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"Education is a liberating force, and in

our age it is also a democratising force,
cutting across the barriers of caste and
class, smoothing out inequalities imposed
by birth and other circumstances." .
- Indira Gandhi
Ir~1Indira Gandhi BNRI-IOl
~ National Open University
School of Agriculture Fundamentals of Watershed
Management
Block
1
CONCEPT OF WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
UNIT 1
Introduction to Watershed Management 5
UNIT 2
Concept, Scope and Importance of
Watershed Management 22
UNIT 3
Design of Watershed Projects 41
PROGRAMME DESIGN COMMITTEE
Prof. Punjab Singh, Former Vice Chancellor Dr. M.A. Shankar, In-charge
Banara Hindu University, Varanasi (UP) CRIDA, UAS, Banglore (Karnataka)
Dr. v'N. Sharda, Director Or. Arun Verma, Ex-ADG
CSWCR&TI, Dehradun (Uttrakhand) (Animal Husbandry), ICAR, New Delhi
Dr. H. P. Singh, Ex-Director, CRIDA Dr. R.K. Sharma, Professor
Santoshnagar, Hyderabad (AP) Water Technology Centre, IARI, New Delhi
Dr. M.A. Khan, Director Dr, M,Co Nair, Director, CBB, IGNOU
ICAR Research Complex for Eastern Region Dr. Indrani Lahiri, ARO, RSD, IGNOU
ICAR Parisar, Patna (Bihar)
Prof. Madhulika Kaushik, SOMS, IGNOU
Prof. N.P. Singh, Joint Director ..
Prof. Vijayshri, SOS, IGNOU
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region
Tripura Centre, Lembucherra (Tripura) Faculty Members (SOA, IGNOU)
Er. K.P. Tripathi, Principal Scientist Or. M.K. Salooja, Director
CSWCR&TI, Dehradun (Uttrakhand) Prof. B. S. Hansra, Professor
Dr. S.K. Yadav, Associate Professor
Dr. A.K. Tiwari, Head
Sh. Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor
CSWCR&TI, Research Centre, Chandigarh
Or. Praveen Kumar Jain, Assistant Professor
Prof. O.N. Srivastava, Ex-Head, NIRD Or. P. Vijayakumar, Assistant Professor
Hyderabad (AP) Dr. Mita Sinhamahapatra, Assistant Professor
Shri Nivas Sharma, Principal Scientist (Rtd.) Sh. N.S. Dhama, Sr. Consultant
CRIDA, Hyderabad (AP) Sh. Kumar Bhatia, Sr. Consultant
Or. L.S. Bhushan, CSWCR&TI Research Sh. laya Raj, Sr. Consultant
Centre, Agra- (UP) Dr. D. S. Khurdiya, Sr. Consultant
Dr. 1.S. Sindhu, Sr. Consultant
Dr. R.N. Prasad, Ex-ADG (Soils), ICAR
Prof. Ranvir Kumar, Sr. Consultant
New Delhi
Dr. A.K. Singh, DOG (NRM)
ICAR, New Delhi
Programme Coordinators : Dr. B.S. Hansra and Sh. Mukesh Kumar
Course Coordinators : Sh. Mukesh Kumar and Prof. Ranvir Kumar
BLOCK PREPARATION TEAM

Unit Writers Editors
Prof. M.S. Sidhpuria, Head (Unit 1 and 3) Prof. Ranvir Kumar (Unit 1 to 3)
Dept. of Soil and Water Engineering, CCS s-. Consultant, SoA, IGNOU
HAU, Hisar (Haryana)
Sh. Mukesh Kumar (Unit 1 and 3)
Sh. Mukesh Kumar (Unit 2) Assistant Prorcssor, SoA, IGNOU
Assistant Professor, School of Agriculture
IGNOU, New Delhi- 110 068
MATERIAL PRODUCTION
Ms. Pushpa Gupta Ms. Rajshree (Proof Reader)
Deputy Registrar (Publications) SoA,IGNOU
SoA,IGNOU
October, 20' 0
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2010
ISBN-978-81-2664741-5
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by
rnimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the Copyright
holder.
Further information. on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be
obtained from the University's office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-IIO 068 or the official
website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in.
Printed and published on behalf of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by
Director, School of Agriculture, IGNOU.
Laser typeset by: HO Computer Craft, WZ-36A Lajwanti Garden, New Delhi
Printed by : Mall Prmters, B 2412.Okhla Phase - 11,New Delhi 20.
BNRI-IOl FUNDAMENTALS OF
WATERSHED
MANAGEMENT
The rainfed agriculture in the country covering nearly two-third area III .he
country is confronted with very low productivity due to erratic rainfall coupled
with low levels of inputs. In order to sustain agriculture in the cou <, with
available limited water resources and inclusive socio-economic developmci» il is
absolutely essential to enhance productivity in rainfed areas by adopting \vaILT"llcd
management approach based on the active participation of the people at allthe
stages of the project. It also deals with the reclamation of degraded soils by
employing biological and engineering measures. The integrated watershed
management comprising of agriculture and allied activities is of paramount
importance for socio-economic development in rainfed regions. Panchyati Raj
Institutions play an important role in these activities. Participatory watershed
management approach based on community organization will lead to resource
conservation, productivity enhancement and livelihoods opportunities for all round
socio-economic development.
The watershed projects need to be monitored and evaluated to assess the impact
of various activities on socio-economic development of the region in order to
improve the performance of existing watershed activities and better planning and
design of new activities. Watershed management activities are undertaken to
preserve existing sustainable land use practices and restore the existing conditions
to a desirable level. Preventive strategies refer to the measures to prevent a
particular problem in a watershed. Remote sensing and information technology go
a long way in effective planning, implementation and evaluation of the watershed
programmes.
BLOCK 1 CONCEPT OF WATERSHED
MANAGEMENT
About 65% of the cultivated area in the country is rainfed where agricultural
development is highly unsatisfactory resulting in abject poverty. Due to highly
variable and unpredictablerainfall coupled with low level of inputs, rainfed agriculture
is confronted with problem of low productivity. In order to increase food production
with available limited water resources, it is essential that the rainfed farming should
be developed as a sustainable productive system by adopting watershed
management approach. Watershed management not only deals with reclamation
of degraded soils by employing biological and engineering measures but also
enhances crop productivity by a package of water conservation and improved
cropping practices. The integrated watershed management comprising of agriculture
and allied activities holds the key for long term agriculture sustainability and well
being of the people. Strong linkages among central, state, district, village and
project level agencies including Panchayati Raj Institutions are crucial for effective
management of watershed development projects. The bottom-up instead of top-
down approach ensures active participation of the watershed community in different
phases of the project which is absolutely essential to achieve desired objectives.
Remote sensing and GIS facilitate development planning process for conserving
land and water resources.
Unit 1 deals with definition, needs, benefits, objectives and principles of watershed
management. It also covers history and evolution of watershed management.
Unit 2 covers the role, components and major characteristics of watershed

management for all round agriculture development. The criteria for selection of
watersheds, integrated watershed management and importance of institutional
arrangement for successful operation of watershed projects are also dealt with.
Unit 3 deals with watershed priorities and coding of watersheds. Administrative

support and work plan for watershed management are also covered. The role of
'remote sensing and geographical information system (GIS) for effective planning
and implementation of watershed projects is adequately described.
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definition of Watershed
1.3 Watershed Management

1.3.1 Need of Watershed Management
1.3.2 Focus of Watershed Management
1.3.3 Concept of Watershed Management
1.3.4 Benefits of Watershed Management
1.3.5 Objectives of Watershed Management
1.3.6 Principles of Watershed Management
1.4 History and Evolution of Watershed Management
1.4.1 Watershed Development in India
1.5 Guidelines for Watershed Programmes

