THERMODYNAMICS II

I.C. Engines:
Internal combustion engine more popularly known as I.C. engine, is a heat engine which
converts the heat energy released by the combustion of the fuel inside the engine cylinder, into
mechanical work.
Classification of I.C. Engines: I.C engines are classified according to:

1. Nature of thermodynamic cycles as:

1. Otto cycle engine
2. Diesel cycle engine
3. Dual combustion cycle engine
2. Type of the fuel used:
1. Petrol engine
2. Diesel engine
3. Gas engine
4. Bi-fuel engine
3. Number of strokes as
1. Four stroke engine
2. Two stroke engine
4. Method of ignition as:
1. Spark ignition engine, known as SI engine
2. Compression ignition engine, known as C.I. engine
5. Number of cylinder as:
1. Single cylinder engine
2. Multi cylinder engine
6. Position of the cylinder as:
1. Horizontal engine
2. Vertical engine
3. In-line engine
4. Opposed cylinder engine

7. Method of cooling as:

1. Air cooled engine
2. Water cooled engine
Difference between:
Otto cycle
The Otto Cycle, describes how heat engines turn gasoline into motion. Like
other thermodynamic cycles, this cycle turns chemical energy into thermal
energy and then into motion. The Otto cycle describes how internal
combustion engines (that use gasoline) work, like automobiles and lawn
mowers.

Application
The Otto Cycle provides the energy for most transportation and was essential for the
modern world. Specifically, the vast majority of automobiles seen on the road today use
the Otto Cycle to convert gasoline into motion. Any machine that uses gasoline will be
divided into two categories of engines as seen below.

The Ideal Otto Cycle

The PV diagram (pressure-volume diagram) of the ideal Otto cycle is shown in Figure 3.
This diagram models how the changes in pressure and volume of the working fluid
(gasoline and air fuel) change due to the combustion of hydrocarbons which powers the
movements of a piston, creating heat, to provide motion for a vehicle. There are
expansion (increased volume chamber) piston motions—caused when the thermal
energy is released from combustion—inducing work being done by the gas and on the
piston. In contrast, when the piston does work on the gas, the engine chamber is being
compressed (decreasing in volume).

P-v diagram of an Ideal Otto cycle

The following describes what occurs during each step on the PV diagram, in which the
combustion of the working fluid—gasoline and air (oxygen), changes the motion in the
piston:
Green line: Referred to as the intake phase, the piston is drawn down to the bottom to
allow the volume in the chamber to increase so it can "intake" a fuel-air mixture. In
terms of thermodynamics, this is referred to as an isobaric process.

Process 1 to 2: During this phase the piston will be drawn up, so it can compress the
fuel-air mixture that entered the chamber. The compression causes the mixture to
increase slightly in pressure and temperature—however, no heat is exchanged. In terms
of thermodynamics, this is referred to as an adiabatic process. When the cycle reaches
point 2, that is when the fuel is met by the spark plug to be ignited.

Process 2 to 3: This is where combustion occurs due to the ignition of fuel by the spark
plug. The combustion of the gas is complete at point 3, which results in a highly
pressurized chamber that has a lot of heat (thermal energy). In terms of
thermodynamics, this is referred to as an isochoric process.

Process 3 to 4: The thermal energy in the chamber as a result of combustion is used to

do work on the piston—which pushes the piston down—increasing the volume of the
chamber. This is also known as the power stoke because it is when the thermal energy
is turned into motion to power the machine or vehicle.

Purple line (Process 4 to 1 and exhaust phase): From process 4 to 1, all waste
heat is expelled from the engine chamber. As the heat leaves the gas, the molecules
lose kinetic energy causing the decrease in pressure. Then the exhaust phase occurs
when the remaining mixture in the chamber is compressed by the piston to be
"exhausted" out, without changing the pressure.
Diesel Cycle
Diesel cycle is one of the most common thermodynamic cycles found in automobile
engines and describes the functioning of a typical compression ignition piston engine.
Because of the high temperature developed during the adiabatic compression, the fuel
spontaneously ignites as it is injected. Therefore, no spark plugs are needed.
Diesel Cycle – Processes

In an ideal Diesel cycle, the cycle’s system undergoes a series of four processes: two
isentropic (reversible adiabatic) processes alternated with one isochoric process and
one isobaric process.

Isentropic compression (compression stroke) – The air is compressed adiabatically

from state 1 to state 2 as the piston moves from bottom dead center to top dead center.
The surroundings do work on the gas, increasing its internal energy (temperature) and
compressing it.
Isobaric expansion (ignition phase) – In this phase (between state 2 and state 3),
there is a constant pressure (idealized model) heat transfer to the air from an external
source (combustion of injected fuel) while the piston is moving toward the V3. During the
constant pressure process, energy enters the system as heat Qadd, and a part of the
work is done by moving pistons.
Isentropic expansion (power stroke) – The gas expands adiabatically from state 3 to
state 4 as the piston moves from V3 to the bottom dead center. The gas works on the
surroundings (piston) and loses an amount of internal energy equal to the work that
leaves the system. Again the entropy remains unchanged. The volume ratio (V4 / V3) is
known as the isentropic expansion ratio.
Isochoric decompression (exhaust stroke) – In this phase, the cycle completes by a
constant-volume process in which heat is rejected from the air while the piston is at the
bottom dead center. The working gas pressure drops instantaneously from point 4 to
point 1. The exhaust valve opens at point 4. The exhaust stroke is directly after this
decompression. As the piston moves from the bottom dead center (point 1) to the top
dead center (point 0) with the exhaust valve opened, the gaseous mixture is vented to
the atmosphere, and the process starts anew.
 P-v diagram of an ideal Diesel cycle

Pressure Crank diagram

Air fuel ratio

The air-to-fuel ratio defines the amount of air needed to burn a specific fuel. Air-fuel
ratio (AFR) is the mass ratio of air to fuel present during combustion. When all the fuel
is combined with all the free oxygen, typically within a vehicle's combustion chamber,
the mixture is chemically balanced and this AFR is called the stoichiometric mixture.

