READING AND WRITING SKILLS MODULE 1:
to the person who examines it.
1.1 DEFINITION OF DISCOURSE AND ITS TEXT
What is Discourse?
- a unit of language longer than a single
sentence.
- spoken and written language
- Latin prefix —dis meaning ‘away’ and the
root word currere meaning ‘to run’.
- refers to the way that conversation flows.
Forms of Discourse
● Exposition
- serves to explain or inform; it
appeals to the intellect.
- Ex. a research paper on the causes
and effects of global warming; an
article on child labor and child abuse
● Description
- serves to describe or state the
qualities of something or
someone; it appeals to the senses
- Ex. a writer’s description of a locale
he has recently visited
● Narration
- serves to narrate or tell a story; it
appeals to the emotions
- Ex. a narrative account of a
student’s near-death experience; a
fictive story about an encounter with
a supernatural being
● Argumentation
- serves to argue (to cite reasons for
or against a proposition) or to
persuade and/or to take an action
- debatable or answerable by yes or
no
- Ex. an essay explaining the severity
of climate change and how humans
can save Earth
1.2 DEFINITION OF TEXT AND ITS EXAMPLES
What is Text?
- original words of something written,
printed, or spoken, in contrast to a
summary or paraphrase.
- Text linguistics: a form of discourse
analysis, a method of studying written or
spoken language
- Anything that conveys a set of meanings
- Examples are books, magazines,
newspapers, movies, paintings,
television shows, songs, political
cartoons, online materials,
advertisements, maps, works of art, and
even rooms full of people.
Text and Discourse
Text Discourse
is made up of is made up of
sentences having the utterances having the
property of grammatical property of coherence
cohesion
Text as Connected Discourse
- A text is a connected discourse, which
means that all ideas in the text must be
related in the sense that they would
express only one main idea
1.3 PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT IN WRITING
What is the Pattern of Development?
- presentation plan, format, or structure for
the message.
- signal how facts and ideas are presented.
- main idea - dictates the pattern of
development or organization.
Development by Definition
● defining a complex term or idea.
● concept is defined initially and then
expanded with examples and
restatements.
● Ex. Ultrasound is relatively a technique that uses sound
waves to produce an image that enables the physician to
detect structural abnormalities. Useful pictures can be
obtained as early as seven weeks into pregnancy.
Ultrasound is frequently used in conjunction with other
techniques such as amniocentesis and fetoscopy.
Development by Comparison and Contrast
● combine a comparison and contrast into a
single paragraph
● comparing; similarity: contrast; different.
● to understand each of the two things more
clearly and, at times, to make judgments
about them.
● Ex. In high school, I let reading assignments go. I told myself
that I'd have no trouble catching up on two hundred pages
during a fifteen-minute ride to school. College courses have
taught me to keep pace with the work. Otherwise, I feel as
though I'm sinking into a quicksand of unread material.
Development by Cause and Effect
 ● to explain the causes of a particular event
or situation; the effects of an event or a
situation
● cause is something that makes an event or
condition happen
● an effect is what happens as a result
Development by Classification
● writer arranges people, objects, or ideas
with shared characteristics into classes or
groups.
● Ex. “There are three kinds of book owners. The first has all
the standard sets and best sellers-unread, untouched. The
second has a great many books--a few of them read
through, most of them dipped into, but all of them as clean
and shiny as the day they were bought. The third has a few
books or many--every one of them dog-eared and
dilapidated, shaken and loosened by continual use, marked
and scribbled from front to back.”
Development by Narration
● STORYTELLING
● make a statement clear relating in detail
something that has happened to us.
● recounts an event or a story
Development by Problem-Solution
● method for analyzing writing about a topic
by identifying a problem and proposing
one or more solutions.
● a type of argument.
Development by Persuasion
● to convince the reader that a particular
point of view is worthy of consideration.
● consider both sides of an issue, but it
reveals a bias in favor of one side over
another.
1.4 COHERENCE: TRANSITION BETWEEN
IDEAS
1. To add to a statement or viewpoint.
Equally important, finally, further, furthermore, what is more,
moreover, as well as, in addition, to expand, firstly (secondly,
thirdly and so forth), not only this but also (note you www
must include 'also' after but), in fact, another way to, besides,
