JNTUH ENGINEERING GRAPHICS Notes

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in
Engineering Graphics
Lecture Notes
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UNIT-I

Content
Introduction to Engineering Drawing: Principles
of Engineering Graphics and their Significance,
Conic Sections including the Rectangular Hyperbola
- General method only. Cycloid, Epicycloid and
Hypocycloid, Scales - Plain & Diagonal.












Conic Sections:
The section obtained by the intersection of a right circular cone by
a plane in different positions relative to the axis of the cone are called
conics.
Conic sections
(i) When the section plane is inclined to the axis and cuts all the
generators onone side of the apex, the section is an ellipse
(ii) When the section plane is inclined to the axis and is parallel to one
of thegenerators, the section is a parabola
(iii) A hyperbola is a plane curve having two separate parts or
branches, formedwhen two cones that point towards one another
are intersected by a planethat is parallel to the axes of the cones.
The conic may be defined as the locus of a point moving in a plane in
such a waythat the ratio of its distances from a fixed point and a fixed
straight line is alwaysconstant. The fixed point is called the focus and
the fixed line, the directrix.

distance of the point from the focus

The ratio is called
distance of the point from the directrix
eccentricity and isdenoted by e. It is always less than 1 for ellipse, equal
to 1 for parabola and greaterthan 1 for hyperbola i.e.
(i) ellipse :e < 1
(ii) parabola : e = 1
(iii) hyperbola : e > 1.
The line passing through the focus and perpendicular to the directrix is
calledthe axis. The point at which the conic cuts its axis is called the
vertex.

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Cycloids:
These curves are generated by a fixed point on the circumference
of a circle, whichrolls without slipping along a fixed straight line or a
circle. The rolling circle iscalled generating circle and the fixed straight
line or circle is termed directing lineor directing circle. Cycloidal curves
are used in tooth profile of gears of a dial gauge.


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Scales:
Drawings of small objects can be prepared of the same size as
theobjects theyrepresent. A 150 mm long pencil may be shown by a
drawing of 150 mni 1ength.Drawings drawn of the same size as the
objects, are called full-size drawings. Theordinary full-size scales are
used for such drawings.
A scale is defined as the ratio of the linear dimensions of element
of the objectas represented in a drawing to the actual.dimensions of the
same element of theobject itself
Representative fraction:The ratio of the length of the object

representedon drawing to the actual length of the object represented is
called the RepresentativeFraction (i.e. R.F.).
Length of the drawing

R.F. =
Actual length of object
Types of scales
The scales used in practice are classified as under:
(1) Plain scales
(2) Diagonal scales
(3) Vernier scales

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Content
Orthographic Projections: Principles of
Orthographic Projections - Conventions -
Projections of Points and Lines, Projections of Plane
regular geometric figures.-Auxiliary Planes.

Orthographic Projections:When the p;ojectors are parallel to each

other and also perpendicular to the plane,the projection is called
orthographic projection.
Planes of Projection:The two planes employed for the purpose of
orthographic projections are calledreference planes or principal planes of
projection. They intersect each other at rightangles. The vertical plane of
projection (in front of the observer) is usually denotedby the letters V.P.
It is often called the frontal plane and denoted by the letters F.P.The
other plane is the horizontal plane of projection known as the H.P.
The linein which they intersect is termed the reference line and is
denoted by the letters xy. The projection on the V.P. is called the front
view or the elevation of the object.The projection on the H.P. is called
the top view or the plan.
TO BE OPENED

First-Angle Pxojection:We have assumed the

object to be situated in front of the V.P. and above
the H.P.i.e. in the first quadrant and then projected it
on these planes. This method of projection is known
as first-angle projection method. The object lies
between the observer and the plane of projection.
In this method,when the views are drawn in their
relative positions, the top view comes below the
front view. In other words, the view seen from
above is placed on the other side of (i.e. below) the
front view. Each projection shows the view of that
surface (of the object) which is remote from the
plane on which, it is projected and which is nearest
to the observer.
FIRST ANGLE PRQJEITTION
RELAnON BETWEEN OBSERVER,OBJECT AND P.P.

Third-Angle Projection:In this method of THIRD AN= PROJECTW NIRFIOD

projection, the .object is assumed to be situated in
the third quadrant The planes of projection are
assumed to be transparent. They lie between the
object and the observer. When the observer views
the object from the front, the rays of sight PICTQRWVIEW
intersect the V.P.
The figure formed by joining the points of
intersection in correct sequence is the front view
of the object. The topview is obtained in a similar
manner by looking from above. When the two
planes are brought in line with each other, the
views will be seen as shown in fig. The top view
in this case comes above the front view.
THIRD ANGLE PRBJECTW
RELATIONBEMmN OBSERVW, OBJECT AND P.P.

Projections of Points:
A point may be situated, in space,in any one of the four quadrants
formed-bythe two principal planes of projection or may lie in any one or
both of them. Its projections are obtained by extending projectors
perpendicular to the planes.
One of the planes is then rotated so that the first and third
quadrants are opened out. The projections are shown on a flat surface in
their respective positions either above or below or in xy.










Projections of Straight Lines:

A straight line is the shortest distance between two points. Hence, the
projectionsof a straight line may be drawn by joining the respective
projections of its endswhich are points.
The position of a straight line may also be deschbed with respect
to the tworeference planes. It may be:
1. Parallel to one or both the planes.
2. Contained by one or both the planes.
3. Perpendicular to one of the planes.
4. Inclined to one plane and parallel to the other.
5. Inclined to both the planes.
6. Projections of lines inclined to both the planes.
7. Line contained by a plane perpendicular to both the reference planes.
8. True length of a straight line and its inclinations with the reference
planes. .
9. Traces of a line.
10. Methods of determining traces of a line.
11. Traces of a line, the projections of which are perpendicular to xy.
12. Positions of traces of a line.