Fuel injection
Fuel injection is the introduction of fuel in an internal combustion engine, most
commonly automotive engines, by the means of an injector.
Fuel injectors are small nozzle which are controlled electronically to atomize fuel
under high pressure into an engine’s combustion chamber. It contains valves that
are capable of opening and closing many times per second.
Major Parts of Fuel Injection System
Below are the major functional parts that enable the working of fuel injection in
automobile engines and names of components in a fuel injector.
The major parts of fuel injection system are divided into two which include low-
pressure and high-pressure side, the low-pressure parts are the fuel tank, fuel
filter and fuel supply pump. While the high-pressure side include high-pressure
pump, fuel injector, accumulator, fuel injector nozzle.

Carburetor
A carburetor is a device used by an internal combustion engine to control and mix air
and fuel entering the engine. A carburetor's job is to supply an internal combustion
engine with air/fuel mixture.

Components of carburetors usually include a storage chamber for liquid fuel, a

choke, an idling (or slow-running) jet, a main jet, a venturi-shaped air-flow
restriction, and an accelerator pump. The quantity of fuel in the storage chamber
is controlled by a valve actuated by a float. The choke, a butterfly valve, reduces
the intake of air and allows a fuel-rich charge to be drawn into the cylinders when
a cold engine is started. As the engine warms up, the choke is gradually opened
either by hand or automatically by heat- and engine-speed-responsive
controllers.

Turboprop
A turboprop is a turbine engine that drives an aircraft propeller. A turboprop consists of
an intake, reduction gearbox, compressor, combustor, turbine, and a propelling nozzle.
It is also called P Jet, hybrid engine that provides jet thrust and also drives a
propeller. It is basically similar to a turbojet except that an added turbine,
rearward of the combustion chamber, works through a shaft and speed-reducing
gears to turn a propeller at the front of the engine.
Jet propulsion
It is the propulsion of an object in one direction, produced by ejecting a jet of fluid in the
opposite direction. By Newton's third law, the moving body is propelled in the opposite
direction to the jet. Reaction engines operating on the principle of jet propulsion include
the jet engine used for aircraft propulsion, the pump-jet used for marine propulsion, and
the rocket engine and plasma thruster used for spacecraft propulsion.
Turbofan
The turbofan or fanjet is a type of air breathing jet engine that is widely used in aircraft
propulsion. The word "turbofan" is a portmanteau of "turbine" and "fan":
the turbo portion refers to a gas turbine engine which achieves mechanical energy from
combustion and the fan, a ducted fan that uses the mechanical energy from the gas
turbine to force air rearwards.

Ramjet
A ramjet, or athodyd (aero thermodynamic duct), is a form of air breathing jet engine
that uses the forward motion of the engine to produce thrust .
MHD (Magneto hydrodynamics)
Magneto hydrodynamic (MHD) (magneto fluid dynamics or hydro magnetics) is the
study of the dynamics of electrically conducting fluids. Examples of such fluids
include plasmas, liquid metals, and salt water or electrolytes.
Magneto hydrodynamic generator (MHD generator)
It is a magneto hydrodynamic converter that transforms thermal energy and kinetic
energy directly into electricity. An MHD generator, like a conventional generator, relies
on moving a conductor through a magnetic field to generate electric current. The MHD
generator uses hot conductive ionized gas (a plasma) as the moving conductor.

MHD generators are different from traditional electric generators in that they operate
without moving parts (e.g. no turbine) to limit the upper temperature. They therefore
have the highest known theoretical thermodynamic efficiency of any electrical
generation method.
Principle
In an MHD generator the hot gas is accelerated by a nozzle and injected into a channel.
A powerful magnetic field is set up across the channel. In accordance with Faraday's
law of induction, an electric field is established that acts in a direction perpendicular to
both the gas flow and the magnetic field.

Fuel Cell
A fuel cell uses the chemical energy of hydrogen or other fuels to cleanly and
efficiently produce electricity. If hydrogen is the fuel, the only products are
electricity, water, and heat.
How Fuel Cells Work
Fuel cells work like batteries, but they do not run down or need recharging. They produce
electricity and heat as long as fuel is supplied. A fuel cell consists of two electrodes—a negative
electrode (or anode) and a positive electrode (or cathode)—sandwiched around an electrolyte.
A fuel, such as hydrogen, is fed to the anode, and air is fed to the cathode. In a hydrogen fuel
cell, a catalyst at the anode separates hydrogen molecules into protons and electrons, which
take different paths to the cathode. The electrons go through an external circuit, creating a flow
of electricity. The protons migrate through the electrolyte to the cathode, where they unite
with oxygen and the electrons to produce water and heat.