palaeo-
shorezone. The orientation of the palaeo-shorezone,
the north-south trending truncational features in the
Main Hollín and the lower part of the Upper Hollín,
and the southward thinning of the Main Hollín further
 BS-01 BS-22 BS-05 BS-03 BS-06 BS-07 BS-14 BS-30 BS-04 BS-21 BS-02 BS-13 BS-12 BS-19
GR (API) GR (API) GR (API) GR (API) GR (API) GR (API) GR (API) GR (API) GR (API) GR (API) GR (API) GR (API) GR (API) GR (API)
DEPTH 0.0 200.0 0.0 200.0 0.0 200.0 0.0 200.0 0.0 200.0 0.0 200.0 0.0 200.0 0.0 200.0 0.0 200.0 0.0 200.0 0.0 200.0 0.0 200.0 0.0 200.0 0.0 200.0
(M) DEPTH
(M)
1000

950

1050

1000

COARSEING
UPWARD COARSENING
UPWARD
1100
FINING
UPWARD FINING
FINING UPWARD 1050
UPWARD

1150

1100

1200

1150

1250

1200
G. H. Lee et al.

1300

1250

1350

1300

1400

1350

1450

1400

Fig. 10. NW-SE stratigraphic GR log cross-section B-B´ across Bermejo South. Log signatures are very similar to those from Bermejo North (Fig. 9). Datum is top
Upper Hollín. See Fig. 2 for location.
347
 348
Bermejo field, Northwestern Oriente Basin, Ecuador

Fig. 11. (A) Gross-thickness and (B) net-sand thickness maps of the Main Hollín. The net-sand thicknesses range from less than 10 m in the central part of Bermejo
South to over 60 m in the northern part. Contour intervals for (A) and (B) are 2 m and 5 m, respectively.
 Gross Thickness (m) Net Sand Thickness (m)

0 15' N 0 15' N

BERMEJO
NORTH
BERMEJO
NORTH

?
0 10' N 0 10' N

DATA BOUNDARY
DATA BOUNDARY

BERMEJO BERMEJO
SOUTH SOUTH

LOCATION WELL
LOCATION WELL
G. H. Lee et al.

NON-PRODUCING WELL
NON-PRODUCING WELL
PRODUCING WELL
PRODUCING WELL

km km
0 5' N 0 5' N
(A) 0 5 (B) 0 5

77 20' W 77 15' W 77 20' W 77 15' W

Fig. 12. (A) Gross-thickness and (B) net-sand thickness maps of the Upper Hollín. The Upper Hollín is thinnest in the northern Bermejo South and in Bermejo North,
and becomes thick in the SW and east. The net sand distribution suggests a north-south trending elongate feature. Contour interval 2 m.
349
350 Bermejo field, Northwestern Oriente Basin, Ecuador
Fig. 13. Isopach map of the shale layer forming the topmost part of the Upper Hollín. The shale layer gradually
thins northward. Contour interval 1m.
suggest that much of the Hollín Formation was
sourced from the north. The north-south well-log
cross-section traversing the Sacha field (Shanmugam
et al., 2000, p. 676), however, shows only a hint of a
thin shale layer in the topmost part of the Hollín
Formation. This makes it difficult to interpret the
direction of marine transgression during Hollín
deposition in the Sacha field, although the tide-
dominated estuary model indicates a north-south
trending palaeo-shorezone.
Napo Formation
The most conspicuous features of the Napo Formation
in the Bermejo field are: (i) the excellent correlation
of log signatures; (ii) very continuous and uniform
seismic reflections; and (iii) the absence of thick sand
layers except for the Napo “T”. These suggest that
the Napo Formation represents deposition from
widespread sedimentary processes probably in a
shallow marine environment. The lack of thick sand
layers, compared to many other fields in the western
Oriente Basin, may suggest that the Bermejo field was
located further from terrigenous sources during much
of Napo deposition. The very high GR peaks probably
represent periods of flooding.
Higgs (2002) noted the extensive distribution of
the Napo “T” and “U” facies association in the Oriente
Basin. He further argued, based on the composite log
for the Napo “T” (Fig. 7) shown by White et al. (1995),
that the sharp base of the Napo “T” suggests
eustatically-forced regressions, emplacing inner-shelf
sands (bars and sheets) on outer-shelf muds. The
composite log for the Napo “T” is generally blocky
and is characterized by a sharp base and a fining- or
deepening-upward top (Fig. 7). White et al. (1995)
interpreted the Napo “T” as incised-valley fill and
estuarine deltaic deposits. The Napo “T” in the Sacha
field also shows evidence for deepening or drowning
(Shanmugam et al., 2000). In contrast, the log
character of the Napo “T” in the Bermejo field is
characterized by a coarsening-upward textural profile,
suggesting progradation/regression. The gradational
base of the Napo “T” in the Bermejo field further
suggests a gradual transition probably from shelf muds
to coarser-grained deposits. We interpret the Napo “T”
as deltaic deposits. The fluvial system responsible for
 Gross Thickness (m) Net Sand Thickness (m)

