BEHAVIOUR

Intelligence:
Cognitive intelligence; social and emotional intelligence; cultural intelligence;
spiritual intelligence

INTELLIGENCE: Definition; types;

Acc. to Wechsler, Intelligence is the aggregate capacity of an individual to act
purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his environment.
It has basically three components:
1. to act purposefully: means ability of learning.
2. to think rationally: means ability of abstract thinking.
3. to deal effectively with environment: ability to quickly adapt/adjust with
the surroundings.
Alfred Binet, it is the ability to Judge well, understand well and reason well.
(covers only cognitive type)
Nature of intelligence: (expand on definition only)
 It is an aggregate of abilities.
 It helps in problem solving (learn from previous experience – insights)
 On basis of it person acts purposefully
 It helps one adjust with environment suitably
 It enable on to think rationally
 A person with high intelligence do a difficult task with ease.
Intelligence Quotient: IQ: It is the measure of a person’s cognitive capacities i.e.
ability to reason and solve problems.
𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝐼𝑄 = ∗ 100
𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑔𝑒

o Mental age: it is a person’s mental ability expressed as the age at

which an average person reaches the same ability.
o If mental and chronological age matches, it means a person has
average intelligence.

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Types of intelligence: Thorndike has given three types of intelligence:

1. Social intelligence
2. Abstract intelligence: is the mental ability to understand relationship of
mathematical and verbal sign, symbols and cues and to explain them
properly.
3. Concrete intelligence: mental ability to understand ‘solidity of concepts and
objects, and take use of them in different situations’.
Factors affecting intelligence: Spearman’s two factor theory
1. G factors (general factors) - mental operation ability common to all
individuals. It is an inborn factor.
2. S factors (specific factors) - special abilities in specific areas. It can be
enhanced through training. E.g. music, singing, playing etc.

 COGNITIVE INTELLIGENCE:
It is the mental ability of understanding, discriminating, problem solving
and effective communication.

Intelligence in Indian context:

Sanskrit word ‘buddhi’ is used for similar meaning, but its scope it wider than
western definition. It Includes along with cognitive aspects, affective and
motivational components.
Also ‘buddhi’ is the knowledge of one’s own self based on conscience, will and
desire.
Intelligence in Indian tradition can be termed as “integral intelligence” – which
gives emphasis on connectivity with the social and world environment. Equal
attention is paid to cognitive and non-cognitive processes.
Four competencies are considered here:
 cognitive – understanding, discrimination, problem solving
 Social – respect for social order, commitment to elders, young, needy.
 Emotional – self regulation, self-monitoring, good conduct, self-evaluation.
 Entrepreneurial – commitment, persistence, patience, hard work etc.
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SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE:
It refers to the person’s ability to understand and manage interpersonal
relationships. It involves emotional intelligence and self-awareness.
 Examples of social intelligence include knowing when to talk or listen, what
to say and what to do.
 Persons having high social intelligence have good social relationships and
gain social prestige.

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE:
It is considered as a type of social intelligence.
Definition by Mayor and Salovey: Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive
emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thoughts, to understand
emotions and emotional knowledge and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to
promote emotional growth.
It has 4 components:
 To perceive emotions (पहचान)
 To access and generate emotions (पंहुच) – to assist thoughts
 To understand emotions and emotional knowledge (समझ)
 To reflectively regulate emotions (ननयंत्रण) – to promote emotional growth.

Mayor and salovey’s model of EI consists of 4 type of abilities:

 Perception of emotions: ability to identify and differentiate emotions in self
and others.
 Use of emotions to facilitate thinking: includes skills for generating
emotions at time of need.
 Understanding and analysing emotions: ability to comprehend origin of
emotions, transition between emotions, blending of emotions etc.
 Reflective regulation of emotions: ability to regulate and modify emotions
at will, it also include ability to experience a range of emotions.