1.6 Watershed Management Action Plan
1.7 Let Us Sum Up
1.8 Keywords
1.9 Suggested Reading
1.10 Model Answers to Check Your Progress
1.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
• outline the concept of watershed management;
• acquaint yourself with the objectives and principles of watershed management;
• explained the history and evolution of watershed management; and
• enumerate different activities to be undertaken in a watershed project.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In order to understand the concept of watershed, you may go out when it is
raining. You would observe that during rains, water flows here and there and
eventually follows a particular path. Finally, it gets collected at a particular point
I.. /
(particularly lowest point in your area) depending on the slope. The area which
contributes water and flows to the lowest point resembles the watershed. Have
you ever observed the flow of rainwater that falls on the roof of your house? The
5
Concept of Watershed rainwater falling on a roof always flows through a particular outlet (spout). Taking
Management
spout as a point/outlet, the area of the roof may be termed as a watershed. If you
have separate spouts for different roofs in your house, you may have many small
watersheds within your house.
The term watershed consists of two words: water and shed. Water occurs in
nature mostly in solid, liquid and vapour forms. In watershed, water is considered
mainly in liquid form. The word "shed" refers to the roof of a shed which collects
rainwater and drains out. Shed thus can be defined as an area well marked by
a boundary which receives rainwater and drains out towards a common drainage
point or outlet.
In the next unit, role of watershed management, its components, major

characteristics and criteria for selection of watershed will be dealt with. Integrated
watershed management and the importance of institutional arrangement were also
highlighted.
1.2 DEFINITION OF WATERSHED·

Watershed is a topographically delineated area drained by a stream system i.e.
the total land area above some point on a stream or river that drains down slope
to the lowest point. The watershed is a hydrologic unit often used as physical unit,
biological unit and a socio-economic political unit for planning and management
of natural resources.
Watershed may also be defined as a natural unit of land which collects water and
drains through a common point called an outlet by a system of drains. Therefore,
watershed is the area encompassing the catchments, command and delta area of
a stream. The top most portion of the watershed is known as "ridge" and a line
joining the ridge portion along the boundary of the watershed is called as "ridgeline".
A watershed is thus a logical unit for planning optimal development of its soil,
water and biomass resources.
1.3 WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

Watershed management is the process of guiding and organizing use of land and
other resources in the watershed to provide desired goods and services without
adversely affecting soil, water and other natural resources.
Watershed management in the broader sense means maintaining the equilibrium

between elements of natural eco-system or vegetation, land or water on the one
hand and human activities on the other hand. The watershed management
programmes aim at improving soil health, soil tilth and drainage and achieving
efficient use of harvested and stored rainwater for supplemental irrigation and
consequently enhanced productivity and higher economic returns. From community
development point of view, watershed management programmes aim at controlling
flooding, water logging and soil erosion in order to increase agricultural productivity
and a more dependable, cleaner water supply for domestic and industrial use.
These programmes also help in minimizing risk of floods in rural and urban areas
down streams, reducing sedimentation and conserving natural resources efficiently
and effectively. Watershed management programmes strive to improve the lot of
the entire farming communities rather than focusing on individual farmers only.
6
Introduction to Watershed
1.3.1 Need of Watershed Management Management
Watershed degradation in the third world countries threatens the livelihood of

millions of people and seriously affects the development of a healthy agricultural
and natural resource base. The existing natural resource base is fast depleting due
to excessive use of the soil and vegetation system by growing livestock and
human population.
The population growth exerts pressure on forests, community lands and marginal
agricultural lands resulting in inappropriate cultivation practices, forest depletion
and grazing intensities. They cause serious damage to the environment by excessive
sedimentation of river system affecting the stream flow to downstream users.
Watershed management has an important role to play in combating the Malthusian

Effect which states that that population tends to increase faster than the means to
feed it. Watershed management programmes play an important role in minimizing
the Malthusian Effect by ecological and economic rehabilitation of misused watershed
slopes, revival of natural streams and augmentation of water resources with active
support and participation of people.
The watershed management programmes involve the entire community and natural
resources particularly land and water resources. Through watershed development
programmes, the influence of above factors needs to be observed as given below:
• Socio-economic trend in income generation, employment pattern, household

assets, health care education, energy use and impact on women and the
landless.
• Perceptions, attitudes and behavior of the people towards project acti vities
and their partici pation in planning and execution of project and management
of resource proposed to be developed under the project together with
constraints.
• Productivity/production of crops and forage, changes in cropping pattern

and land use adoption or improved cropping practices. Survival and growth
of perennial crops on non-arable lands, increase wood and non-wood
products and improve livestock milk production.
• Improvement of environment by build up of vegetative cover, reduction of

runoff and soil loss, improvement in livestock milk production policy.
• U se of land and water in vegetation, animal and environment.
• Soil erosion, moderation of floods, alleviation of drought, water availability

in soil on surface and under ground storage, availability of fuel, fodder and
food.
• Development of institutions for planning and implementation.
1.3.2 Focus of Watershed Management

Watershed programmes focus mainly on the following:
• Village common lands as well as private lands;

7
Concept of Watershed • Institutionalized community participation;
Management
• Sustainable rural livelihood support system;
• Decentralized planning and decision making;
• Ridge to valley treatment approach;
• Integrated and holistic development of the watershed unit;

• Protecting natural resources through stakeholders' participation; and
• Providing best unit for planning a development programme.
1.3.3. Concept of Watershed Management
Watershed management is based on the concept of sustainability and meeting the

needs of present population without compromising the interests of future generation.
The concept of watershed management is important for the efficient utilization of
water and other natural resources. The concept of watershed management may
be expressed in symbolic form by "POWER".
P = Production of food-fodder fuel fruit fibres fish-milk-combine on a sustainable

basis.
= Pollution control.
= Prevention of floods.
o = Over exploitation of resources to be minimized by controlling excessive

Biotic interferences like over grazing.
= Operational practicability of all on-farm operations and follow up programmes

including easy access to different locations in watershed.
W = Water storage at convenient locations for different purposes.
= Wild animal and indigenous plant life conservation at selected places.
E = Erosion control
= Eco-system safety
= Economic stability
= Employment generation
R = Rainwater harvesting
= Recharge of groundwater
= Reduction of drought hazard
= Reduction of siltation in multi purpose reservoirs
= Recreation
8
POWER is not only important symbolically but watershed programmes bestow
Management
real power to the beneficiaries by improving their socio-economic lot.
1.3.4 Benefits of Watershed Management
Watershed management is expected to ensure the following benefits:
• controls floods, erosion and sedimentation;
• enhances productivity per unit area, per unit time and per unit of water;
• increases cropping intensity;
• leads to proper utilization of waste lands through alternate land use systems;
• ensures ecological balance;
• maximizes income through integrated farming system; and
• stabilizes income even under unfavourable weather conditions.
1.3.5 Objectives of Watershed Management
The basic objective of watershed management is to overcome the problems of

land and water use based on interdependence of all the resources and therefore
must be considered together. The watershed ultimately aims, at improving standard
of living of common man in the basin by increasing his earning capacity, by
providing facilities such as electricity; water for irrigation and drinking water supply,
freedom from fear of floods and droughts etc. Watershed management aims at
efficient utilization of the entire resources namely soil, water, crop including
plantation, livestock, fishery and human population etc. for sustained prosperity of
the watersheds. The overall objectives of watershed development programme are
outlined below:
• Recognition of watersheds as a proper unit for utilization and development

of all lands. The land should be treated in accordance with its peculiar need
and by methods that will control soil erosion, conserve water, encourage
wild life, improve farm income and prevent flood damage to agricultural
lands.
• Retardation and prevention of floods through small multipurpose reservoirs

and other water impounding structures at the streams and in problem areas.
• Provision for an abundant water supply for domestic, industrial and

agricultural needs.
• Minimizing organic, inorganic and soil pollution.
• Expansion of recreational facilities i.e. picnic and camping sites with more
lakes and streams suitable for boating, fishing or swimming.
• Utilization of natural local resources for improving agriculture and allied

occupation or industries (small and cottage industries) to improve socio-
economic conditions of the local residents and minimizing risks during
aberrant weather conditions.
9
Concept of Watershed • Improving infrastructural facilities with regard to storage, transportation and
Management
marketing of the agricultural produce.
• Setting up small scale agro industries.
• Improving the socio-economic status of the farmers.
• Employment generation.
• Encouraging people participation.
The above objectives can be achieved by planning and implementing the programme
in a systematic way with active participation of farmers including constitution of
cooperative watershed management societies. The following guidelines may be
followed to achieve the objectives of watershed management.
• The implementation programme should start from the ridge line of the
watershed to the valley and not on piecemeal basis in isolated patches.
• Development of both arable and non-arable lands should be done together.
• Forest, pasture, cultivable land and waste lands should be treated as