0 15' N 0 15' N

0 10' N 0 10' N
DATA BOUNDARY

DATA BOUNDARY
LOCATION WELL LOCATION WELL
G. H. Lee et al.

NON-PRODUCING WELL NON-PRODUCING WELL

PRODUCING WELL PRODUCING WELL

km km
0 5' N 0 5' N
(A) 0 5 (B) 0 5

77 20' W 77 15' W 77 20' W 77 15' W

Fig. 14. (A) Gross-thickness and (B) net-sand thickness maps of the basal Tena sand. The 5m gross-thickness contour suggests a NE-SW trending
elongate feature. The net sand map also shows the elongate feature. Contour interval 1 m.
351
352 Bermejo field, Northwestern Oriente Basin, Ecuador

Fig. 15. Distribution of GR signatures (Type 1 and Type 2) of Napo “T”. Type 1 is characterized by well-defined
coarsening upward with a sharp top, and dominates in Bermejo North and the northern part of Bermejo South.
Type 2 is characterized by gradational top and basal contacts, and mainly occurs in the southern part of the
study area.

the Napo “T” may have resulted from a sea-level fall
and/or gradual migration of fluvial facies into the area.
Hunter et al. (2000) correlated the Napo “T” with the
late Albian (98 Ma) sea-level lowstand. The thin,
blocky topmost part of the Napo “T”, seen in some of
the GR logs, may represent distributary channels
cutting through the top of the distributary mouth bars.
The GR signatures of the Napo “T” in the Bermejo
field can be grouped further into two types:
Type 1, characterized by well-defined coarsening
upward with a sharp top; and
Type 2, characterized by gradational top and basal
contacts (Fig. 15).
Type 1 dominates in Bermejo North where the
Napo “T” is generally thick (compare Fig. 9 and Fig.
10) and the northern part of Bermejo South, whereas
Type 2 mainly occurs in the southern part of the study
area where the Napo “T” is thinner (Fig. 15).
Types 1 and 2 may represent distributary mouth
bars and bar-fringe deposits, respectively. Thus, the
zonal distribution of Napo “T” GR log types may
suggest more-or-less southward progradation.
Tena Formation
The logged interval of the Tena Formation is
characterized by a series of fining-upward sequences
similar to the upper part of the Napo Formation,
suggesting transgression. However, the GR values for
these sequences are higher than those of the upper
part of the Napo Formation. The sharp base and fining
upward signatures (Figs. 9, 10) of the GR logs of the
basal Tena and the abrupt transition from black
calcareous shales to sand across the Napo-Tena
boundary observed in the cored samples (Beicip-
Franlab, 1994), indicate an erosive event over much
of the area. This erosive event may be due to an abrupt
sea-level fall and/or to a sudden shift of a channel
system into the area. The NE-SW trending elongate
feature in the basal Tena sand may represent fluvial
facies deposited during this event. The area isolated
 G. H. Lee et al.