in general, more specifically, no matter what.
2. To show similarity.
Similarly, likewise, in a similar manner, like, in the same way,
such as, at any rate, also, even so, in other words, in
general, more specifically, at the same time, in addition to,
for the same reason.
3. To contrast.
However, nevertheless, rather, whereas, but, yet, on the
other hand, on the contrary, by comparison, compared to,
although, conversely, but, meanwhile, in contrast, after all,
otherwise, alternatively, nonetheless, notwithstanding,
regardless, in any case, even, yet, despite this.
4. To express an alternative.
Or, either... or, whether... or, conversely, this can be relevant
in at least two, first... second, or firstly ... secondly (using 'ly'
is grammatically correct).
5. To make a concession.
Granted, naturally, of course.
6. To place a statement in a particular
context.
In this connection, from this perspective, from this viewpoint,
this point of view, in this school of thought, from this
standpoint, from this standpoint, so conceptually one could
argue.
7. To place a statement in a timely fashion.
Previously, before this, to begin with, at first, ultimately, later,
then, since then, since, after that, soon, next, gradually,
while, meanwhile, furthermore, sometimes, eventually,
finally, lastly, summing up, in summation, in conclusion,
[there are three reasons for this] firstly, secondly, thirdly,
soon, sometimes, when, now, once.
8. To show cause and effect.
As a result, consequently, as a consequence, hence, due to,
in view of, on account of, accordingly, for this reason,
therefore, following on from this, thus, hence, moreover, that
is why.
9. To prove a point.
Because, for, since, for the same reason, obviously,
evidently, indeed, in fact, in any case, that is, demonstrably,
in all likelihood, in all probability, no doubt, seemingly,
therefore, in that, owing to, on account of, considering, be
reason of, hence, consequently, in view of, insofar as,
increasingly, more importantly, even though, particularly,
above all, especially since, in any case, by far, even if.
10. To give an example of an earlier point of
view.
For example, for instance, in this case, to illustrate, as an
illustration, to take another example, namely, that is, as
shown by, as illustrated by, as expressed by.
11. To repeat, insist on or refer back to an
earlier point.
As previously mentioned, as I have said, in brief, as I have
noted, as has been noted.
12. To emphasize when adding a conditional
statement.
Indeed, obviously, patently, apparently, accordingly, without a
doubt, certainly, undeniably, understandably, in accordance
with, according to, otherwise, as far as.
13. To conclude a paragraph or an essay.
Thus, lastly, in brief, in short, on the whole, to sum up, to
conclude, in conclusion, as I have shown, as I have said, in
summary, to summarise, in conclusion, ultimately.
1.5 TECHNIQUES IN SELECTING AND
ORGANIZING INFORMATION
Brainstorming
➔ process of generating creative ideas and
solutions through intensive analysis,
discussion, or criticism
Methods in Brainstorming:
a. Idea list
➔ listing ideas about a particular topic.
➔ helps you find the main idea and
supporting details from the
numerous listed ideas.
b. Idea map
➔ visual representation of ideas and
their connections with one another.
 ➔ idea map is more structured;
➔ show how one idea subordinates
another idea.
Graphic Organizers
➔ visual representations of concepts
➔ help you structure information into
organizational patterns.
Types of Graphic Organizers
a. Venn Diagram - used to compare and
contrast ideas and events.
b. Decision-making diagram - organizing
the possible alternatives to a problem
along with their advantages and
disadvantages.
c. KWHL Chart - student documents their
own learning process from start to finish
on a particular subject. (know, want, how,
learned)
d. Y-Chart - three-part graphic organizer
that is used for describing three aspects of a
topic.
e. Cycle diagram - to show how a series of
events interact repeatedly through a cycle.
f. Fishbone diagram - identify the causes or
composition of some complex system or
event.
● like a mini-thesis statement about
the mini-topic. expresses the
specific and complete idea
MODULE 2: PROPERTIES OF WELL-WRITTEN
TEXTS
2.1 ORGANIZATION (STRUCTURE)
What is Organization?
- structural framework for writing.
- helps the reader fulfill their expectations
for the text.
- logical progression and completeness of
ideas in a text.
Introduction
- “road map” for the reader.
- direction and main ideas.
- central argument and thesis statement.
- the reader is interested in your paper.
Body
- organization of the middle of a piece of
writing depends on the genre.
- five basic organizational structures:
sequence, description, cause, and effect,
compare and contrast, and problem and
solution.