interlinked units of hydrological entity. The condition of all lands use has to
be improved to meet the demands of increasing human and animal population.
• Essentially, all developmental activities are to be carried out on watershed

basis-whole watershed area needs to be covered in planned phases.
However, treatment of some lands lying outside the watershed, but
geographically contiguous can also be taken up based on socio-economic
considerations.
1.3.6 Principles of Watershed Management
The main principles of watershed management based on resource conservation,

resource generation and resource utilization are:
• Utilising the land according to its capability;
• Protecting productive top soil;
• Reducing siltation hazards in storage tanks, reservoirs and lower fertile lands;
• Maintaining adequate vegetation cover on soil surface throughout the year;
• In situ rainwater conservation;
• Safe diversion of excess water to storage points through vegetative waterways;
• Stabilization of gullies by providing checks at specified intervals and thereby

increasing groundwater recharge;
• Increasing crop intensity and land equivalent ratio through intercropping and
sequence cropping;
10
• Safe utilization of marginal lands through alternate land use systems with
Management
agriculture-horticulture-forestry-pasture systems with varied options and
combinations;
• Water harvesting for supplemental and off-season irrigation;
• Maximizing agricultural productivity per unit area per unit time and per unit
of water;
• Ensuring sustainability of the eco-system befitting the man-animal-plant -water

system;
• Maximizing the combined income from the interrelated and dynamic crop
live stock-tree-labour system over years; and
• Stabilizing total income.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: a) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
b) Use the space given below for your answers.
1) Define watershed.
2) On what important aspects, does the watershed focus?
3) What is Malthusuion Effect? How does watershed management help in

minimizing it?
4) List two principles of watershed management programme?
11
Concept of Watershed
5) List any two objectives of watershed management. ?
Management
.........................................................................................
Now, that you have worked out the CYPs 2, let us go over to the next section
and discuss the history of watershed management and its evolution.
1.4 HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF

WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
Since the advent of civilization, water has always been the most important natural
resource. Due to limited availability of fresh water, its proper management has
always been of considerable importance. It has now assumed considerable
significance due to phenomenal rise in its demand due to ever growing population.
Earliest water related activities mainly aimed at controlling torrents in steep unstable
mountainous areas with particular emphasis to minimize losses due to floods. The
damage and destruction due to uncontrolled water flows were considered more
important than the water shortages. In order to control water flow, water storage
structures were evolved leading to the development of irrigation systems. The
water storage structures faced siltation problems thereby seriously reducing their
capacity. In order to overcome this problem, the soil conservation measures were
employed to control soil erosion in the watershed.
Full exploitation of the potential of watershed technology began in the beginning

of modem era. Since Second World War, watershed management has become
a subject of great international interest. Initially,the watershed management concept
was introduced in a top-down approach with major emphasis to implement the
soil and water conservation measures. In the absence of direct and immediate
benefits of soil and water conservation measures, the participation of the watershed
community could not be ensured which is so essential for the success of watershed
projects. This led to a paradigm shift to the concept of watershed management.
The top-down approach of implementing soil and water conservation measures
was replaced by bottom-up approach to ensure creation of a self supporting
system essential for sustainability of the watershed. While carrying out watershed
development activities, it has to be ensured that natural resources of watershed
particularly soil and water are not adversely affected and ecological balance is not
disturbed.
A number of national and international organizations are engaged in activities

related to watershed management such as Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO), International Association of Scientific Hydrology, International Union for
Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, International Union of Forest
Research 'Organization, World Meteorological Organization, etc.
1.4.1 Watershed Development in India
Watershed activities with respect to hydrological monitoring were initiated in 42

12 small watersheds located in 8 Centres of Central Soil and Water Conservation
Research and Training Institute (CSWCRTI) in 1956. Subsequently watershed
Management .
based Operational Research Projects (ORPs) were taken up in different parts of
the country in 1974, in order to reduce soil loss, increase water availability so as
to enhance cropping intensity, agricultural productivity and generate employment.
The central and state governments have undertaken various development

programmes based on watershed approach as outline below. The Ministry of
Rural Development, Government of India is a front runner in these efforts and has
implemented special area development programmes for water harvesting.
i) Soil Conservation in Catchment of River Valley Project
The programme was initiated during the Third Five Year Plan to treat catchment
area for reducing silt production rate and subsequent siltation of reservoirs, checking
soil erosion and consequently improving agricultural productivity. The programme
is being implemented in 27 watersheds covering 17 states including Damodar
Valley Corporation area. Soil and water conservation measures are also being
adopted in critically degraded watersheds ranging between 2,000 and 4,000 ha
area.
ii) Integrated Agricultural Development in Drought Prone Areas

1''""-
Rainfed farming is totally dependent on unreliable and widely variable rainfall

resulting in very low agricultural productivity. Monsoon failure further complicates
the situation causing unbearable misery and suffering to the people. The Drought
Prone Area Programme (DPAP) of Government of India aimed at promoting
integrated agricultural development in dry farming regions based on ecologically
balanced approach instead of providing temporary relief. The programme also
envisaged settingup of productive infrastructurefor providing immediate employment
in emergencies to the weaker sections.
In this programme, a planned methodology in terms of detailed soil survey,

hydrological survey and topographic survey was proposed for preparation of the
master plan. Based on this, activities such as land use capability classification,
installation of wells depending up on existing conditions of the area; water harvesting
programmes (construction of tanks or check dams in the catchment areas etc.)
were intended.
ill) Desert Development Programme (DDP)
The programme was initiated in 1977-78 to control desertification of the desert

area by integrating and linking other related state/central programmes and conserve
and harness land, water and other natural resources including rainfall for restoration
of long term ecological balance. The programme aims at achieving afforestation
with special emphasis on sand dune stabilization and shelter belt plantation and
grassland development, soil and moisture conservation and. water resources
development. This programme fully financed by the central government covered
about 36.2 m ha of 131 blocks of 21 districts in five states namely Rajasthan,
Haryana, Gujarat (hot arid region), Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh
(cold arid region).
iv) Himalayan Watershed Management Project in Uttar Pradesh
Himalayan watershed management project funded by the World Bank was taken
up in 1983 in two watersheds namely Nayar in Garhwal and Panarin Kumaon 13
Concept of Watershed regions in Uttrakhand covering an area of 2.47 lakh ha. It aimed at minimizing
Management
further deterioration of the Himalayan eco-system caused by depletion of forest
cover, over grazing, awful land use and careless road construction.
v) Operational Research Projects on Integrated Watershed Management
These projects were taken up in 47 watersheds spread over 16 states (Andhra

Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab,
Himachal Pradesh), Jammu and Kashmir, Kamataka, Kerala, Rajasthan, Tamil
Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal) in 1983 covering an area of 35739 ha
with the financial assistance of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development,
Government of India and under the technical guidance of Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR). The projects aimed at developing a programme
with people' participation for arresting the deterioration of environment and building
up permanent assets in the form of water, sustainable vegetation and improved
productivity of cropped land.
vi) National Watershed Development Programme of Rainfed Agriculture

(NWDPRA)
The programme initiated in 1986-87 in the unirrigated arable lands in 25 states

mostly had rainfall ranging between 500 and 1125 mm and more. The districts
with over 30 % area under irrigation were usually excluded. The programme was
restructured in the Eight Five Year Plan in order to achieve sustainable production
of bio-mass as well as restoration of ecological balance in the vast rainfed areas
of the country. It mainly focused on conservation and utilization of land, water,
plant, animal and human resources in a harmonious and integrated manner with
low-cost, simple, effective and replicable technology, generation of massive
employment and reduction of inequalities between irrigated and rainfed areas.
The main activities of the project included:
• land and moisture management including optimal cropping system, dry land
horticulture, fodder production and farm forestry;
• contingency seed and planting material stocking;
• training, seminars, study tours for staff and farmers within the state/regional!
nationallevel;
• adoptive research trials on different crops in small and marginal farmers

land;
• procurement, fabrication-and supply of survey equipment and prototype

implements; and
• preparation of field manuals and publicity materials.
The programme has been able to achieve the following:
• unified command approach of multi-disciplinary team for effective

organizational set-up for effective implementation of watershed development
programmes;
14
• increased productivity of different crops in both black and red soil regions' Introduction to Watershed
Management
by contour farming;
• significant in situ moisture conservation, cropping intensity and productivity

in different farming systems based on contour vegetative barriers.
vii) Integrated Wasteland Development Programme (IWDP)
The programme initiated in 1989 aimed at developing wastelands on a watershed

basis and mainly focused on silvi-pasture and soil moisture conservation on
wastelands. "
viii) Integrated Watershed Management in the Catchments of Flood Prone