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Projections of Planes:
Plane figures or surfaces have only two dimensions, viz. length and
breadth. They do not have thickness. A plane figure may be assumed to
be contained by a plane, and its projections can be drawn, if the position
of that plane with respect to the principal planes of projection is known.

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Content
Projections of Regular Solids - Auxiliary Views -
Sections or Sectional views of Right Regular Solids
- Prism, Cylinder, Pyramid, Cone - Auxiliary views
- Sections of Sphere

Projections of Solids:
A solid has three dimensions, viz. length, breadth and thickness.
Torepresent a solid on a flat surface having only length and breadth, at
least two orthographic views are necessary. Sometimes, additional views
projected on auxiliary planes become necessary to make the description
of a solid complete.
This chapter deals with the following topics:
1. Types of solids.
2. Projections of solids in simple positions.
(a) Axis perpendicular to the H.P.
(b) Axis perpendicular to the V.P.
(c) Axis parallel to both the H.P. and the V.P.
3. Projections of solids with axes inclined to one of the reference planes
and parallel to the other.
(a) Axis inclined to the V.P. and parallel to the H.P. -
(b) Axis inclined to the H.P. and parallel to the V.P.
4. Projections of solids with axes inclined to both the H.P. and the V.P.
5. Projections of spheres.






















Sections of solids:
Invisible features of an object are shown by dotted lines in their
projected views. But when such features &e too many, these lines make
the views more complicated and difficult to interpret. In such cases, it is
customary to imagine the object as being cut through or sectioned by
planes. The part of the object between the cutting plane and the observer
is assumed to be removed and the view is then shown in section.
The imaginary plane is called a section plane or a cutting plane.
The surface produced by cutting the object by the section plane is called
the section. It is indicated by thin section lines uniformly spaced and
inclined at 45O.
. The projection of the section along with the remaining portion of
the object is called a sectional view. Sometimes, only the word section is
also used to denote a sectional view.
Section planes: Section planes are generally perpendicular planes. They
may be perpendicular to one of thereference planes and either
perpendicular, parallel or inclined to the other plane. They are usually
described by their traces. It is important to remember that the projection
of a section plane, on the plane to which it is perpendicular, is a straight
line. This line will be parallel, perpendicular or inclined to xy,
depending upon the section plane being parallel, per-pendicular or
inclined respectively to the other reference plane.
SGtions: The projection of the section on the reference plane to which
the section plane is perpendicular, will be'a straight line coinciding with
the trace of the section plane on it. Its projection on the other plane to
which it is inclined is called apparent section. This is obtained by
(i) Projecting on the other plane, the points at which the trace of the
section plane intersects the edges of the solid and
(ii) Drawing lines joining these points in roper sequence.

True shape of a section: The projection of the section on a

planep&allelto the section plane will show the true shape of the section.
Thus, when the sectionplane is parallel to the H.P. or the ground, the true
shape of the section will beseen in sectional top view. When it is parallel
to the V.P., the true shape will bevisible in the sectional front view.But
when the section plane is inclined, the section has to be projected on
anauxiliary plane parallel to the section plane, to obtain its true shape.
When thesection plane is perpendicular to both the reference planes, the
sectional side viewwill show the true shape of the section.






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UNIT-IV

Content
Development of Surfaces of Right Regular Solids
- Prism, Cylinder, Pyramid and Cone
Intersection of Solids: Intersection of - Prism vs

Prism- Cylinder Vs Cylinder

~evelopmentof Surfaces of Right Regular Solids:

Imagine that a solid is enclosed in a wrapper of thin material, such
as paper. If this covering is opened out .and laid on a flat plane, the
flattened-out paper is the development of the solid. Thus, when surfaces
of a solid are laid out on a plane, the figure obtained is called its
development.
Intersection of Solids:
The intersecting surfaces may be two plane surfaces or two curved
surfaces of solids. The lateral surface of every solid taken as a whole is a
curved surface. This surface may be made of only curved surface as in
case of cylinders, cones etc. or of plane surfaces as in case of prisms,
pyramids etc. In the former case, the problem is said to be on the
intersection of surfaces and in the latter case, it is commonly known as
the problem on interpenetration of solids. It may, however, be noted that
when two solids meet or join or interpenetrate, it is the curved surfaces
of the two that intersect each other. The latter problem also is, therefore,
on the intersection of surfaces.









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UNIT-V

Content ,
Isometric Projections: Principles of Isometric

Projection - Isometric Scale - Isometric Views -
Conventions - Isometric Views of Lines, Plane
Figures, Simple and Compound Solids - Isometric
Projection of objects having non- isometric lines.
Isometric Projection of Spherical Parts.
Conversion of Isometric Views to Orthographic
Views and Vice-versa -Conventions











Identify surfaces
perpendicular or inclined to
the view
Surfaces parallel to the view
would not be visible in that
view.
First draw horizontal and
vertical reference lanes
(easily identifiabli on
drawing)
Start drawing from the
reference planes.


ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW
- -
----- -----
- -.-..-. - -.-..-..
----- -----
I
1 . 1
: i:
! I !
I
TOP VIEW
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN
DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD

FOR T.V.
I
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
FRONT VIEW
TOP VlEW
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN

DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD







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distance of the point from the focus

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~ 0 9 w t m d a n w w d to the cllrpe at mink .%mm away

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35mm and ~rnrr, Caom the paia 06 mymbdas- %e asymbd@3

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6- AS the c o w @ i s s ~ m r n e h ca b o u t acts I obtatn paink

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4. 'D\~id@f'9 t 2 P~IXI) and m l c

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Representative fraction:The ratio of the length of the object

Length of the drawing

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