Introduction to Sociology

03 January 2024 10:27

Sociology (Earlier Name is Social Physics) (Emerged in 1839) Discuss the different factors for the emergence of the subject
Sociology- Societus (Latin) + Logos (Greek) sociology (5 page )

Being developed by Europeans and in the region of European colonies and countries
Law of 3 Stages:-
Factors for it are :-
• Theological stage(Religious head is the chief of the society)(Stringent
1. Advent of Industrial revolution
laws and rigidity in the society)(Animism)(Eg:- Afghanistan, Vatican
2. French revolution, American war of independence, glorious revolution city, Iran, Iraq)(Government exist only in theoretical state)
3. Renaissance period ○ Fetishism- This was the primary stage of the theological stage
4. Urbanization of thinking. Throughout this stage, primitive people believe
5. Rise of Nationalism in European countries that inanimate objects have living spirit in them, also known as
6. Feudalism animism. People worship inanimate objects like trees, stones,
7. Decline of Agrarian economy a piece of wood, volcanic eruptions, etc. Through this practice,
8. Expansion of Trading Markets and Ways to trade such as sea trade people believe that all things root from a supernatural source.
9. Conception of Colonialism & there was assumption as the natives were savage and uncivilised and were
called indigenous people. ○ Polytheism – At one point, Fetishism began to bring about
doubt in the minds of its believers. As a result, people turned
10. New Societal condition with the expansion of cities such as increased anonymity due increased
towards polytheism: the explanation of things through the use
population maybe due to neuro-scientific phenomenon such as "Dunbar's Number" or 'Social brain
of many Gods. Primitive people believe that all natural forces
hypothesis. are controlled by different Gods; a few examples would be
Desmond Tutu, a South African cleric and human rights activist. He said, “When the missionaries came to God of water, God of rain, God of fire, God of air, God of earth.
Africa they had the Bible and we had the land. They said ‘Let us pray.’ We closed our eyes. When we opened
them we had the Bible and they had the land.” ○ Monotheism- It means believing in one God or God in one;
attributing all to a single, supreme deity. Primitive people
Contributors of Sociology (It was used before as Social Physics) believe a single theistic entity is responsible for the existence
• Saint Simon (Teacher of August Comte) of the universe.
• August Comte (Father of Sociology)(French Scientist)(Gave us positive philosophy)(Law of 3 stages)
• Isaac Newton (Inspirational source of August Comte) • Metaphysical Stage(Transitory phase)
The Metaphysical stage is an extension of the theological stage. It
refers to explanation by impersonal abstract concepts. People often
try to characterize God as an abstract being. They believe that an
Hierarchy Of Science given By August Comte abstract power or force guides and determines events in the world.
Math → Astronomy → Physics → Chemistry → Biology → Sociology Metaphysical thinking discards belief in a concrete God. For
example: In Classical Hindu Indian society, the principle of the
Novatis vs. UOI transmigration of the soul, the conception of rebirth, notions of
pursuant were largely governed by metaphysical uphill.

• Scientific or Positivity Stage(Men of science and Rationalist will be

the head of the society)
Criticism of August Comte The Positivity stage, also known as the scientific stage, refers to
scientific explanation based on observation, experiment, and
comparison. Positive explanations rely upon a distinct method,
the scientific method, for their justification. Today people attempt to
establish cause and effect relationships. Positivism is a purely
intellectual way of looking at the world; as well, it emphasizes
observation and classification of data and facts. This is the highest, most
evolved behaviour according to Comte.
Comte, however, was conscious of the fact that the three stages of
thinking may or do coexist in the same society or in the same mind and
may not always be successive.

Uses of scientific methods to study society is called Positivism.