Fig. 16. Cretaceous depositional model for the Bermejo field. During Main Hollín and lower Upper Hollín deposition, the area was a braid plain. The area was
drowned by the ensuing marine transgression from the south or SW, which was interrupted by a regression that deposited the deltaic Napo “T”. As the sea level
rose again, carbonate and fine-grained sedimentation prevailed. Increasing clastic input and/or greater water depths terminated carbonate sedimentation, followed
by a series of transgressive events. These transgressive events were punctuated by an abrupt sea-level fall and/or a sudden shift of fluvial facies into the area,
depositing the basal Tena sand.
353
354 Bermejo field, Northwestern Oriente Basin, Ecuador
by the 5m contour in the central part of Bermejo South
may be an abandoned channel segment.
Reservoir body orientation
An important aspect of this study is that the reservoir
sands in the Hollín Formation in the Bermejo field
are predicted to trend north-south. The conventional
fluvio-deltaic model (Macellari, 1988; Canfield, 1991;
White et al., 1995) would predict that the primary
reservoirs are east-west trending channels and more-
or-less north-south trending distributary mouth bars.
The tide-dominated estuary model (Shanmugam et al.,
2000), on the other hand, predicts that east-west
trending tidal sand bars are the principal reservoirs.
We interpret that the palaeogeography of the Oriente
Basin was more complex than that of the existing
depositional models that depict a north-south oriented
shorezone and sediment supply from the east. The
isopach maps for the Hollín and Napo reservoirs for
the entire Oriente Basin (Dashwood and Abbots, 1990,
p. 93) suggest that sediments were supplied from the
east and NE for the Hollín and Napo Formations. The
individual isopach contours, however, are quite
variable, suggesting more complex sediment-transport
directions and intra-depositional hiatuses. Information
on the origin and directional trends of depositional
systems is very important to understand reservoir
orientation, connectivity and directional permeability,
all of which are factors which are used for optimizing
completion programmes and the placement of
development wells.
Depositional model
The depositionl model proposed for the Bermejo field
is illustrated in Fig. 16. During Main Hollín and lower
Upper Hollín deposition, the study area was a braid
plain. Ensuing marine transgression, probably from
the south or SW, gradually drowned the area.
Continued marine transgression during Napo
deposition completely inundated the area, resulting
in a shelf environment. The marine transgression was
interrupted by the deposition of the deltaic Napo “T”
sand. As the delta was abandoned with a sea-level
rise, carbonate and fine-grained sedimentation
prevailed in the area. The carbonate deposition was
terminated by increasing clastic input and/or greater
water depths during the later part of Napo deposition.
A series of transgressive events characterized the
upper Napo and lower Tena deposition. These
transgressive events were interrupted by an abrupt sea-
level fall and/or a shift of a channel system into the
area that deposited the basal Tena sand.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The Main Hollín and the lower part of the Upper
Hollín in the Bermejo field are interpreted as fluvial
deposits. The numerous erosional surfaces in the Main
Hollín and the lower part of the Upper Hollín may
indicate multiple channel erosion and switching. The
truncation is better observed on east-west lines than
on north-south lines, suggesting a north-south trending
fluvial system.
The distinct shale layer with very high GR values
that caps the Hollín Formation may mark fully
transgressive conditions. The northward thinning of
this shale unit suggests northward marine
transgression and thus an east-west trending palaeo-
shorezone. The orientation of the palaeo-shorezone,
the north-south trending truncational features in the
Main Hollín and the lower part of the Upper Hollín,
and the southward thinning of the Main Hollín suggest
that much of the Hollín Formation was sourced from
the north. Thus, the channel sands in the Hollín
Formation are predicted to be oriented in a north-south
direction.
The Napo Formation is interpreted to have been
deposited by uniform and widespread processes,
probably in a shallow marine environment. The Napo
“T” is generally coarsening-upward, indicating
progradation/regression, and has a gradational base
suggesting a gradual transition from shelf muds to
coarser-grained deposits.
After Napo “T” deposition, carbonate and fine-
grained sedimentation became dominant in the area.
During the later part of Napo deposition, increasing
clastic input and/or greater water depths terminated
carbonate sedimentation. These relatively fine-grained
deposits were punctuated by the basal Tena sand. The
NE-SW trending elongate feature in the basal Tena
sand probably suggests that sediments were supplied
from the NE.
The palaeogeography of the Oriente Basin was
probably more complex than that described by
previous depositional models which depict a north-
south oriented palaeo-shorezone and sediment supply
from the east.
Depth structure maps, based on 3D seismic data,
reveal that the main parts of the structural closures
have not been tested.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Tecpetrol (Argentina) for permission to
publish this work. We also thank Jan Dodson and Tim
Kwiatkowski for assistance in computer work.
Schlumberger and Hampson-Russell are appreciated
for granting educational licenses and technical
support. R. Higgs and M. Keeley provided thorough
reviews; their comments significantly improved the
paper. This study was completed while G. H. Lee was
visiting the Institute for Exploration and Development
 G. H. Lee et al.
Geosciences (EDGe), University of Oklahoma, with
financial support from the Korea Research Foundation
through the Faculty Research Abroad Program (KRF-
2001-013-H00004). The EDGe provided partial
funding for this study.
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