Review of artificial intelligence applications in engineering design perspective

Introduction: The field of engineering design has been transformed by the development of AI, allowing
for the tackling of complex problems with ambiguous parameters that were previously unsolvable using
traditional methods. This article reviews the progress and future trends in AI applications for
engineering design over the past 15 years. It explores AI-powered methods such as machine learning,
genetic algorithms, and fuzzy logic and examines AI-powered design studies for various design stages.
While the utilization of AI methods in engineering design produces efficient, fast, accurate, and
comprehensive results, the selection of the appropriate AI method is critical for successful outcomes.
Based on literature outcomes for design problems, the study provides a guideline for selecting the right
AI method.

The use of AI in product and engineering design provides efficient, fast, accurate, and comprehensive
results, transforming traditional approaches. AI techniques can manage complex design operations,
enabling designers to focus on innovation and creativity. Expert systems, fuzzy logic, artificial neural
networks, and genetic algorithms are commonly used classical AI methods, while machine learning and
deep learning are more modern methods that have gained popularity in recent years. Various AI
techniques can be used in various stages of the design process, such as idea inspiration, concept
generation, evaluation, optimization, and decision-making. AI has been examined in various fields, such
as photovoltaic cell design, defect detection, fashion and clothing industry, additive manufacturing, and
product design from a sustainability perspective.

This article provides a comprehensive framework combining the traditional rule-based and modern
data-dependent methods in engineering design, examining and comparing both rule-based and data-
driven AI methods applied to the conceptual design and embodiment design stages and evaluating their
strengths and weaknesses. The study's contributions include a comprehensive examination, summary,
and classification of AI applications in product and engineering design for the last 15 years, guidance for
designers in selecting appropriate AI methods for design problems, and projections for future AI studies
in the design field. The paper discusses recent developments in AI methods and current applications,
reviews AI applications in the engineering design processes, and discusses the scope and limits of using
AI in engineering design and future research topics.

Systematic Literature Review: The study focuses on the use of AI in engineering design processes and
describes a systematic literature review process involving searching, selecting, and obtaining
information from scientific databases. The review process included a four-stage elimination and
selection process, resulting in 184 publications included in the study. Information was extracted and
classified based on the purpose of the examined papers, including the design problem, field, need for
the study, AI techniques used, and findings obtained.

An Overview of AI Methods: AI is a field of study that imitates human mental activities such as thinking,
interpretation, estimation, and decision-making using computational methods. It is an interdisciplinary
field that combines information from various scientific fields such as mathematics, computers, biology,
genetics, and engineering. AI methods can be categorized into strong AI, which imitates heuristic
processes that humans use when solving problems, and weak AI, which performs specific tasks more
efficiently than humans. However, the decisions made by AI models are not always explainable, leading
to concerns regarding their reliability. The concept of XAI (Explainable Artificial Intelligence) has
emerged to clarify the internal working structure of AI and the reasons for the decisions made. The most
popular AI methods in design processes include machine learning, genetic algorithm, artificial neural
networks, fuzzy logic, swarm intelligence, data mining, and expert systems.

AI Methods:

The use of Expert systems, fuzzy logic, artificial neural networks, and genetic algorithms has been
widespread for a considerable time in design evaluation and optimization. However, in recent years,
modern data-based methods such as machine learning and deep learning have become increasingly
prevalent. Other AI techniques can also be implemented in various stages of the design process. Hybrid
AI, which combines multiple methods such as neural networks, fuzzy logic, and swarm intelligence, can
also be used in certain design applications. Additionally, Evolutionary algorithms, big data/mining,
swarm intelligence, and knowledge-based systems are utilized in other applications and are not solely
classified as sub-branches of AI in the figure. In the subsequent section, we provide a brief overview of
these AI methods used in design.

Machine Learning:

Machine learning is a statistical AI method that employs data to make predictions and inferences. It is
capable of detecting patterns and similarities in data to interpret future data. Unlike traditional
programming, machine learning does not necessitate a clear algorithm to learn. Machine learning can be
applied in tasks such as natural language processing, sound and image recognition, and pattern
recognition. The three distinct learning models available in machine learning are supervised,
unsupervised, and reinforcement. The interest in machine learning has increased significantly in the last
15 years due to the escalation in the amount of data and the ease of access to big data. Machine
learning algorithms can be employed to generate unique design concepts, topology optimization, and
impact a user's purchasing preference. However, machine learning is frequently considered a black box
since it is not entirely clear how these algorithms arrive at their results.