Rivers
The programme was undertaken during Fourth Five Year Plan in eight flood prone
rivers of Gangetic basin namely, Ajoy, Gomti, Punpun, Roop Naraian, Sahibi,
Sone, Upper Ganga and Upper Yamuna covering watershed area of 16.7 million
ha spread over the states of Bihar, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Union Territory of Delhi. The
programme aimed at enhancing ability of the watershed by absorbing large amount
of rainwater, reducing erosion and consequent silt load in rivers and thus mitigating
the effect of floods in productive plains.
ix) Integrated Watershed Development Project for Hills and Plains
The World Bank projects in Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab and
Haryana covering an area of 1.24 lakh ha aimed at slowing and reversing
degradation of the natural environment through the use of appropriate soil and
water conservation practices.
x) Integrated Watershed Development Project (Plains)
The World Bank project covering an area of 4.331akh ha in Gujarat, Orissa and
Rajasthan aimed at slowing down and reversing ecological degradation in a variety
of agro-ecological zones by promoting sustainable and replicable production system.
xi) Other Watershed Management Projects
Internationally funded watershed management projects are also being implemented

in the country.
1.5 GUIDELINES FOR WATERSHED

PROGRAMMES
In 1994-95, Ministry of Rural Areas and Employment, Government of India came
up with strict guidelines for watershed programmes to achieve optimum utilization
of the watershed's natural resources, employment generation and over all socio-
economic development. Subsequently, Ministry of Rural Development revised the
guidelines in 2001 to make them more focused, transparent and easy to follow ..
The guidelines for watershed development provided a detailed institutional
framework at all levels of implementation, particularly people organizations called
the Watershed Association, the Watershed Committee, the Self Help Groups, the
1"
Concept of Watershed User Groups at the village level. The guidelines were further refined with the
Management
launch of new initiative "Hariyali" in 2003. Hariyali sought to empower Panchayat
Raj Institutions (PRIs) both administratively and financially in the implementation
of the watershed development programmes. The guidelines for Hariyali were
applicable to IWDP, DPAP, DDP and any other programme notified by the GOl.
Common Guidelines for Watershed Development Projects were issued by the
Department of Land Resources, Ministry of Rural Development in 2008 and are
based on the following features:
Equity and Gender Sensitivity: Watershed Development Projects should be

considered as levers of inclusiveness. Project hnplementing Agencies must facilitate
the equity processes such as (a) enhanced livelihood opportunities for the poor
through investment in their assets and improvements in productivity and income,
(b) improving access of the poor, especially women to the benefits, (c) enhancing
role of women in decision-making processes and their representation in the
institutional arrangements and (d) ensuring access to usufruct (legal) rights from
the common property resources for the resource poor.
Decentralization: Project management would improve with decentralization,

delegation and professionalism. Establishing suitable institutional arrangements within
the overall framework of the Panchayati Raj Institutions and the operational flexibility
in norms to suit varying local conditions will enhance decentralization. Empowered
committees with delegation to rationalise the policies, continuity in administrative
support and timely release of funds are the other instruments for effective
decentralization.
Facilitating Agencies: Social mobilization, community organization, capacities

building of communities in planning and implementation, ensuring equity arrangements
etc. need intensive facilitation. Competent organizations including voluntary
organizations with professional teams having necessary skills and expertise would
be selected through a rigorous process and may be provided financial support to
perform the above specific. functions.
Centrality of Community Participation: Involvement of primary stakeholders

is at the centre of planning, budgeting, implementation and management of watershed
projects. Community organizations may be closely associated with and accountable
to Gram Sabhas in project activities.
Capacity Building and Technology Inputs: Considerable stress would be

given on capacity building as a crucial component for achieving the desired results.
This would be a continuous process enabling functionaries to enhance their
knowledge and skills and develop the correct orientation and perspectives thereby
becoming more effective in performing their roles and responsibilities. With current
trends and advances in information technology and remote sensing, it is possible
to acquire detailed information about the various field level characteristics of any
area or region. Thus, the endeavour would be to build in strong technology inputs
into the new vision of watershed programmes.
Monitoring, Evaluation and Learning: A participatory, outcome and impact-

oriented and user-focused monitoring, evaluation and learning system would be
put in place to obtain feedback and undertake improvements in planning, project
design and implementation.
Organizational Restructuring: Establishing appropriate technical and Introduction to Watershed
Management
professional support structures at national, state, district and project levels and
developing effective functional partnerships among project authorities, implementing
agencies and support organizations would play a vital role.
1.6 WATERSHED MANAGEMENT ACTION

PLAN
Watershed management action plan needs to be prepared for all the arable and
non-arable lands including degraded forestlands, government and community lands
and private lands. The following activities may have to be incorporated in the
action plan depending up on agro-climatic conditions of the region as well as
socio-economic condition of people:
• Development of small water harvesting structures such as low-cost farm

ponds, nalla bunds, check-dams, percolation tanks and other groundwater
recharge measures;
• Renovation and augmentation of water sources, desiltation of village tanks

for drinking water/ irrigation! fisheries development;
• Fisheries development in village ponds/tanks, farm ponds etc;
• Afforestation including, block plantations, agro- forestry and horticultural

development, shelterbelt plantations, sand dune stabilization etc;
• Pasture development either by itself or in conjunction with plantations;
• Land Development including in situ soil and moisture conservation measures

like contour and graded bunds equipped with plantation, bench terracing
hilly terrain, nursery raising for fodder, timber, fuel wood, horticulture and
non-timber forest product species;
• Drainage line treatment with a combination of vegetative and engineering

structures;
• Repair, restoration and up-gradation of existing common property assets

and structures in the watershed to obtain optimum and sustained benefits
from previous public investments;
• Crop demonstrations for popularizing new crops/varieties or innovative

management practices; and
• Promotion and propagation of non-conventional energy saving devices,

energy conservation measures, bio-fuel plantations etc.
You may now like to have your progress further checked by yourself.
b) Use the space given below for youranswers.
17
Concept of Watershed 1) List three watershed development programmes.
Management
2) List any three activities that can be undertaken during a watershed development
project.
3) What are the main components ofNWDPRA?
4) Explain two main features of common guidelines 2008.
1.7 LET US SUM UP

• The watershed is a hydrologic, biological and socio-economic political unit for
the planning and management of natural resources.
• The watershed management programmes aim at improving soil health, drainage

and using harvested and stored rainwater efficiently for supplemental irrigation
and consequently enhancing productivity and higher economic returns leading to
overall socio-economic development of the entire farming community.
• Watershed management is based on the concept of sustainability and ecological

balance and meeting the needs of present population without compromising the
interests of future generation.
• Watershed management programmes have always received highest priority by

the government for long term agricultural sustainability and socio-economic
upliftment of the people. Different watershed management programmes funded
by national and international organizations have been implemented over the last
50 years aiming at solving region specific problems:
18
• In order to implement watershed management programmes effectively and
Management
efficiently,comprehensive guidelines on technical, financial and institutional setup
have been formulated and revised time to time by the expert committee.
1.8 KEYWORDS
Flood An overflow of water into the lands that are used or
usable by man and not normally covered by water.
Floods have two essential characteristics:The inundation
of land from a river, stream, lake or ocean is temporary.
Flood Plain A strip of relatively flat and normally dry land alongside
a stream, river or lake that is covered by water during
a flood.
Freshwater Water that contains less than 1,000 milligrams per litre
(mg/L) of dissolved solids; generally, more than 500
mgIL of dissolved solids is undesirable for drinking and
many industrial uses.
Irrigation The controlled application of water for agricultural

purposes through man-made systems to supply water
requirements not satisfied by rainfall.
Livestock Water Use Water used for livestock watering, feed lots, dairy
operations, fish farming and other on-farm needs.
Malthusian Effect It states that the population tends to increase faster

than the means to feed it.
Organic Matter Plant and animal residues or substances made by living

organisms. All are based upon carbon compounds.
Precipitation Rain, snow, hail, sleet, dew and frost.
Tributary A smaller river or stream that flows into a larger river

or stream. Usually, a number of smaller tributaries merge
to form a river.
Watershed Watershed is a topographically delineated area drained

by a stream system i.e. the total land area above ~ome
point on a stream or river that drains down the slope
to the lowest point.
1.9 SUGGESTED READING