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Hebert Spencer (1820-1903)
05 January 2024 10:54
• Organic analogy --> analogy between human body and society. Like in
human body we have different organs which have different specific and
special roles to play, similarly, the society has different roles to play
[polity, economy, academy, etc] and there are specific organs needed to
perform these function, and like the human body all these functions and
organs are interdependent.
• Concept of Functionalism --> it gives an importance to order and
stability of the society to propagate and maintain the functionality of
the society, it promotes coexistence of people in the society.
• Social Darwinism (theory of evolution) --> he believed that State had no
responsibility or right to interfere in situations like war, attacks, plague,
famine etc because it is their 'destiny'. Because of his privileged
background he proposed this theory of no intervention of state in life of
people and only duty was to control and regulate people.
→Simple-
Spencer defined the simple society as “one which forms a single working
whole un-subjected to any other and of which the parts co-operate with
or without a regulating centre for certain public ends.” These societies
were predominantly small, nomadic, and lacking in stable relationship
structure. They had low degrees of differentiation, specialization, and
integration. Examples are the Eskimos, the Fuegians, Guiana tribes, the
new Caledonians and the Pueblo Indians.
→Compounded-
Compound societies were presented as having generally come about
through either a peaceful or a violent merger of two or more simple
societies. They tended to be predominantly settled agricultural societies,
although a majority are mainly pastoral, and tended to be characterised
by a division of four or five social strata and an organised priestly group.
They are also characterised by Industrial structures that show in
advancing division of labour, general and local. Examples are the
Teutonic peoples in the fifth century, Homeric Greeks, New Zealanders,
Hottentots Dahomans and Ashantees.
→Trebly theory-
It includes “the great civilized nations” such as the Assyrian Empire, the
modern Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy and Russia. Spencer does
not outline their traits in detail but points to their increased overall size,
complexity, division of labour, popular density, integration and general
cultural complexity.
→Doubly theory-
Doubly compound societies were completely settled, were more
integrated and a larger and more definite political structure, a religious
hierarchy, a more or less rigid caste system and more complex division
of labour. Furthermore, in such societies to a greater and lesser extent,
custom has passed into positive law and religious observances have
grown definite, rigid and complex. Towns and roads have become
general, and considerable progress in knowledge and the arts has taken
place.” Examples are thirteen-Century France, Eleventh Century
England, the Spartan Confederacy, the ancient Peruvians and the
Guatemalans.
○ Laissez faire
○ No intervention
• Simple(militant) to complex(industrial) --> Simple will always will be
more authoritative and always have stringent society and a strong
military and use of fear they start to control people.
Complex society will have less authoritative and will have less stringent
society and some power will be given to the people.
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Herbert Spencer (27 April 1820 – 8 December 1903) was an English polymath active as a philosopher,
psychologist, biologist, sociologist, and anthropologist. Spencer originated the expression "survival of
the fittest", which he coined in Principles of Biology (1864) after reading Charles Darwin's 1859 book On
the Origin of Species. The term strongly suggests natural selection, yet Spencer saw evolution as
extending into realms of sociology and ethics, so he also supported Lamarckism.
First book was Social Statics.
Spencer was born in Derby, England, on 27 April 1820, the son of William George Spencer (generally
called George).[6] Spencer's father was a religious dissenter who drifted from Methodism to Quakerism,
and who seems to have transmitted to his son an opposition to all forms of authority. He ran a school
founded on the progressive teaching methods of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi and also served as Secretary
of the Derby Philosophical Society, a scientific society which had been founded in 1783 by Erasmus
Darwin, the grandfather of Charles Darwin.
Spencer was educated in empirical science by his father, while the members of the Derby Philosophical
Society introduced him to pre-Darwinian concepts of biological evolution, particularly those of Erasmus
Darwin and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck.
Second Book was principles of Sociology which got dissented which led to his health deterioration.
Other books principles of biology, synthetic philosophy, study of sociology.
Criticism of Herbert spencer
Herbert Spencer’s idea that society is a super-organic system was flawed in many ways. He couldn’t see
how culture fit into the world as a whole.
Timasheff says that because his law of evolution is a cosmic law, his theory is strictly philosophical and
not sociological.
According to Abraham and Morgan (1985) Spencer’s thoughts have some major misleading notions: “His
fallacies included :-
(1) his belief that organisms form concrete wholes, whereas today sociology emphasizes their free
character,
(2) that organisms are consciously concentrated, whereas today we speak of societal dispersal, and
(3) his belief that social parts exist for the social whole, but today we are well aware of society’s focus
upon the benefits of individuals.”
Greatest weakness of Spencer’s theory is that it tried to provide an identical explanation to all
phenomena (Szacki, 1979).
Coser (1971) presented the following comments of a businessman who said by criticizing Spencer:
“Some businesses grow diverse and complicated, others get simpler and more uniform, others go into
the Bankruptcy Court. In the long run and over the whole field there is no more reason for expecting one
process rather than the other”.
Munch (1994) argues: “We cannot explain the growth of markets in societies all over the world by their
evolutionary superiority……More causes are needed to explain the growing division of labor and
corresponding markets”.
Marx has shown that the expansion of industrial capitalistic society cannot create that harmonized social
state rather it creates power gap and class conflict. Munch (1994) argues: “Durkheim emphasized,
contrary to Spencer, that the progressing division of labor by no means increases happiness. It intensifies
competition for scarce resources, breaks up traditional bonds….These effects of the growing division of
labor bring with them a lot of unhappiness.”
A laissez-fair, free-trade, unprotected economy, in many cases, is not expected to lead to economic
success. In many cases, free trade comes as a risk for the local industries. That is why we can see that in
most of the countries of the world, they have built a ‘mixed economy’ where at least some trade
protections exist in order to safeguard the local industries. If local industries are destroyed, because of
the increase in the unemployment level, poverty level increases and it creates chaos in the society.
Verstehen means comprehending or understanding in social sciences we can understand the action and
comprehend the subjective intention of the actors verstehen makes the scientific study of social
behaviour in two ways:-
1. It facilitate in the learning of human action
2. Also the understanding of underlying motives
Idle type expect a mental yardstick out of you,
Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)
11 January 2024 10:50