Supervised learning aims to find the best model that describes the relationship between input and
labeled output variables. It is employed for classification and regression tasks and involves training and
testing datasets. Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) are a type of supervised learning that mimics the
nervous system and can solve complex problems by optimizing network weights. Deep learning is a type
of ANNs that consists of multiple layers and can be trained using large datasets. Examples of deep neural
networks with wide applications include Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs), Recurrent Neural
Networks (RNNs), and Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs). CNN is the most commonly used deep
neural network for image processing, and it comprises convolution and pooling layers to learn and filter
information from images.

Unsupervised learning is an AI algorithm that can identify common features and hidden patterns in
unlabeled datasets without the need for a supervisor. Nevertheless, it can be difficult to objectively
evaluate model performance. Unsupervised learning is frequently used to detect data distribution,
clustering, and size reduction. Common algorithms used include k-means clustering, association rules,
auto-encoder, and principal component analysis. K-means clustering divides data into meaningful
groups based on distance, association rules define relationships between data, and principal component
analysis and auto-encoder reduce size to increase processing speed and reduce computational burden.
Reinforcement learning entails taking a series of actions to perform specific tasks, where actions leading
to the correct result are rewarded and those leading to the wrong result are penalized. This method
enables the development of high-level tactics through exploration, but clear objectives and
rewards/penalties must be established. Reinforcement learning has high potential for creativity, as it can
discover various ways to solve a problem.

Genetic Algorithm (GA) is a heuristic search algorithm that mimics the evolutionary process of natural
selection to find the best solution in a solution space through iterative steps. GA utilizes terms adapted
from natural systems such as gene, chromosome, population, crossover, and mutation. The fitness
function assesses the solution space, and only promising solutions can reproduce.

AI Applications in Design:

The article discusses the challenges faced in idea generation during the product design process,
highlighting the issue of design fixation. It also explores the use of artificial intelligence (AI) in
overcoming these challenges, focusing on the use of patent data, scientific literature, web resources,
ontology-based methods, and social networks to inspire and increase creativity in designers. Different
approaches and tools used to analyze and visualize data for idea generation are also presented,
including semantic networks, Technology Space Maps (TSM), and unsupervised ontology networks.
Overall, the article emphasizes the potential of AI in facilitating the ideation process in product design
and reducing costs while increasing market share.

The concept generation process in design involves identifying the problem and considering various
criteria such as user demand, cost, aesthetics, and functionality. AI methods, such as machine learning
and neural networks, can be used for direct concept generation and exploration of the design solution
space. Genetic algorithms are also sometimes used. Studies have used these methods to generate
product configurations, determine ideal design configurations based on customer preferences, and
identify modern design concepts through spoken language datasets and crowdsourcing.

The article discusses how artificial intelligence can be used in the conceptual design process. One way is
through using machines and deep learning methods to generate unique and useful design concepts.
Genetic algorithms can also be used for designing space exploration and concept creation. Artificial
neural networks are effective tools for determining ideal design configurations and aesthetic features of
a product. Soni et al. (2013) demonstrated the use of ANN and GA in developing basic design
formulation for aesthetic products, generating alternative design concepts for mixers, coffee makers,
and washing machines. However, the aesthetic quality of products is not only determined by geometric
features, but also by material, texture, color, and brand identity, which may require further editing or
redesigning.

Machine learning and data mining are effective methods for idea generation, particularly in extracting
hidden and explicit ideas from large datasets such as patent databases and survey data. Decision trees
and deep learning algorithms, such as GANs and VAEs, can be used to identify customer needs and
generate new product options based on visual data. Raina et al. (2019) also used deep learning to
imitate human design strategies in idea generation by obtaining design information from consecutive
images and generating unique proposals.
The use of deep learning algorithms such as GANs and Variational Auto-Encoders (VAE) have been
successful in generating new product options by using computer vision to recognize visual data such as
photos and videos. Deep learning was also used to develop a generative design model inspired by
biological objects, with several biologically inspired images created by combining the images of the
target and biological objects. Topology optimization was integrated into the GAN algorithm to achieve
aesthetic product designs with high engineering performance. Another GAN algorithm, the Attribute
GAN (AttGAN), was developed for textile products by using a special loss function and a discriminator
loss to organize only specified features in the visual dataset containing fashion products to produce
unique concept fashion products.