Bhatia, N.L., Panwar, K.S., Rana, V.S. and Malik, A.C. (1998). Saral
Watershed-A Model for Fragile Environment. Paper presented in 1st
International Agronomy Congress held at Vigyan Bhawan, New Delhi, November
23-1998.
Common Guidelines (2008) for Watershed Development Projects, Department of

Land Resources, Ministry of Rural Development, Gol, pp.57.
19
Concept of Watershed Dhruv Narain, VV, Sastry, G. and Pathak, U.S. (1997). Watershed Management,
Management
Published by DIPA, ICAR, New Delhi, pp. 176.
Glenn, S.O., Fangmeier, D.D, Elliot, WJ. and Frewert, R.K. (2002). Soil and
Water Conservation Engineering. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York., pp.507.
India Today, June Issue, (2007). Monthly Journal Published by India Today
Group, India.
Khan, M.A. (2002). Watershed Management for Sustainable Agriculture.

Agrobios. (India), Jodhpur.
Murty.T. V S. (1994) . Watershed Management in India. Wiley Eastern Ltd.

& New Age. International Ltd., New Delhi.
Raj ora, R. (1998). Integrated Watershed Management. Field Manual for

Equitable Productive and Sustainable Development. Rawat Publication. Jaipur.
Samra, J.S., Sharda, VN. and Sikka, A K. (2002). Water Harvesting and Re-
cycling-Indian Experience. Central, Soil and Water Conservation Research and
Training Institute, 218, Kaulagarh Road, Dehradun.
Sharda, VN., Sikka, AK. and Juyal, AK. (2006). Participatory Integrated
Watershed Management, A Field Manual. Central Soil & Water Conservation
Research & Training Institute, Dehradun, pp. 366.
Sharma, Shriniwas and Mishra, P.K. (1995). Watershed Management in Dry

Land Areas-Principles and Practices. In: Book on 'Sustainable Development
of 1)1'\' Land Agriculture' by Dr. R.P. Singh, Scientific Publisher, Jodhpur.
Singh, Rajvir (2000). Watershed Planning and Management. Yash Publishing

House, Bikaner, pp. 470.
Tideman, E. M. (1996). Watershed Management Guidelines for Indian

Conditions. Omega Scientific Publishers, New Delhi.
Warasa-Jan sahbhagita (2000) Guidelines for National Watershed Development

Project for Rainfed Areas (NWDPRA). Ministry of Agriculture, Dept. of
Agriculture & Cooperation, Rainfed Farming Systems Division, New Delhi, Govt.
of India.
1.10 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
1) Watershed is a topographic ally delineated area drained by a stream system i.e.

the total land area above some point on a stream or river that drains down the
slope to the lowest point.
2) Watershed progranunes focuses mainly on the,following:
i) Village common lands as well as private lands;

20
ii) Institutionalized community participation; Introduction to Watershed
Management
iii) Sustainable ruralli velihood support system;
iv) Decentralized planning and decision making;
v) Ridge to valley treatment approach;
vi) Integrated and holistic development of the watershed unit;
vii) Protecting natural resources through stakeholders' participation; and
viii) Providing best unit for planning a development programme.
3) Malthusian Effect states that that population tends to increase faster than the
means to feed it. Watershed development activities minimize its effect by
augmenting natural resources, increasing productivity and generating
employment.
4) • Utilization of natural local resources for improving agriculture and allied

occupation or industries (small and cottage industries) so as to improve socio-
economic conditions of the local residents risks during aberrant weather
conditions.
• Employment generation.
5) • Water harvesting for supplemental and off season irrigation.
• Maximizing agricultural productivity per unit area per unit time and per unit
of water.
1) Drought Prone Area Development Programme (DPAP), Desert Development

Programme (DDP), Integrated Watershed Development Programme (IWDP).
2) Development of small water harvesting structure, desiltation of village ponds,

afforestation, land treatment through VaI;OUSsoil and moisture conservation
measures.
3) Land and moisture management, contingency seed and planting material

stocking; training, seminars, study tours for farmers, adoptive research trials
on different crops and preparation of field manuals and publicity materials.
4) (i) Equity and Gender Sensitivity: Watershed activities mainly aim at

providinglivelihood to sections of watershed including the landless and
empower womenby their active involvement in various activities.
(ii) Capacity Building and Technology Inputs: The watershed programmes

can be successfully implemented by enhancing the knowledge and skills of
watershed community particularly by using information technology and remote
sensmg.
21
UNIT 2 CONCEPT, SCOPE AND
IMPORTANCE OF
WATERSHED MAN.\GEl\lENT
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Why Watershed?
2.3 Components of Watershed Management
2.3.1 Engineering and Biological Practices
2.3.2 Improved Production Practices
2.4 Watershed Characteristics

2.4.1 Size
2.4.2 Shape
2.4.3 Length
2.4.4 Slope
2.4.5 Drainage Area
2.4.6 Drainage Density
2.5 Criteria for Selection of Watersheds

2.6 Integrated Watershed Management
2.7 Institutional Arrangement
2.7.1 National Level
2.7.2 State Level

2.7.3 District Level
2.7.4 Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs)
2.1.5 Project Implementation Agency (PIA)
2.8 Let Us Sum Up

2.9 Keywords
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• appreciate the role of watershed management;
• outline different components of watershed management;
• explain the major watershed characteristics;

22
• describe the criteria for selection of watersheds; Concept, Scope and
Importance of Watershed
Management
• acquaint yourself with integrated watershed management; and
• understand the importance of institutional arrangement.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, definition, needs, and benefits of watershed management
were covered. You were also exposed to the objectives, principles and components
of watershed management and the history and evolution of watershed management.
About two-third population of the country live in rural areas. Agriculture is the
backbone of Indian economy as farming is the main occupation of rural population
in the country. But Indian agriculture is still dependent on the vagary of monsoon
which is highly variable and unpredictable. Due to this, rainfed agriculture is
confronted with problem of low productivity. In order to increase food production
with available limited water resources, it is essential that the rainfed farming should
be developed as a sustainable productive system by adopting watershed
management approach. The approach enables a holistic development of integrated
watershed management comprising of agriculture and allied activities based on
agro-forestry, horticulture, silvi-pasture, aquaculture, animal husbandry, apiculture,
sericulture, lac culture etc. Institutional arrangements at central, state, district,
village and project level agencies including Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) are
of paramount importance for effective management of watershed development
projects. Watershed development and management is based on Participatory
Rural Appraisal ensuring active involvement of the watershed community in planning,
monitoring, execution, evaluation and post project maintenance of the created
assets of watershed. The bottom-up instead of top-down approach is adopted to
ensure people participation in planning, designing and implementing various
watershed activities for successful implementation of watershed development
programmes.
In the next unit, role of Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographical Information
System (GIS) in watershed development projects will be discussed. Prioritization
and coding of watersheds, useful participatory rural appraisal for watershed work
plans and importance of people participation in watershed management will also
be explained.
2.2 WHY WATERSHED?