• Social fact (Collective Conscious)--> society can always exist in collective purpose
rather than divertive purpose, society has to have collective conscious to exist
and evolve further
• Sui-generis-->
• Functionalist school-->
• Crime as necessary evil-->
• Theory of division of labour-->
○ Mechanical solidarity
○ Organic solidarity
• Theory of suicide-->
○ Egoistic
○ Altruistic
○ Aromic
• Elementary form of religion life-->
• He described crime as a necessary of society

David Émile Durkheim , professionally known simply as Émile Durkheim;(15 April 1858 – 15 November
1917) was a French sociologist. Durkheim formally established the academic discipline of sociology and
is commonly cited as one of the principal architects of modern social science, along with both Karl Marx
and Max Weber.

Much of Durkheim's work was concerned with how societies can maintain their integrity and coherence
in modernity, an era in which traditional social and religious ties are much less universal, and in which
new social institutions have come into being. Durkheim's conception of the scientific study of society
laid the groundwork for modern sociology, and he used such scientific tools as statistics, surveys, and
historical observation in his analysis of suicides in Catholic and Protestant groups.

Durkheim's first major sociological work was in 1893; The Division of Labour in Society, followed in 1895
by The Rules of Sociological Method, the same year in which Durkheim set up the first European
department of sociology and became France's first professor of sociology.
3rd book - Suicide
4th book - Elementary form of religion life

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 He was the student Hegel-- he stated that ….(German thinker)
Karl Marx (1818-1883) He was colleague and contemporary Frederick Engels when Kar moved to London at the age of 31
31 January 2024 10:25

Conflict school Started with Marx and was opposed to functionalist school. History is the history of the class struggle Plato.stanford.edu
• Dialectics (Ideas)
• Economic materialism
• Theory of Alienation
• Base vs. Superstructure Stages of Class Struggle:-
• Das Kapital (book) 1. Primitive Communism: It is a classless society
• Class struggle 2. Ancient society: This era emerges a clear distinction between freemen, who own property, and
• Dictatorship of proletariat (Proletariat vs. Bourgeoisie) slaves.
• Communist ideology 3. Feudal Society: There two class in this society feudal lords and other serfs
• Class consciousness 4. Capitalism: Owners [HAVEs; bourgeoisie] and Workers [Have -nots; proletariat]
• Revolution 5. Communist society:- the class struggle in capitalist society would lead it to wither away and
• Homofaber communist stage would come.
• Law and tool of oppression
• Religion and opinion of Marx According to Karl Marx, a social class is an aggregate of persons who performs the same person in the
organization of production it is determined not by occupation or income but by the position an
individual occupies and the function it performs in the process of production.

Theory of class struggle

1. Development of proletariat :-
2. Importance of property:- According to Karl Marx classes are determined in the basis of individual
relation to the means of production. It is not the individual occupation but his position which
determines his class example Sachin Bansal became employee from the owner of his company
after selling his company.
3. Identification of economic power and political power relationship: if anyone has somewhat has
economic power there is relation of political power, example power of a very rich businessman in
political arena such as Parimal Nathwani is said to be face of reliance industries in Lok Sabha
representing covertly Mukesh Ambani and his interests. State has sometimes draconian and cruel
decision to make its way clear and achieve its goals.
4. The polarization of classes: there always poles in any field or area of study as in geography there
are two poles of magnetism which creates the earth's magnetic field. Karl Marx said there are four
poles in society such as
a. First pole is Bourgeoisie (who controls means of production) and;
b. Second pole is petty bourgeoisie.
c. Third pole is lumpen proletariat and;
d. Fourth pole is proletariat (who produces via means of production given by the proletariat);
According to Raymond, the process of polarization means that along with the development of
capitalist regime the intermediate strata between capitalist "bourgeoisie" and working class
"proletariat" will become thinner and the intermediate strata shall be absorbed with the
proletariat.
5. Theory of surplus value: this is a bone of contention between upper and middle class capitalist
accumulate profit through the value of any commodity is decided by the amount of labour it takes
to produce it. Surplus value refers to the quantity of value produced by the worker beyond labour
time which means the working time required to produce a value equal which he has received as a
form of wages. Example of
6. Class Solidarity and antagonization:- when there is no unity between people of the same class it is
called false class consciousness. However, when they develop a relationship with each other and
there is sense of unity then it is class for itself or there is class consciousness. This unity is in
opposition to the capitalist. The antagonism to the capitalist well result in revolution
When revolution takes place, there will be removal of capitalist class and it will lead to
dictatorship of proletariat. However, this is temporary phase and it will lead to dictatorship of
proletariat. However, this is temporary phase and it will lead to a communist society.