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Goleman’s definition: It is the capacity for recognizing our own feeling and those
of others, and regulating them for motivating ourselves and managing emotions
well in ourselves and our relationships with others.
These abilities are distinct but complementary to academic intelligence.
Acc. to Goleman E.I. consists of 5 components:
1. Self-awareness: ability to understand one’s own emotions, strengths,
weakness etc.
2. Self-regulation: involves controlling and redirecting one’s emotions and
impulses (e.g. think before acting)
3. Self-Motivation: it gives a passion to achieve goals with energy and
persistence.
4. Empathy: ability to understand emotions of others as well as to fell what
they are feeling.
5. Social skills: ability to inspire others and induce desired responses from
them.
(Any person with high emotional intelligence, will have all above mentioned
abilities: can perceive and recognized his and others emotions; can regulate them
according to his will; will be empathetic to others, will have good social skills, and
is a self-motivated person)
CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE:
Definition: a person’s ability to interact effectively with people from different
cultures. i.e. ability to relate and work effectively across cultures.
It has four components: Be KiDS.
1. Drive: is the person’s interest and confidence in functioning in culturally
diverse setting.
2. Knowledge: about cultures he is interacting with, their values, interaction
norms, beliefs, non- verbal behaviours.
3. Strategy: is how a person makes sense of culturally diverse experience- it
includes making a mental map of way of dealing a culturally diverse
interaction and making adjustment in maps when faced with different
experience.

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4. Behaviour: capability to adapt verbal and nonverbal behaviour to make it

appropriate to diverse cultures.

Importance of cultural intelligence: in a globalized world it has gained much

importance.
 Individual: People with high cultural intelligence are regarded as better able
to blend into any environment.
o will demonstrate better tolerance, trust and understanding of global
colleagues.
 Business: cultural intelligence helps devise culturally acceptable and
successful business products and practices, and helps cross-border success.
 Diplomacy: It helps increase effectiveness of negotiations and soft power.
 Military: cultural intelligence is essential in waging a successful counter
insurgency.
Related concept: How culture and intelligence are related?
Intelligence is a product of culture. As cultures decide the “end product” of an
intellectual development for an individual.
Elementary mental functions are universal, same across cultures but manner in
which higher mental functions like problem solving and thinking operate is a
result of culture.
e.g. --> in less technologically developed societies: social, emotional skills in
relating to people, self-reflection and collectivistic orientations are markers of
intelligence.
In technologically advanced societies: personal achievements founded on abilities
of reasoning and judgement represent intelligence- called technological
intelligence.

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SPIRITUAL INTELLIGENCE
To be 'spiritual' is to think, act and interact from an awareness of self as spirit not
form, soul not body.
Spirituality: is the innate human need to connect with something larger than
ourselves, to something that is beyond our ego-self.
It may be defined as being connected to two components:-
1. Vertical: something sacred, divine or timeless, higher power source etc.
2. Horizontal: being of service to our fellow humans and planet at large.
Spiritual intelligence is the ability to behave with compassion and wisdom while
maintaining inner and outer peace regardless of circumstances. (Cindy
Wigglesworth)
 Cognitive intelligence – What is think?
 Emotional intelligence – What I feel?
 Spiritual intelligence – What I am?
She has given four quadrant model of spiritual intelligence:

Higher self/ego self

Universal awareness
awareness

Spiritual
Intelligence

Higher self/ego self Spiritual presence/ social

mastery mastery

Spiritual intelligence is a higher dimension of intelligence

 that activates the qualities and capabilities of the authentic self (soul) in
the form of wisdom, compassion, integrity, joy, love, creativity and peace,
 Which results in a sense of deeper meaning and purpose, combined with
improvements in a wide range of important life and work skills.

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David B King has identified four core abilities or capacities of spiritual intelligence:
personal meaning
critical existential thinking-
producion- ability to derive
capcity to critically
personal meanign and
contemplate the nature of
purpose from all experiences
existence, realitym the
and to create a master life
universe, time etc .
purpose.

transcendental awareness- conscious state expansion-

capacity to identify
transcendental dimesnions
of self, other and physical
world and to identify their
relation to one self.
the ability to enter and exit
higher states of
consciousness and states of
trance at one'e own
discretion.