A watershed is a hydrological unit also used as physical-biological or socio-
economic-political unit for planning and management of natural resources for
increasing productivity, generating employment, overall socio-economic
development and consequently the well being of the people. Watershed management
involves the judicious use of natural resources with active participation of
organizations in harmony with the eeo-system.
Watershed aims at optimal utilization of natural resources namely soil, water and
vegetation for long term sustainability. The judicious use of land, controlling and
managing floods, developing water resources for meeting growing demand of
different sectors and minimizing soil, water and air pollution are some of the other
23
Concept of Watershed objectives of watershed management. The objectives need to be clearly and
Management
implicitly defined for harnessing full intended benefits of the project.
2.3 COMPONENTS OF WATERSHED

MANAGEMENT
Watershed management involves the following two major components:
2.3.1 Engineering and Biological Practices

Engineering and biological practices for soil and water conservation include measures
for land, water and biomass management in uncultivable lands. These practices
are cost intensive and have to be carried out with government support.
Land Management
Land and water both are the most important natural resources for agriculture
sustainability. The upper layer of soil plays a crucial role in providing nutrition to
the plants and therefore needs to protected and conserved. Depending on the soil
characteristics, topography, climate and rainfall pattern, appropriate measures
need to be taken in order to control soil erosion and thus maintain soil productivity.
The biological or agronomic measures have proved to be effective for controlling

both wind and water erosion by employing agronomic practices which include
conservation tillage, contour cultivation, strip cropping and vegetative barriers.
Mechanical measures include a wide variety of conservation practices and structures
such as contour bunds, graded bunds, earthen bunds, contour terrace, contour
trenches, bench terracing, channel walls, stream bank stabilization, check dams,
gully plugging etc. depending on land characteristics.
Activity 1
1) Visit a nearby hill station and observe:

1. Agricultural practices being adopted.
n. Measures used for controlling soil erosion.
Now that you have done Activity 1, you might have realized that how different
engineering and biological interventions can play a significant role in controlling soil
erosion which is so vital for maintaining agricultural productivity.
Water Management
Water is an important or perhaps the most important natural resource required for
regular activities of all the sectors agriculture, industry and domestic. Only 4%
share of world fresh water is available in India for supporting 16% of world
population. Mismanagement of restricted water resource results in recurring floods
and droughts. Irrigation is the biggest user of fresh water but its share is likely to
be reduced considerably due to competing demand from other users like industry
and public health due to ever growing population. On the other hand,
overexploitation of ground water has led to its rapid depletion and deterioration in
water quality. It is therefore, imperative that this natural resource is managed in
the most optimum way in order to meet its growing demand.
24
More than 60% of agriculture is rainfed. The rainfall distribution in the country is Concept, Scope and
highly erratic and variable in time and space. Over 80% rainfall is received during
Management
monsoon months of July,August and September.It is therefore of utmost importance
to manage the existing surface and groundwater resources for their long term
sustainability.The rainwater harvesting has an important role to play in augmenting
these declining resources. It is a technique of harvesting, collection and storage
of rainwater aiming at conserving, storing and utilizing every drop of rainwater
harvested for various users and recharging groundwater reservoirs. The harvested
rainwater has immense potential for not only enhancing water availability in both
rural and urban areas but recharging surface and ground water water reservoirs.
Rainwater harvesting based on local traditional knowledge has been an ancient
practice successfully used for augmenting water resources.
Biomass Management
The forest management and conservation, social forestry, eco-preservation and

enhancing animal productivity are some of the main aspects for ensuring biomass
management.
2.3.2 Improved Production Practices
Practices such as in situ water conservation practices like contour farming and
mulching improved cropping systems and varieties, use of fertilizers and plant
protection measures are go a long way in enhancing the productivity under rainfed
conditions with resources constrains. In order to supplement income and generate
employment, horticulture including floriculture and vegetables, aquaculture and
animal husbandry need to be integrated with the conventional cropping system.
These practices can be undertaken through the technical support provided by
watershed functionaries with active people participation.
Now that you have been explained the role of watershed and its components, it
is now time to check your progress.
1) What does watershed management aim at?
2) What are the main components of watershed management?

(
25
Concept of Watershed 3) Enumerate biological practices for watershed management?
Management
Since, you have completed CYP l, we will, now, go over to watershed

characteristics and their role in watershed management.
2.4 WATERSHED CHARACTERISTICS

Each watershed has distinct characteristics and therefore, one watershed is not
identical to the other. Size, shape, drainage area and length are the main
characteristics to be considered for watershed management.
2.4.1 Size
The size of a watershed may vary from a few square meters to thousands of
square kilometers depending on the time and money available for development
of a watershed. It is a major factor considered for integrated watershed
management. Watersheds of thousands of square kilometers size have been
considered for a major and medium irrigation projects. It also depends on major
components of development such as afforestation,grassland development, agriculture
etc. and also physiographic conditions, like plains, valleys, undulating foothills and
rugged hilly areas. Larger watersheds could be selected in the plain valley areas
or where grassland and forest development are the major objectives. In the hilly
areas or where intensive agriculture development is involved, the size of the
watershed would be small. The specific definition of watershed on the basis of
system of draining tributaries may be summarized as below:
Catchment: The area drained by a river, which is a long river having drainage
area of more than one lakh hectare with a number of tributaries of first, second,
third and fourth or even fifth order.
Sub-catchment: The area drained by a secondary river, a tributary of Primary

River having a drainage area of more than 40,000 ha.
Watershed: Watershed has a drainage area of 4,000 to 40,000 ha drained by

tertiary stream, a tributary of secondary river.
Sub-watershed: Sub-watershed is dra:inedby a quaternary stream which is tributary

of a tertiary. It has a drainage area between 2000 and 4000 ha.
Mini watershed: Mini watershed having a drainage area of 400-2000 ha is

drained by a tributary of quaternary also called pentad streamlet.
Micro-watershed: Micro watershed having a drainage area of less than 400 ha

is drained by hexad streamlet, a tributary of pentad.
On an average, a size of 2,000 ha is considered reasonable for agricultural

development with regard to ease of surveys and investigations and effective planning,
26
keeping in view the local conditions and completion of the project within a Concept, Scope and
reasonably short time. Management
2.4.2 Shape
Watersheds having an infinite variety of shapes such as pear, elongated, triangular,

circular etc. based on morphologic parameters like geology and structure. It
determines the length width ratio which affects the runoff characteristics like runoff
time. A circular watershed would result in runoff from various parts of the watershed
reaching the outlet at the same time. However, an elliptical watershed having the
outlet at one end of the major axis and having the same area as the circular
watershed would cause the runoff to be spread out over time, thus producing a
smaller flood peak than that of the circular watershed.
A number of watershed parameters have been developed to reflect basin shape.

A few typical parameters are given below:
1. Length to the center of area (Lea): It is the distance measured along the main
channel from the basin outlet to the point on the main channel opposite the
center of area.
2. Shape Factor (L.)
L
s
= (LL
ea
)0.3
Where,
Lca = length to the center of area, km; and

/
L = length of the watershed, km.
Generally, the shape factor (Ls) reflects the peak discharge which increases with
decreases in length.
2.4.3 Length
Length of watershed is important in hydrologic computations and is defined as the

distance measured along the main channel from the watershed outlet to the basin
divide. Runoff volume increases with length. The straight line distance from the
outlet point on-the watershed divide is not usually used to compute length of the
watershed because the travel distance of runoff waters is conceptually the length
of interest. Thus, the length also known as hydrologic length is measured along
the principal flow path.
While the drainage area and length are both measures of watershed size, they may
reflect different aspects of size. The drainage area is used to indicate the potential
for rainfall to provide a volume of water. The length is usually used in computing
a time parameter, which is a measure of the travel time of water through a
watershed.
2.4.4 Slope
Hood magnitudes reflect the momentum of the runoff. Slope is an important factor
in the momentum. Watershed slope ret1ects the rate of change of elevation with
27
Concept of Watershed respect to distance along the principal flow path. Typically, the principal flow path
Management
is delineated and the watershed slope (S) is computed as the difference in elevation
(M) between the end points of the principal flow path divided by the hydrologic
length of the flow path (L):
S = MIL
The elevation difference ~ may not necessarily be the maximum elevation difference
within the watershed since the point of highest elevation may occur along a side
boundary of the watershed rather than at the end of the principal flow path.
2.4.5 Drainage Area