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Talcott Parson (1902-1979)
07 February 2024 10:30

Social Action:- according to Talcott parson any assembly or congregation of individuals results in
1. The structure of social action social action in any social action each individual performs a specific function the social action is
2. Essay on sociological theory guided either by goal or motivation.
3. The social system three
4. Economian society a. Cognitive: knowledge-based or dominated by rational consideration; learning-based action.
5. Social structure and personality Eg:- any chemical experiment we do today in lab must learned or experimented earlier so
6. Towards a general theory of action (Edward shil) now we have learned to do it perfectly.
b. Cathartic/emotional: social action which is inflect because of highly emotional where reason
does not play any role. Eg:- road rage, revenge killing,
Pattern variable- according to parson there are 5 basic pattern alternative of value c. Evaluation: action that are guided by moral standards or values depending upon the nature
orientation for individual and culture:- of values, people's action are judged to be good or bad; right or wrong. Eg: - terrorist activity,
1. Ascriptive v. achievement doing reconnaissance before any activity or action.
2. Affective v. affective neutrality --> affective is emotional whereas affective
neutrality is free emotional or partisan bias.
3. Diffusionist v. specificity --> many tasks being performed by the same person • Functional prerequisite of social system
whereas specificity means specific tasks being performed by different people. A -> adaptation economic
4. Universalism v. particularism --> G -> goal attainment political
5. Self-orientation v. collective orientation I -> integration family
These patterns also bring out the difference between traditional and modern society L ->latency religion culture

Sociology v history • Sociological jurisprudence by fakkiresh sir

Sociology v. political science • Sociology is a social science not a physical science
Sociology v. economics • Sociology is both rational and empirical science
Sociology v. psychology • Formalist Max weber, George simimle, Ferdinand tonis -> sociology should confine itself to certain
Sociology v. anthropology aspect of human society
Sociology v. jurisprudence • Synthetic Emile Durkheim Morris Ginsberg pietrinm sorokim -> social morphology territorial |
social physiology | general sociology

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Robert Bierstedt
12 February 2024 02:57

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Value-Neutrality
23 January 2024 02:25

A human can be identified by a set of value of ideal and thinking and they have these value due to
their environment that specific periodically time period or era
Eg:- uncle judge

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Social action
23 January 2024 02:43

Goal oriented action:- where the goal of any action is to win

Affectionate rational:-
Traditional action:- the action taken or done by duties, traditions, customs and religions
Wert rational(value-orientated):- take the proper means to achieve proportional results

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Concept of power
23 January 2024 02:55

Imposition of one's will onto another

Legitimizing the power of any kind is the becoming of authority

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 Concept of Religion by Max Weber
29 January 2024 02:19

Form of social adhesive force which can bring people from different geographies and demography together. Criticism
Main three religion originated from Jerusalem which has been then spread around the world and started to Talcott parson
dominate the life of the people and form a society on the basis upon religion. Robert K. Marton are important functionalist thinkers after Comte, spencer and
Main points of the theory of religion of max weber:- Durkheim
• The shift from ritualistic and other worldly orientation to down-to-earth pragmatism
• Changed attitude towards work (concept of work is worship) Max Weber started Symbolic interactive school
• Concept of Calling
• Restriction on alcoholism and holidays(recent example France riot due to change in age of retirement)
• Encouragement of literacy: unlike Catholics, where there were various rules about how bible could be
distributed, Protestants supported mass-distributions of the bible and this encouraged literary and accessibility
• Criticism: Imposition of foreign cultures and western culture can be promoted easily

Social stratification
Class is a concept defined from an economic point of view.
Status is defined from a social dimension.
Whereas party is about the political power or patronage enjoyed.
These concept class and status demonstrate that wealth need not necessarily translate into social esteem. For ex a
simple teacher have greater respect of the society than the rich businessman if his money is earned deceitfully

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Social System
12 February 2024 02:17

• Concept of social system has

• Positional aspect is the status of a person
• Ascribed aspect is the status attached to you since the birth of you
• Achieved or acquired status is which the person has gained due to his hard work and
dedication

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