Danah Zohar: traits of spiritually intelligent people: 12

1. Self-awareness- knowing what I believe in, value and deeply motivates me.
2. Vision and value led: acting by principles and deep beliefs.
3. Positive use of adversity: learning and growing from mistakes.
4. Holistic: seeing larger patterns, connections
5. Compassion
6. Celebration of diversity
7. Field independent: stand against crowd and having one’s own convictions.
8. Ask fundamental why questions: to understand deep
9. Ability to reframe: seeing problems from a wider context.
10.Spontaneity: living in and being responsive to the moment.
11.Humility: having the sense of being a player in a larger game.
12.Sense of vocation: feeing called upon to serve, to give something back.
Spirituality vs Spiritual intelligence:
 Spirituality is to ‘know’ who you are and Spiritual Intelligence is to ‘realise’
who you are and to live life in that awareness.
 Spirituality is the knowledge of yourself as spirit/soul, and the
understanding of your highest spiritual qualities and attributes, which are
love, peace, purity and bliss. Spiritual Intelligence is the expression of
these innate spiritual qualities through your thoughts, attitudes and
behaviours.

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Relation of SQ with IQ and EQ: IQ is related with just the cognitive capabilities,
while EQ is related with emotional capabilities, SQ harmonises the two and
redirects both and gives a meaning to us, our actions, thoughts etc.
SQ is the intelligence of meaning, what makes us essentially humans – the ability
to plan, make sense of emotions, to control impulses, to make choices, to endow
world with meanings. Thus it includes both iq and eq and is a step higher.
Importance of spiritual intelligence:
 Personal life: SQ frees one from neediness and clinginess in personal
relationships. One realise that one has all in himself what it seeks from
others (love, happiness, peace). One then acts with authenticity without
any agenda, just serving.
 Family life: it allows individuals to find a more mature way to relate, free of
emotional dependency, and embrace others regardless.
 Working life: work does not remain just a daily chore but becomes a
creative process with meaning. Others are seen as fellow beings and not
just resource to get work from. Builds trust and empathy.
Developing spiritual intelligence:
1. Meditation- develop self-awareness.
2. Detached observation- ability to disengage from materialistic world and
focus on inner self.
3. Reflection- to review and reassess past experiences and interactions.
4. Connecting: with a higher source of spiritual power
5. Practice: all above things.

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Personality:
Traits and types; determinants of personality; assessment of personality.

PERSONALITY:
Definition: Personality refers to ‘unique and relatively stable’ qualities that
‘characterise an individual’s behaviour’ across different situations over a period of
time.
In more simple words it refers to our characteristic ways of responding to
individuals and situations. e.g. shy, sensitive, quiet, concerned.

Features of personality:
1. It has both physical and psychological components.
2. Its expression in terms of behaviour is fairly unique in a given individual.
3. Its main features do not easily change with time.
4. It is also dynamic as some of its features may change due to situational
demands.
Approaches to study personality1 (in syllabus) -
1. Type approach:
2. Traits approach
TYPE APPROACH TO PERSONALITY:
Theories adopting type approach advocates that human personalities can be
classified into a few clearly defined types and each person, depending upon
certain broad patterns in behavioural characteristics, blood type, bodily fluids
etc. can be described as belonging to a certain type.

1
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qPx9f4NGvzs&ab_channel=NIOSSeniorSecondaryCourses

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Major type theories:

o Hippocrates
o Charaka – Ayurveda
o Trigunas
o Sheldon
o Jung
o Friedman and Rosenman

1. Hippocrates: Greek physician proposed a typology of personality based on

bodily fluid or humour. He classified people into four types— characterised
by specific behavioural features.
Acc. To him human body consists of types of fluids – blood, yellow bile, phlegm
(mucus) and black bile. Predominance of any one of these gives rise to unique
temperamental characteristics leading to a unique type of personality.
Dominance Personality temperament
of fluid type
Blood SANGUINE Light hearted, optimistic, happy, hopeful, accommodating
Yellow bile choleric Angry, irritable, passionate, strong with active imagination.
Phlegm phlegmatic Cold, calm, slow, sluggish and indifferent
Black bile melancholic Bad tempered, dejected, sad, depressed, pessimistic, self-
motivated

2. Charaka Samhita: classifies people into categories of vata, pitta and kapha
on the basis of three humoural elements called tridosha. Each refers to a
type of temperament of a person (prakriti).
Acc. to Ayurveda, entire universe is made up of five elements: air, water, earth,
fire and ether. Human body also contains these elements as constituents. Some
are loaded with combination of air and ether, some with air and water etc.