g. Frayer Model - develop a better - Sequence: time, numerical, or spatial order

understanding of complex concepts by as the organizing structure
having students identify not just what
something is, but what something is not. Conclusion

h. Star diagram - organizing the - restate/recap your thesis and major

characteristics of a single topic. points

i. Chain diagrams - describes the stages or - an answer to the question "So what?"
steps in a process.
- include a restatement of your thesis using
3. Outlining different words

- tool for organizing ideas. 2.2 COHERENCE & COHESION

There are two major types of outlines: COHERENCE COHESION

a. The topic outline.

mainly deals with logic
● arrange ideas hierarchically, in the and appropriate
focuses more on lexical
organization of the
sequence you want and show what syntax and grammar in
sentences to form
you will talk about. sentence formation
meaningful and
understandable content
● identifies all the little mini-topics
that your paper will comprise, and
more sort of a pattern in the individual parts that
shows how they relate. the collected parts of are collected together
writings and for representation
b. The sentence outline.

● it shows exactly what you will say the attribute that is the attribute decided by
about each mini-topic. decided by the end-user the writer and which is
or reader which brought by using different
determines whether the techniques like repeated
 content seems words/ideas, reference
meaningful words, translation
understanding and signals, substitution,
useful etc
observable as it is dealt
abstract as it deals with
with the actual written
the ideas
content
qualitative property quantitative property
Six Categories of Transition Words
1. Spatial Order - Words used in descriptive
writing to signal spatial relationships, such
as above, below, besides, nearby, beyond,
inside and outside.
2. Time order - Words used in writing
narratives, and instructions to signal
chronological sequence,
such as before, after, first, next, then, when,
finally, while. as, during, earlier, later,
meanwhile.
3. Numerical order - Words used in
expository writing to signal order of
importance, such as first, second, also,
finally, in addition, equally, important, and
more or less importantly.
4. Cause/effect order - Words used in
expository writing to signal relationships,
such as because, since, for, so, as a result,
consequently, thus, and hence.
5. Comparison/contrast order - Words used
in expository writing to signal similarities
and differences, such as also, additionally,
just as, as if, as though, like, and similarly.
6. General/Specific order - Words used in
descriptive reports and arguments to signal
more specific elaboration on an idea, such
as for example, such as, like, namely, for
instance, that is, in fact, in other words, and
indeed
Six Main Characteristics of Effective Language
1. concrete and specific, not vague and
abstract
2. concise, not verbose
3. familiar, not obscure
4. precise and clear, not inaccurate or
ambiguous
5. constructive, not destructive
6. formality of language
MECHANICS OF WRITING
Mechanics - to describe the technical aspects of
writing, such as spelling, punctuation, capitalization,
etc.
Commas
● separate items in a series
● separate coordinate adjectives
● separate two complete sentences joined by
a conjunction
● before you use a comma in front of a
conjunction, be sure that the conjunction
joins two sentences, not two other
compound parts, such as two verbs
● set off introductory elements (words that
introduce a sentence) with a comma.
● set off interrupters with commas.
● parenthetical expression
● Use commas to set off dates and states
Semicolons
● separate two sentences when there is no
coordinating conjunction such as and, but,
or, nor, or for.
● two sentences are joined by a conjunctive
adverb, such as however, consequently,
therefore, or moreover, use a semicolon
before the conjunctive adverb and a comma
after it.
● to separate two sentences joined with a
coordinating conjunction when commas are
contained within either of the sentences.
● to separate items in a series if there are
commas within the items
Colons
● use a colon for conventional items: giving
the time, separating chapter from verse in
Bible references, separating volume from
page in bibliography references, and writing
a salutation in a business letter.
● use a colon to introduce a formal list
● use a colon to mean summary follows or
explanation follows
Capitalization Guidelines
● Proper nouns
● Proper adjectives
● Pronoun I and the interjection O.
● Words that show family relationships when
they are used instead or as part of a name
● Nicknames and other identifying names
● Professional titles when they come
immediately before a personal name
● Each academic title and its abbreviations
when they follow a personal name
● Personified nouns
● Brand names
● Specific political and geographical locations