This section describes numerous studies that have used deep learning algorithms, such as GAN models,
to develop generative design models for creating unique product concepts. Some of these studies
include Yu et al. (2019a, b), Oh et al. (2019), Chen and Ahmed (2020), Wang et al. (2020), and Gu et al.
(2022). These studies have used modified GAN models to achieve aesthetic and engineering
performance, improve diversity and innovation of designs, and even obtain product concepts with user-
desired features using EEG signals. Gu et al. (2022) used both CNN and DCGAN architectures to produce
3D spring concept models from 2D spring images.

Artificial intelligence (AI) is revolutionizing the field of design by providing new ways to generate,
modify, and optimize designs. The following are some of the key AI applications in design:

Generative Design: AI-based generative design tools use algorithms to generate a large number of
potential design solutions based on specific design criteria. This approach enables designers to explore a
wide range of design possibilities and quickly identify the best options.

Computer-Aided Design (CAD): AI-powered CAD software can automatically create 3D models from 2D
sketches, interpret and translate natural language commands into CAD instructions, and identify and fix
errors in designs.

Augmented Reality (AR): AR technology uses AI to overlay digital information onto the physical world. In
design, AR can be used to visualize and test designs in real-world environments, enabling designers to
identify and address potential issues before construction.

Virtual Reality (VR): VR technology uses AI to create immersive digital environments that simulate real-
world experiences. In design, VR can be used to visualize and test designs at full scale, enabling
designers to identify and address potential issues before construction.

Natural Language Processing (NLP): NLP technology uses AI to understand and interpret human
language. In design, NLP can be used to automatically generate design concepts and modify designs
based on natural language commands.

Image Recognition: Image recognition technology uses AI to identify and classify visual information. In
design, image recognition can be used to identify design patterns and elements, allowing designers to
easily incorporate these elements into their designs.

Design Optimization: AI-powered design optimization tools use algorithms to analyze and optimize
designs based on specific performance criteria, such as structural integrity, energy efficiency, and
material usage.
These AI applications are changing the way designers work by streamlining the design process,
improving design accuracy, and enabling designers to explore new design possibilities. As AI technology
continues to evolve, we can expect to see even more advanced AI applications in design in the future.

The use of deep learning algorithms for generating and evaluating creative ideas is discussed in this
article. Han et al. proposed a data-driven approach using Concept Net and TechNet to measure the
distance between concepts and determine the level of creativity. Generative design methods, such as
GANs, have also been successful in producing functional designs. Wu et al. used CNN models to evaluate
design concepts based on aesthetics, while Yoo and Kang used explainable AI to predict the
machinability and production costs of complex structures during the conceptual design phase. Overall,
these approaches provide faster and more efficient ways to generate and evaluate ideas.

Design optimization aims to find the best product configuration while considering various constraints.
Traditional optimization processes involve creating a mathematical problem formulation to determine
optimal design variables. However, artificial intelligence methods like evolutionary algorithms, swarm
intelligence, artificial neural networks, and machine learning are increasingly used to solve design
optimization problems. Swarm intelligence algorithms, such as Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and
Ant Colony Optimization (ACO), have become popular for optimization problems due to their low
memory requirement and ease of application. PSO and ACO are inspired by bird flocking, fish schooling,
and ant foraging behavior. The PSO algorithm is useful for engineering problems and can be applied to
complex optimization problems of truss and frame structures. Hybrid algorithms like the Cultural
Algorithm and Reinforcement Learning-based PSO can also be used for optimal design. Design
optimization problems may have highly non-convex behavior, which can be handled by combining PSO
and ACO algorithms in Particle Swarm Ant Colony Optimization (PSACO).

Differential Evolution (DE) is a heuristic optimization algorithm that can be used for multidimensional
real-valued functions without requiring the gradient of the problem. It optimizes a problem by
iteratively improving candidate solutions based on a given measure of quality. DE can be applied to a
wide range of optimization problems, including discontinuous, noisy, and changing over time problems.
DE uses a population-based approach and creates new candidate solutions by combining existing ones
according to simple formulae. DE has been evaluated on various benchmark suites and engineering
design problems, including wing morphing design parameters. Other optimization techniques, such as
genetic algorithms, mixed models, and interactive genetic algorithms, have also been used for design
optimization. The performance of DE has been compared to other optimization methods and has shown
to outperform them in some cases.