Dominance of elements in
Personality Characteristics (prakriti)
Body

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 Restless with active mind

 Indecisive and emotionally insecure
Vata
Air and ether  Poor in memory
(like wind)
 Tendency towards insomnia, depression
 Good artists
 Intense, Short tempered- angry
Pitta  Precise with sharp critical intelligence
Water and fire  Good leaders
(like fire)
 Enjoy sports, hunting, politics

 Calm, loyal
 Speak rationally
Kapha
Water and earth  Need a lot of sleep
(like elephant)
 Emotionally secure
 Romantic

3. Trigunas: typology classifies people into three categories based on

characteristics:
a. Sattva: includes attributes like cleanliness, truthfulness, dutifulness,
detachment, discipline etc.
b. Rajas: includes restless, intensive activity, desire for sense
gratification, dissatisfaction, envy for others, a materialistic mentality
c. Tamas: has anger, arrogance, depression, laziness, feeling of
helplessness etc.
Each individual has all three gunas but in different degrees. The dominance of one
or other guna may lead to a particular type of behaviour.
4. Sheldon: Classified people into three types according to the physical
structure and certain temperamental characteristics with them.
a. Endomorphic – fat, soft and round – relaxed and sociable.
b. Mesomorphic – strong musculature, rectangular, strong body build –
energetic and courageous.
c. Ectomorphic – thin, long and fragile – brainy, artistic and introvert.

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5. Jung: he has classified people into two types, based on their social
participation and interest they take in social activities – Introverts and
Extroverts.
a. Introverts: prefer to be alone, tend to avoid others, withdraw
themselves in face of emotional conflicts, and are shy – thus appear
to be self-centered, unable to adjust easily in social situations but are
future oriented and sensible.
b. Extroverts: are sociable, outgoing, drawn to occupations that allow
dealing with people, talkative, express their feelings openly, take
decisions quickly and act upon quickly. Not affected easily by
difficulties.
6. Friedman and Rosenman: developed this theory when they were studying
heart patients.
Has divided people into Type A and Type B personalities.
a. Type A: such people possess high motivation – lack patience; feel
short of time, be in a great hurry and feel like always being burdened
by work.
i. They find difficult to slow down and relax.
ii. They are more susceptible to hypertension and coronary heart
diseases.
b. Type B: absence of type A traits.
Morris has extended this with a new classification:
c. Type C: are prone to cancer, they are cooperative, unassertive and
patient. They suppress their negative emotions and show compliance
to authority.
Recently one more type has been added,
d. Type D- has proneness to depression.
These body typologies are too simplistic and have limited use, human behaviour is
highly complex and variable. They are more of stereotypes which people hold.
People do not fit so smoothly into these types.

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TRAIT APPROACH TO PERSONALITY:

These theories focus on identifying, measuring and describing individual
differences in personality in terms of traits.
It is based on assumption that the persons personality is primarily based on
his/her traits. It focus on personality differences between individuals.
Personality Trait: It is relatively enduring or stable attribute or quality on which
one individual differs from another.
 They are stable over time.
 Consistent across situations,
 Their strength and combinations vary across individuals.
Every person has a number of traits but all traits are not found in all persons. The
combination and interaction of various traits form a personality that is unique to
each individual.
Thus, these theories does not classify people into different types but try to identify
the ‘building blocks’ of personality in form of traits, based on which his thinking
and behaviour can be predicted. E.g. trait of being “SOCIABLE” – then one assume
person to be cooperative, friendly, helping etc.
Major theories:
1. Allport’s trait theory
2. Cattell: personality factors
3. Eysenck’s theory

1. Allport’s trait theory: Acc. to Allport, traits are the basic units of personality,
each of us develops a unique set of such organised tendencies termed as traits
in course of our continuous and gradual development.
He categorised traits into three levels:
o Cardinal traits: they dominate an individual’s whole life, often to the point
that the person becomes known specifically for these traits. E.g. non-
violence for Gandhi – gandhian, Nazism of Hitler – Hitlerian.
 Very few people possess these traits.

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 These are rare and tend to develop later in life.

o Central traits: are general characteristics that form the basic foundation of
personality.
 They are not as dominating as cardinal ones, but are major
characteristics which we might use to describe another person.
 Often used in writing a testimonial or job recommendation for a
person.
 E.g. intelligent, honest, shy, anxious.
o Secondary traits: are traits that are “sometimes” related to attitudes or
preference. These are least generalised characteristics.
 They appear only in certain situation of under specific circumstances.
 E.g. likes mangoes, prefers ethnic clothes.