The drainage area (A) is the probably the single most important watershed
characteristic for hydrologic design as it reflects the volume of water that can be
generated from rainfall. A constant depth of rainfall occurring uniformly over the
watershed is assumed in hydrologic design. Thus, the volume of water available
for runoff is the product of rainfall depth and the drainage area. Thus, the drainage
area is required as input to models ranging from simple linear prediction equations
to complex computer models.
2.4.6 Drainage Density

Drainage density is an important characteristic of the watershed influencing runoff
and defined as the ratio of total length of all streams and catchment area. High
drainage density drains results in faster runoff and increase the peak of hydrograph.
It is expressed as:
D.ratnage densi = Total length of all streams,km

ensity 2
Catchment area, km
2.5 CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF

WATERSHEDS
As explained earlier, the very objective of watershed management is to bring
about all round socio-economic development of the selected regions which are
lagging behind economically due to inherent problems of natural resources. In
order to achieve the objectives of watershed management, watersheds need to be
selected very carefully so that the natural resources are optimally developed and
used for enhancing agricultural productivity, generate employment and consequently
improve the socio-economic conditions of the region with the active participation
of the beneficiaries. The following points need to be carefully considered before
a watershed is selected to study the impact of different interventions on the socio-
economic conditions of the area:
• Low levels of agricultural productivity.
• Scarcity of surface and groundwater for different sectors particularly drinking

water.
28
Concept, Scope and
• Predominance of wastelands/degraded land due to soil erosion, water-
logging and salinity. Management
• Lack of employment opportunities particularly for land less people.

• Willingness of village community to make voluntary contributions, enforce
equitable social regulations for sharing of common property resources, make
equitable distribution of benefits, create arrangements for the operation and
maintenance of the created assets.
• Contiguity to another watershed that has already been developed/treated.
• Proportion of scheduled castes/scheduled tribes.

• Area of the project should not be covered under assured irrigation.
• Watershed, which has a predominance of common lands. However, the

watershed projects having less common lands may also be considered
provided there is adequate justification.
The following criteria may be used in prioritizing the selection of the watershed:
• Watershed contiguous to another watershed already developed is selected

for development.
• Watershed developed under the programmes like DPAP/ DDP/ NWDPRA/

IWDP may not be considered. However, if the specific area of the identified
watershed was left out, the same may be considered for watershed
development project.
• Area around 500 ha is selected for development.

• A watershed should normally fall within the village boundaries however, if a
small part of the watershed area falls outside the village boundary, it may still
be taken up for development with the consent of the neighbouring villages/
panchayats.
• In case a watershed falls in two villages, it should be divided into two sub-
watershed areas confined to the designated villages. Care should be taken
to treat both the sub-watershed areas simultaneously.
• Watershed, which has a predominance of common lands. However, the

watershed projects having less common lands may also be considered
provided there is adequate justification.
b) Use the spaces given below for your answers.
1) Define micro and mini watershed on area basis.
29
Management
2) Define drainage density.
1.11111 •• ,' •• , •••• " •• ,'.",.", •• ,.,················· •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
3) List two main criteria for selection of watershed?
Now that you have done CYP2, we may take a look at integrated watershed
management.
2.6 INTEGRATED WATERSHED

MANAGEMENT
Watershed management is essentially adoption of soil and water conservation
practices such as proper land use, protecting land against all forms of deterioration,
maintaining soil fertility, conserving water for farm use and increasing productivity,
proper water management for drainage and flood protection (Fig. 2.2 to 2.5). All
the natural resources in a particular watershed should be used as efficiently as
possible with minimum watershed degradation. In watersheds besides development
of new water resources, emphasis is laid on efficient utilization of existing water
resources based on indigenous technologies. The watershed management is rational
utilization and conservation of land, water and biodiversity of natural resources
without further deterioration of environment. It is an integrated participatory
approach for sustainable development of natural resources. People's participation
right from planning up to its implementation is the important element in its proper
execution. Watershed is a single window approach where all problems of watershed
area are addressed and solutions sought. Watershed management is an ongoing
process. It is therefore, essential that original watershed plans. should be revised
in case of new challenges.
30
Concept, Scope and
Management
Watershed
Activities
Drainage & Flood

Water Harvesting
Control
Fig. 2.1: Watershed activities
Fig. 2.2: Soil and Water Conservation Measures
Fig. 2.3 : Water Harvesting Structure
31
Management
Fig. 2.4: Flood and Salinity Affected Agricultural Land
Fig. 2.5 : Improved Agricultural Productivity
Watershed management is an integral approach for sustainable use of natural

resources, viz. land, water, vegetation, livestock, fisheries and human resources.
In watersheds, integrated farming systems approach is followed. In addition to
low external input sustainable agriculture, it also includes agro-forestry, horticulture,
silvi-pasture, aquaculture, animal husbandry, apiculture, sericulture, lac culture etc.
This ensures full utilization of resources for employment generation and overall
development of the watershed area. In agro-forestry system, different species of
trees grown and under different situations such as floods, drought and landslide,
mine area, saline and alkaline conditions are identified.
2.7 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENT

In order to plan, design and implement watershed development projects, it is
absolutely essential that the institutional set up at different levels is firmly in place
for effective implementation of watershed projects. It starts from the central level
responsible for making funds available to the states, districts and blocks and to
the village and the project. The institutional set up is shown in Fig. 2.6. Different
components of institutional set up need to be strongly linked with each other to
facilitate smooth operation of the project and achieving desired goals. In watershed
management projects, the beneficiaries have an important role to play in all these
activities right from planning to implementation stage. Their views are fully
incorporated in planning and designing a project keeping in view their need and
32 limitations.
Concept, Scope and
National Rainfed Area Authority (NRAA) at Importance of Watershed
the national level Management
•• t
State Level Nodal Agency
(SLNA)
•• t
District Watershed Development Unit
(DWDU)
•• t
Panchayati Raj Institutions
(PRls)
,r t
Project Implementation Agency Watershed Development Team
(PIA) ~ (WDT)
Fig. 2.6: Flow diagram of institutional arrangement
The responsibility and role of different agencies are outlined below:
2.7.1 National Level
The National Rainfed Area Authority (NRAA), a nodal agency at the central level
facilitates budgetary allocation and smooth flow of funds from different projects
of Government of India to the District Watershed Development Units (DWDU)
for speedy and successful implementation of these watershed development projects.
It acts as an effective coordinating mechanism between different ministries,
.~_ organizations and departments responsible for undertaking watershed development
programmes. It is also responsible for supporting the process of preparing strategic
plans for watershed development projects at the state and district levels keeping
in view the specific agro-climatic and socio-economic conditions. It also supports
state level nodal agencies in identifying resource organizations and establishing
capacity building arrangements. The professional multi-disciplinary experts in the
field of agriculture,water management, institutionand capacity building etc. constitute
the nodal agency.
2.7.2 State Level
A State Level Nodal Agency (SLNA) is empowered to oversee all watershed

projects in the state based on the approved perspective and strategic plan. The
SLNA is headed by the Development Commissioner/Additional Chief Secretary/
agricultural Production Commissioner/Principal secretary and comprises of one
representative from National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
(NABARD), one representative each from the state department of rural
development, agriculture, animal husbandry and allied sectors, one representative
from groundwater board, one representative from voluntary organization and two
experts from research institutes / state universities, National Rural Employment
Guarantee Schemes (NREGS), Backward Regions Grand Fund (BRGF) and
other related implementing agencies are also represented. A team of four to seven
professional experts in the field of agriculture, water management, capacity building, 33
Concept of Watershed social science, information technology, administration, accounts etc. assist the
Management
SLNA which provides technical supports to District Watershed Development
Unit (DWDU). It also prepares perspective and strategic plans of watershed for
the state on the basis of plans prepared at the block and the district levels. It also
sets the expected outputs and financial outlays based on which approval of central
nodal agencies is sought. It also establishes monitoring and evaluation of the
watershed projects.
2.7.3 District Level
District Watershed Development Unit (DWDU) is established to oversee the