The use of machine learning algorithms, such as Artificial Neural Networks (ANN), in optimization
problem solutions is becoming increasingly popular. The ANN is combined with other techniques, such
as Backpropagation Neural Network (BPNN) and Hopfield Neural Network (HNN), to determine the
optimum design configuration with the highest customer satisfaction, to determine product features
suitable for customer expectations and improve product quality and create value. Other machine
learning algorithms such as Random Forrest, Gaussian Naive Bayes, Support Vector Machine, and deep
learning methods are also used for various design optimization studies. Generative design models based
on deep learning algorithms aim for form improvement. The data obtained from topology optimization
is used as training data, and high-performance models are produced. Finally, the use of explainable
artificial intelligence, such as Gradient-weighted Class Activation Mapping (Grad-CAM), is employed to
achieve high performance and interpretable topology optimization.

The AI optimization algorithms can be inefficient for large and complex systems with many design
variables and alternatives, leading to increased costs and longer design processes. Strategies such as
design domain reduction, critical parameters identification, parallel computing, increasing computer
power, decomposing design problems, mapping, and visualizing the design space have been developed
to overcome these challenges. One approach is the use of statistical learning to simultaneously
implement design domain reduction and critical parameters identification. Another approach involves
two optimization strategies: model approach-based and coarse-fine model-based techniques. The
former uses information obtained by optimizing a cheap model to optimize an expensive one, while the
latter uses a coarse model to complete optimization at low cost and a fine model to test accuracy.

The use of AI methods in design can provide full or partial support to the design process and assist
designers in various decision-making stages. Expert systems, machine learning, and deep learning
algorithms are widely used decision support tools to assist designers. These algorithms can help
designers in material selection, predicting machine structure and material, determining customer
sentiment, facilitating function-based design studies, and providing design proposals for the next step.
However, AI-generated ideas and concepts may not always result in good designs and require human
intervention. Developing design strategies following the initially unknown human mental process using
deep learning support is valuable in creating designs.

Modelling involves creating 3D images of a design concept in a computer environment and is useful for
designers and product stakeholders to understand the general structure of the product. AI algorithms
can assist designers in automating the modelling process, and deep learning methods are particularly
useful in generating unique 3D model variations or even creating 3D models from 2D images. However,
generating 3D models from 2D images is a complex process and requires advanced algorithms such as
GANs and VAEs. There are also CNN-based models that can retrieve 3D CAD models from hand drawings
or technical drawings, reducing design time and costs.

Discussion:

This section summarizes the previous sections of the paper, which provide a critical review of AI
methods used in engineered product designs. The paper discusses classical AI methods such as fuzzy
logic, genetic algorithms, and neural networks, as well as modern data-driven approaches like machine
learning and deep learning. Figures 17-19 show the increasing use of AI methods in design studies over
time, with a shift from knowledge-based AI methods to data-driven approaches. The paper also
summarizes the most relevant applications of commonly used AI methods in design studies, along with
their pros and cons. Finally, the paper emphasizes that AI methods must be appropriate to the nature of
the design problem and that different AI methods can be used depending on the requirements and
availability of input parameters.

The article discusses the importance of choosing the appropriate AI method for a given design problem
and presents a two-level AI method selection flow chart to guide designers. The algorithm starts by
asking for the availability of data and suggests data-dependent methods if sufficient data is available,
otherwise rule-based systems or genetic algorithms can be used. The algorithm also suggests combining
different AI techniques if needed. This approach is based on successful applications reported in the
literature and is especially useful for novice designers.

The future of AI will be centered around machine learning and deep learning, facilitated by the
increasing availability of data and computing power. Databases, such as those containing patents and
ontologies, can be used to increase creativity through simulation and association. Deep learning models
require a large amount of data for training, and datasets of design (including functional and behavioral
characteristics) are still limited. Future studies should focus on improving model performance and
shortening training times and data preparation processes. Research is needed on training deep learning
models with a small amount of data. Understanding the underlying mechanisms of AI through XAI will
increase the reliability of AI systems.

Conclusion:

The article provides an overview of AI methods and applications in engineering and product design. It
identifies and evaluates suitable AI methods for design, proposes an AI method selection algorithm, and
discusses the advantages and disadvantages of using AI in design. The authors note that while AI can
save time and effort, improve precision, and avoid bias, it may lack heuristic capabilities and produce
"black box" solutions. Future work in design should focus on developing AI systems that can improve
form, function, and behavior, and incorporate rapid prototyping, virtual reality, and augmented reality
technologies to increase efficiency and performance.