2. Cattell’s personality factors:

He empirically determined what he called, “common structure” i.e. primary or
source traits, which are source of all human personality and on which people
differ from each other.
For this he developed a test - “Sixteen personality factor questionnaire” for
assessment of personality. All these 16 factors are bipolar in nature e.g. dominant
vs humble.
o Source traits: are 16 in number, are stable and considered the building
blocks of personality.
o Surface traits: many in number, result out of the interaction of source
traits.
3. Eysenck theory:
He proposed that personality could be reduced into two broad dimension, which
are biologically and genetically based. Each dimension subsumes many traits:
o Neuroticism vs emotional stability: It refers to the degree to which people
have control over their feelings.
 At one end we have neurotic people, they are anxious, moody,
touchy, restless and quickly loose control.

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 At the other end are people who are calm, even tempered, reliable
and remain under control.
o Introversion vs extroversion: it refers to the degree to which people are
socially outgoing or socially withdrawn.
 At one end are those who ae active, impulsive and thrill seeking.
 On the other end are passive, quiet, cautious and reserved.
Later he added one more dimension:
o Psychoticism vs Sociability: which is considered to interact with the other
two dimensions. A person with high score on psychoticism tends to be
hostile, egocentric and antisocial.

Five factor model of personality:

Developed by Paul Costa and Robert McCrae, they examined all possible
personality traits and identified FIVE factors called “BIG FIVE FACTORS”. They
have been found useful in understanding the personality profile of people across
cultures.

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1. Openness to experience: open people are imaginative, curious, open to

new ideas, and interested in cultural pursuits. Opposite are rigid ones.
2. Extraversion: characterises socially active, assertive, talkative and fun
loving. On opposite are shy people.
3. Agreeableness: characterises helpful, cooperative, friendly, caring and
nurturing people. On opposite are hostile and self-centered.
4. Neuroticism: are emotionally unstable, anxious, worried, fearful and
distressed, hypersensitive. On opposite are well adjusted people.
5. Conscientiousness: these people are achievement oriented, dependable,
responsible, prudent, and self-controlled. Opposite are impulsive people.

DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY;
Determinants are those factors which affect the development of personality. They
are categorised into two:
1. Biological factors: these factors are related to genetics and physiological
process of the body. They include:
a. Physical structure and physical health: it is inherited from parents.
E.g. tall parents, tall children, skin colour etc.
b. Endocrine glands: they produce hormones, which control physical
development of a person. It there is any change in level of hormones
secreted, person will have different physical and mental issues, which
will affect personality.
2. Environmental factors: these are factors related to external environment of
a person. It includes social, cultural and economic factors.
a. Social factors: family upbringing, parent’s role, school, peer group.
b. Cultural factors: religious teachings, moral of society etc.
c. Economic factors: technological and materialistic development of
society.
Expand on each factor like effect of school (curriculum, non-curricular activities,
teachers, and peer groups), role of family (style of parenting, role of mother,
father, and siblings), society etc.

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ASSESSMENT OF PERSONALITY:
The efforts to understand the personality of a person through formal objective
efforts is called personality assessment. Three categories of techniques:- Self-
report measures; projective techniques; Behavioural analysis.
Self-report measures: here direct questions are asked to the person about
oneself to assess the personality.
1. MMPI: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality inventory:
It consists of 567 statements to be judged by the subject as ‘true/false’. The test is
divided into 10 subscales which seek to diagnose depression, hysteria,
masculinity-femininity, paranoia, schizophrenia, mania, social introversion.
In India, Mallick and Joshi developed “jodhpur multiphasic personality inventory”
(JMPI) along the same lines.
2. Eysenck Personality Questionnaire:
Developed by Eysenck, initially it assessed two dimension – introverted-
extroverted and neurotic-emotionally stable. Later a third dimension as added
namely “Psychoticism”- that represents a lack of feeling for others, a tough
manner of interacting with people, a tendency to defy social conventions, such a
person is hostile, egocentric and antisocial.
3. Cattell’s Sixteen personality factor questionnaire:
It is useful in vocational guidance (career). Many declaratory statements are
presented to subject with options to choose answers from.
Problems with these measures: Social desirability (tendency on the part of
respondent to endorse items in a socially desirable manner) and Acquiescence
(tendency of subject to agree with items irrespective of their contents) as well as
reluctance to give personal information.
Projective Techniques: based on work of Sigmund Freud (psychoanalytic theory
of personality) acc. to the assumption of these techniques: A major part of human
behaviour is determined by the motives of unconscious mind.
Unconscious mind stores repressed, unexpressed and immoral desires of a
person, thus these techniques focuses on assessing the unconscious mind.
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Here, UNCLEAR, UNSTRUCTUREDM, SEMI-STRUCTURED OR MEANINGLESS

