Elements of Surface Texture and their assessment

Surface topography analysis is primarily concerned with describing a surface in terms of its
features. Then the knowledge gained about the geometry of the surface is used to control the
surface production process and/or to predict the performance of the component in its
functional environment. A vertical cross-section taken through any surface, reveals the two
dimensional (2-D) profile of its three-dimensional (3-D) structure. This is made up of a
number of different frequency components superimposed on each other.
Since different frequency components must affect work-piece performance, both functional
and aesthetic, in different manners, a traditional convention has developed that splits the
frequency components into three different categories, namely roughness, waviness and form
deviation–

1. Roughness represents the highest frequency (short wavelength) components of interest on

a surface. These are the "irregularities in the surface texture which are inherent in the
production process". On conventionally machined surfaces, they are usually caused by the
direct interaction between the cutting tool and the workpiece. Part of the roughness generated
is due to the build up and separation of the built-up edge on the tool over which the chip
flows.

2. Waviness represents the next order of lower frequency (longer wavelength) components on
the surface (the roughness is usually superimposed on the waviness). It is thought to result
from a variety of causes, including tool chatter or workpiece machine vibrations.

3. Form refers to the longest wavelength (lowest frequency) components on a surface. Errors
of form refer to deviations from the nominal form as specified during the design stage. They
are thought to be caused by temperature changes during manufacture, warping strains and
workpiece
deflections as well as by machine tool conditions.

The combination of roughness and waviness and the surface generation technique as well as
manufacturing conditions determines the surface 'signature'. Some surfaces have
deterministic characteristics, others not'. Directionality is referred to as the lay and this can
either be unidirectional, bi- or multi-directional.
 Fig. 2.1 Components of surface having different frequency

Surface roughness is that part of the irregularities on a surface left after manufacture which
are held to be inherent in the material removal process itself as opposed to waviness which
may be due to the poor performance of an individual machine. Surface roughness covers a
wide dimensional range, extending from that produced in the largest planing machines having
a traverse step of 20 mm or so, down to the finest lapping where the scratch marks may be
spaced by a few tenths of a micrometer.

The representation of the surface by means of a profile graph is used extensively because it is
a very convenient way to portray many of the geometrical features of the surface. Also it is
practical in size and reflects the conventional way of representing surfaces in the past.

Fig2.2 Visual distortion caused by making usable chart length

The length of the section in Figure 2.2 from A to D contains only 0.1 mm of the surface, and
this is not enough to be representative. To cover a sufficient length of surface profile without
unduly increasing the length of the chart, it is customary to use a much lower horizontal than
vertical magnification.

The result may then look like Figure 2.2b. All the information contained in the length AD is
now compressed into the portion A’D’ with the advantage that much more information can be
contained in the length of the chart, but with the added disadvantage that the slopes of the
flanks are enormously exaggerated, in the ratio of the vertical to horizontal magnifications.
Thus it is essential, when looking at a profile graph, to note both magnifications and to
remember that what may appear to be fragile peaks and narrow valleys may represent quite
gentle undulations on the actual surface. Compression ratios up to 100:1 are often used.

There are a number of ways of tackling the problem of characterization which is used is
dependent on the type of surface, whether or not form error is present and so on. Because the
stylus method of measurement has proved to be the most useful owing to its convenient
output, ease of use and robustness, and because the stylus instrument usually measures one
sample of the whole surface, the evaluation of a single cross-section (or profile) will be
considered first. In many cases this single-profile evaluation is sufficient to give an adequate
idea of the surface and in some cases it is not. Whether or not the profile is a sufficient
representation is irrelevant, it is the cornerstone upon which surface metrology has been built.