(and the adjectives that come from them)
● Names of all nationalities, races, and tribes
(and the adjectives that came from them)
● Direction words used to show a specific
place
● Names of specific geographic features and
the common nouns that are part of the
proper names
 ● Names of buildings, monuments, streets,
bridges, parks, and other specific locations,
and the common nouns that are part of the
proper nouns
● Names of organization, businesses, and
institutions
Important Terminologies in the Study of Claims
1. Fact - information that is certain and can be
proven based on documents, historical data,
research, and observation.
2. Opinion - judgment or belief formed about
something that may not necessarily be
based on fact or knowledge.
3. Argument - presentation of opinion about
something using language.
4. Persuasion - emotional state wherein the
intended reader is moved to agree with a
belief through argument, appeal, or course
of action
5. Debatable Claim - an opinion that is based
on personal experience and values that
should be supported with evidence.
6. Evidence - details, facts, reasons, statistics,
expert research, and personal experience
that directly relate to and support a
debatable claim.
7. Credible Sources - cited and properly
attributed websites, reports, and articles
developed by experts
Types of Claims
Claim of Fact
★ argument about a quantifiable topic
★ asserts a stand regarding a debatable topic
★ clearly states the main argument and
defines vague and controversial terms
★ supported with factual information
★ Ex. a claim of fact may argue that climate
change does not exist, because these are
simply natural cycles of weather change
Claim of Value
★ whether something is good or bad
★ based on judgment and evaluation on a
philosophical, aesthetic, or moral standpoint
★ draws on real-world examples and
illustrations to make the abstract values
clear
Claim of Policy
★ argument which asserts the implementation
of a certain policy
★ the need to present a solution to problems
that have arisen
Your claim must conform to the following
guidelines:
- thesis statement or the claim must be
debatable
- thesis statement or claim must be narrow
- must have a credible source
- resources must be properly cited
Concepts in Determining Effective Claims
1. Logos (logical appeal) - factual and
reasonable support for the claim
2. Pathos (emotional appeal) - use of
positive or negative emotions to gain the
approval of the reader on an argument
presented
3. Ethos (ethical appeal) - focused on the
readers' perception on the credibility and
reputation of the writer
MODULE 4: HYPERTEXT AND INTERTEXT
Intertext
● a work whose meaning is shaped by
referencing or calling to mind other texts
● other texts help add meaning to the current
text
Hypertext
● the external links embedded in a text by the
writer
● reader can read the text in a nonlinear way,
because he/she is led to other links outside
the main text
● the use of non- sequential and non- linear
process of reading and writing
Interface of text and intertextuality - process in
which independent texts are interfaced with another
text to produce meaning
Intertextuality could be applied in literary texts
and media content
❖ Intertextuality in film
❖ Intertextuality in newspaper/printed
materials
❖ Intertextuality in Advertising
MODULE 5: CRITICAL READING
Critical Thinking
● the ability to analyze information objectively
and make a reasoned judgment
● involves the evaluation of sources, such as
data, facts, observable phenomena, and
research findings.
Critical Reading
● technique for discovering new information
and ideas within a text
● careful, active, reflective, analytic reading
● Critical reading would appear to come
before critical thinking
Characteristic features of critical reading:
 1. Examine the evidence or arguments
presented
2. Check out any influences on the evidence
or arguments
3. Check out the limitations of study design or
focus
4. Examine the interpretations made
5. Decide to what extent you are prepared to
accept the author's arguments, opinions, or
conclusions.

STEPS IN CRITICAL THINKING PROCESS

SUMMARIZE - Extract and restate the material's

main message or central point.

ANALYZE - Examine the material by breaking it

into its component parts

SYNTHESIZE - Pull together what you have

summarized and analyzed by connecting it to your
own experiences.

EVALUATE - Judge the quality of the material now

that you have become informed through the
activities of summary, analysis, and synthesis

STEPS IN THE READING PROCESS

1. READING FOR LITERAL MEANING: Read

"on the lines" to see what is stated.

2. READING TO DRAW INFERENCES: Read

"between the lines" to see what is not
stated but implied.

3. READING TO EVALUATE: Read "beyond

the lines" to form your opinion about the
materials.

ACTIVE READING

Active Reading - the reading comprehension

wherein the reader is engaged in the text that he or
she is reading.