content are presented to the person, then unconscious desires and feeling play an
important role in interpreting the content. Thus information stored in
unconscious mind is projected out in form of responses to the content presented.
1. Rorschach ink blot test
The test consists of 10 inkblots, five of them are in B&W, two are red, and three in
some pastel colours.
The blots are symmetrical in design with a specific shape or form. Each blot is
painted on the center of a white cardboard.
These cards are administered individually in two phases:
 Performance proper: subjects are shown the cards and asked to tell what
they see in each of them.
 Inquiry: a detailed report of the response in prepared by asking where, how
and what basis was a particular response made.
On basis of the report, interpretation of the responses is made and insights about
personality are given.
2. Thematic appreciation test
Developed by Morgan and Murray. It consists of 30 B&W picture cards and one
blank card. Each picture depicts one or more people in a variety of situations.
Cards are presented to the subjects and subject is asked to tell a story describing
the situation presented in the picture, what led to it , what is happening, what will
happen, what characters are feeling and thinking. The responses are evaluated.
3. Sentence completion test (a type of semi-projective test: as partially
structured data is provided)
Make use of number of incomplete sentences. Starting part of sentence is
presented and subject has to complete the ending. Type of ending provide
insights to attitudes, motivation and conflicts of subject. E.g, My pet …. .
4. Draw a person test
Here subject is asked to draw a person on a sheet of paper. A pencil and eraser is
provided to facilitate drawing.

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After completion of drawing, subject is asked to draw figure of opposite sex

person.
Finally subject is asked to make a story about the person as if she was a character
in a novel or play.
Some interpretations are made: omission of factual features suggests that person
tries to evade a highly conflict ridden interpersonal relationship. Graphic
emphasis on neck show lack of control over impulses. Large head suggest organic
brain disease and headaches etc.
5. PF study- Picture frustration study: (a type of semi-projective test)
Developed by Rosenzweig to assess how people express aggression in face of
frustrating situation.
Here a cartoon strip with one person frustrating other is presented to subject and
subject is asked to tell what should the other person do or tell etc.
Based on response it could be assessed, whether the focus is on frustrating object
or on protection of frustrated person or constructive solution etc.
Behavioural analysis: a person’s behaviour in different situations provide
important information about his personality.
1. Interview: questions asked.
2. Observation: observe gestures postures body language in a situation.
Limitations of these two tests: 1) professional training required for interviewer 2)
maturity of psychologists a precondition 3) presence of observer may
contaminate the results.
3. Situational tests: a person is placed in a situation to see how he responds.
4. Behavioural ratings: are generally taken from people who know the subject
intimately and have interacted with him over a period of time.
Limitations include: 1) inherent biases of raters 2) tendency to either place in
middle or at extreme.
5. Nomination: used in obtaining peer assessment, here each person is asked
to choose one or more persons of the group with whom he would like to
work, study or play. The person may be asked for specific reasons for
choice made.

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Learning and Motivation: Styles of Learning, Models of memory, Causes of

forgetting, Assessment of Motivation + Motivation theories (from mgmt. topic)

LEARNING:
Definition: It may be defined as “any relatively permanent change in behaviour or
behavioural potential produced by experience”.
Learning is an inferred process, and performance is an overt action. Performance
is the result of learning. E.g. one learns a poem and recites it. The recitation is
performance and based on that one can infer that poem has been learnt.
STYLES OF LEARNING:
Learning style may be defined as the way in which each learner begins to
concentrate, processes and retains new and complex information.
Learning styles are mainly derived from Perceptual modality, information
processing and personality patterns:
 Perceptual modality: mode of perception i.e. preference of learner through
which he takes new information e.g. visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile etc.
 Information processing: refers to way one is structured to think, solve
problem and remember information e.g. active/reflective, sensing/intuitive.
 Personality patterns: refers to the way we interact with out surroundings,
the role of personality in learning.
ANDERSON differentiated between two types of learning styles:
1. Relational style: learn material best through exposure to a full unit or
phenomenon. They comprehend parts of unit only by understanding their
relationship with the whole.
2. Analytical style: they learn more easily when information is presented step
by step in a cumulative sequential pattern that builds towards a conceptual
understanding.

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Relational style Analytical style

Perceive information as part of total picture.
Exhibit intuitive thinking
Learn materials that have a human, social content
and are characterized by experience more easily
a good memory for verbally presented ideas and
relevant information
more task-oriented concerning non-academic
areas
influenced by authority figures
Prefer to withdraw from unstimulating task
performance
Style conflicts with the traditional school envt
Able to disembed information form total picture
sequential and structured thinking
Learn materials that are inanimate and
impersonal more easily
good memory for abstract ideas and irrelevant
information
more task-oriented concerning academics
not greatly affected by the opinions of others
Show ability to persist unstimulating task
Style matches most school envts

David Kolb’s learning styles:

Kolb’s experiential learning theory works on two levels:
 Four stage learning cycle
 Four separate learning styles

In the learning process,

 first, the pupil gets a concrete experience: i.e. he encounters a new experience,

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 second, he observe the experience reflectively i.e. think about it, any inconsistencies
between experience and understanding,
 third, he makes abstract conceptualisation, i.e. he learns something from the
experience in form of abstract ideas, generalisations, conclusions
 Fourthly, he actively experiment with the learned thing i.e. applies the lesson in world
around him to see the results.

Based on this cycle, four distinct learning styles have been proposed -- the learning
style preference is actually the product of two pairs of variables, or two separate 'choices' that we make.
A typical presentation of Kolb's two continuums is that the east-west axis is called the Processing
Continuum (how we approach a task), and the north-south axis is called the Perception Continuum (our
emotional response, or how we think or feel about it). Kolb believed that we cannot perform both
variables on a single axis at the same time

1. Diverging style: feeling and watching: they are sensitive people, they are
able to look at things from different perspective. They prefer to watch
things rather than doing them and gather information to solve problems.
a. It is called diverging because these people perform better in
situations that require ideas-generation.
b. They are interested in people (feeling), tend to be imaginative and
emotional (feeling) and strong in arts. They prefer working in groups
and to listen with open mind.
2. Assimilating style: watching and thinking: they have a conscience and
logical approach (thinking).
a. They are less focused on people and more interested in ideas and
concepts. This style people are more attracted to logically sound
theories than approaches based on practical values.

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b. Style is Important for effectiveness in information and science

careers. People prefer reading, lectures, exploring analytical models
and time to think things through.
3. Converging style: thinking and doing: more practical oriented people, they
will use their learning to find solutions to practical issues and prefer
technical tasks.
a. They are good at finding practical uses of their ideas and theories.
They can solve problems and make decision by finding solutions to
questions and problems.
b. It enables specialists and technology abilities. They like to experiment
with new ideas to work with practical applications.
4. Accommodating style: doing and feeling: they rely on intuition rather than
logic
a. They use other people’s analysis and prefer to take a practical,
experiential approach. They are attracted to new challenges and
experiences to carry out their plans,
b. They act on ‘gut’ instinct rather than logical analysis.
c. This style is prevalent with general population.
‘VARK’ LEARNING STYLES:
1. Visual learners: have a preference for seeing (visual aids that represent
ideas using methods other than words such as graphs, charts, diagrams etc)
2. Auditory learners: best learn through listening lectures, discussions, tape
etc.
3. Reading and writing learners: prefer to take information that is displayed as
words and text. They make notes, lists and read repeatedly.
4. Kinaesthetic learners: prefer to learn via experience- moving, touching and
doing (active exploration of the world).

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MODELS OF MEMORY:
Memory: definition: it refers to retaining and recalling information over a period
of time, depending upon the nature of cognitive task you are required to perform
i.e. storage of information.
Memory model refers to a representation of how memory would work in the
brain.
Generally memory is conceptualised a process consisting of three interrelated
stages: Encoding, Storage and Retrieval.
 Encoding: it refers to the process by which information is recorded and
registered for the first time. Here incoming information is received and
some meaning is derived. It is then represented in a way that it can be
processed further (e.g. before storing any file on disk, we label it uniquely
etc.)
 Storage: it refers to the process through which information is retained and
held over a period of time.
 Retrieval: it refers to bringing the stored information to awareness so that
it can be used for performing tasks.
Major models:
1. STAGE MODEL: Atkinson and Shiffrin model
2. Level of processing theory: Craik and Lockhart/Tulving model
3. Constructive approach of Bartlett.
Atkinson and Shiffrin model: STAGE MODEL:
Acc. to this model, there are three memory systems: the sensory memory, the
short term memory and the long term memory.
Sensory memory: incoming information first enters the sensory memory. It has a
large capacity. But it is of very short duration i.e. less than a second. It is the
system that registers information from each of the senses with reasonable
accuracy, as exact replica of the stimulus.

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Short term memory: we do not attend to all the information that is impinged on
our senses. Information that is attended enters to second store called short term
memory, it hold information for a brief period of time (usually up to 30 s).
 Acc to Atkinson and Shiffrin, here information is encoded acoustically i.e. in
terms of sound and unless rehearsed, it may get lost.
Long term memory: materials that are elaborately rehearsed enter the long term
memory, it has vast capacity. It is permanent storehouse of all information. Here
information gets stored ‘semantically i.e. in terms of the meaning of that
information’. Forgetting is a retrieval failure, where one cannot retrieve stored
information.
Control processes: they function to monitor flow of information through these
stages and decides what to retain and what not?
1. Selective attention: only those materials pass to STM, which gets attention
from sensory memory.
2. Maintenance rehearsal: (in STM) rehearsals help retain information for long
and only those repeatedly rehearsed are retained and when repetition is
discontinued information is lost. E.g. a mobile no just known.
3. Chunking: is the process of dividing information into smaller chunks to help
expand the capacity of STM. Eg. 194719492004, this no can’t be
remembered as such as it exceeds limit of STM, but dividing it into 1947,
1949, 2004 will help to remember it.
4. Elaborative rehearsals: here the rehearsal is not just repetition of
information but an attempt to connect it to ‘already existing information’ in
long term memory. i.e. based on number of associations of the new
information its retention period could be increased.
This model has been criticised on considering short term and long term memories
separate and information passing through STM to LTM e.g. a man faced an
accident, his STM was lost while LTM was intact. They suggest that memory
processes are similar (not acoustic in stm and semantic only in ltm), irrespective
of how long information is retained.
Level of processing model: Craik and Lockhart:

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According to this model, there are no as such separate memory system like STM,
LTM but there are “the processing levels”, through which an information passes
and it decides extent to which it will eventually be retained.
Three levels of processing:
1. Structural (shallow) level of processing: here one encode the physical
qualities/appearances or structural features only. E.g. “cat” – here one only
attend to the shape of letters in this word.
2. Phonological (intermediate) level of processing: here one attend to the
phonetic sounds attached to the letters. And structural features are
transformed to at least one meaningful word. E.g. “cat” – see it as a word.
3. Semantic (deepest) level of processing: here the information is analysed in
terms of its meaning, which helps information to retain for longer. E.g.
“cat” thought as a mammal with a fur, legs, etc. and attaching with some
personal experience.
*** Remaining topics see in ncert chapter on memory.
CAUSES OF FORGETTING:
*** see ncert chapter:
1. Forgetting due to trace decay
2. Forgetting due to interference
3. Forgetting due to retrieval failure
Memory enhancement techniques.
MOTIVATION: Theories and assessment.
Definition: Motivation is the “driving force” which compels people to act and
continue them in action.
Motivation theories: covered in Management topic.
Still an overview:
1. Traditional theories: (they believe that people do not want to work)
a. Fear and punishment- people work because of fear of punishment
only

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b. Reward theory- people work as long as they are equally rewarded for
the work.
c. Carrot and stick theory- reward and punishment both push people
for working
2. Modern theories
a. X-Y theory – “x”- people has no interest in work, and are made to
work by fear of punishment; “y” – people wants to do work and do
so as part of his natural activity, they are to be supported.
b. Needs hierarchy theory – humans have some unfulfilled needs and
the desire to fulfil them drives them to work.
c. Two factor theory – drive is provided by two factors- Hygiene
(environment) and Motives (content of work).
Assessment of motivation:

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