implementation of watershed projects in each district with separate accounts. It
functions in close coordination with District Planning Committee (DPC) with a
representative each of NRGA and BRGF at the district level. The DWDU
comprising of a full time project manager and three to four experts on agriculture,
water management, social science, management and accounts and is responsible
for identifying potential Project Implementing Agencies (PIAs). It also facilitates
preparation of district strategic and action plans including capacity building and
ensures smooth flow of funds to the projects and timely submission of required
documents to SLNA. It also facilitates coordination with relevant programmers of
agriculture, horticulture, rural development, animal husbandry, etc. with the
watershed projects for enhancing productivity and livelihood opportunities.
2.7.4 Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs)
Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) are actively involved in the watershed

programmes. The District Panchayat-Zila Parishad are entrusted with the
responsibility of coordinating various sectoral schemes with watershed development
projects, review of progress, settling disputes etc. Intermediate Panchayats have
an important role in planning the watershed development projects at the intermediate
level and provide support to PIAs and Gram PanchayatsIWatershed Committees
in technical guidance with the help of their subject matter specialists.
2.7.5 Project Implementation Agency (PIA)
The PIAs include relevant line departments, autonomous organizations under state/
central governments, government institutes/researchbodies, intermediate panchayats
and voluntary organizations (VOs). VOs have an important role in creating
awareness, capacity building, information, education and communication and social
audit. Each PIA is supported by a dedicated watershed development team (WDT)
with the approval of DWDU. The Project Implementing Agency (PIA) provides
necessary technical guidance to the Gram Panchayat for preparation of development
plans for the watershed through Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) exercise,
undertake community organizationand trainingfor the villagecommunities, supervise
watershed development activities, inspect and authenticate project accounts,
encourage adoption of low cost technologies and build upon indigenous technical
knowledge, monitor and review the overall project implementation and set up
institutional arrangements for post-project operation and maintenance and further
development of the assets created during the project period. It also facilitates the
mobilization of additional financial resources from other government programmes,
such as NREGA, BRGF, SGRY, National Horticulture Mission, Tribal Welfare
Schemes, Artificial Groundwater Recharging, Greening India, etc.
34
Watershed Development Team Concept, Scope and
Management
WDT comprises of at-least four experts preferably with professional degree in the
disciplines of agriculture, soil science, water management, social mobilization and
institutional building. At least one of the WDT members should be a woman. The
WDT should be located as close as possible to the watershed project and its
close collaboration with the team of experts at the district and state level must be
ensured. It guides WC in the formulation of the watershed action plan. It assists
Gram PanchayatJGram Sabha in constitution of the WC, User Groups (UGs) and
Self-Help Groups (SHGs). The User Groups deal with homogeneous group of
persons having land with in the watershed areas while SHGs include small and
marginal farmers households, landless, labours, women and SC/ST persons. It
also ensures active participation of women, conducts participatory base-line surveys,
training and capacity building, prepare resource development plans. It prepares
Detailed Project Report (DPR) for the consideration of Gram Sabha and facilitates
the development of livelihood opportunities for the landless and maintaining project
accounts.
Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs)
Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) are actively involved in the watershed

programmes. The District PanchayatJZila Parishad are entrusted with the
responsibility of coordinating various sectoral schemes with watershed development
projects, review of progress, settling disputes etc. Intermediate Panchayats have
an important role in planning the watershed development projects at the intermediate
level and provide support to PIAs and Gram PanchayatsIWatershed Committees
in technical guidance with the help of the subject matter specialists.
The Zila Parish ads and other Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) shall have very
important role to play in watershed development programmes. Wherever the
DRDA has been made responsible for implementation of the watershed
programmes, the Chief Executive Officer of the Zila Parishad shall be a member
of the DWDC. The PRIs shall have the right to monitor and review the
implementation of the programme and provide guidance for improvements in the
administrative arrangements and procedures with a view to ensure convergence
of other programmes of Ministry of Rural Development such as JGSY, SGSY,
lAY, CRSP, Rural Drinking Water Supply etc.
In the previous section, you have been exposed to ins tuitional arrangement for
successful operation watershed projects. We shall now check your progress.
b) Use the spaces given below for your answers.
1) What do you understand by integrated by watershed management?
35
Concept of Watershed 2) Depict institutional set up with the help of flow diagram.
Management
3) Explain the role ofPanchayati Raj Institutions in watershed management?
2.8 LET US SUM UP

• Rainfed agriculture due to unpredictable and widely variable rainfall is confronted
with problem of low productivity. Therefore, rainfed farming needs to be
developed as a sustainable productive system to increase food production with
available limited water resources by adopting watershed management approach.
• Engineering and biological practices for land, water and biomass management
are essential uncultivable lands. However, improved production practices have
important role to play for improving the agricultural productivity in arable lands
by in situ water conservation practices, improved cropping systems and
varieties, use of fertilizers and plant protection measures.
• Each watershed has distinct characteristics and therefore need to be considered

independently for watershed management.
• A set of criteria needs to be adopted while selecting a watershed for undertaking

watershed development activities for long term agriculture sustain ability.
• The integrated watershed management holds the key for successful operation
of the watershed projects as agriculture and allied activities based on agro-
forestry, horticulture, silvi-pasture, aquaculture, animal husbandry, apiculture,
sericulture, lac culture etc help in supplementing income, generate employment
and overall socio-economic development of all the beneficiaries (land owners
and landless) of the watershed.
• Institutional arrangements at the central, state, district, village and project level
agencies including Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) are of paramount
importance for effective management of watershed development projects.
2.9 KEYWORDS
Agro-forestry Raising food crops, trees and animals together.
Bio-diversity Diversity of plant and animal life.
Biological Agronomic practices include conservation tillage, contour

36 Practices cultivation, strip cropping and vegetative barriers.
Concept, Scope and
BRGF Backward Regions Grand Fund.
Management
DDP Desert Development Programme especially launched in
desert areas.
DPAP Drought Prone Area Programme.
DPC District Planning Committee ..
DPR Detailed Project Report.
DWDU District Watershed Development Unit.
Engineering Conservation practices and structures such as contour

Practices bunds, graded bunds, earthen bunds, contour terrace,
contour trenches etc.
NABARD National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development.
NRAA National Rainfed Area Authority.
NREGS National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme.
NWDPRA National Watershed Development Project for Rainfed

Areas.
PIA Project Implementation Agency.
PRI Panchayati Raj Institution.
Production Practices like contour farming and mulching improved

Practices croppi~~ systems and varieties, use of fertilizers and plant
protection measures.
Rainfed Cop cultivation depending on rainfall for meeting water

requirement.
Replenishable Refers to restoration of water availability.
SHGs Self-Help Groups.
Silvi-pasture A variety of high yielding nutritive and palatable tree species

in forests and farm lands for meeting fodder requirement.
SLNA Star; Level Nodal Agency.
·UGs
Watershed Watershed is entire geographic area of particular land

from where rainwater as runoff is drained from ridges
along the slopes of land to single particular point/outlet or
common drain point. It is an ideal planning unit for
conservation of major natural resources of soil, water and
biodiversity.
WDT c.\. Watersh~ Development Team. 37

Management 2.10 SUGGESTED READING
Brooks, KN., Fftollott, P.E, Gregersen, H.M. and De Bano, L.E (1998).
Hydrology and the Management of Watersheds. Panima Publishing Corporation,
New Delhi.

Land Resources, Ministry of Rural Development, GoI, pp.57.
Dhruv Narain, VV, Sastry, G. and Pathak, U.S. (1997). Watershed Management,
Glenn, S. 0., Fangmeier, D.D, Elliot, WJ. and Frewert, R.K (2002). Soil and
India Today, June Issue (2007). Monthly Journal Published by India Today Group,
India.
Jensen, lR. (2000). Remote Sensing of Environment An Earth Resource

Perspective. Prentice Hall. New Jersey.
Khan, M.A (2002). Watershed Management for Sustainable Agriculture.

Agrobios. (India). Jodhpur.
Mukharjee, Neela (1993). Participatory Rural Appraisal: Methodology and

Applications: Concept Publishing Co. New Delhi.
Murty, J. V S. (1994) . Watershed Management in India. Wiley Eastern Ltd.

Raj ora, R. (1998). Integrated Watershed Management. Field Manual for

equitable productive and sustainable development. Rawat Publication. Jaipur.
Samra, J.S., Sharda, VN. and Sikka, A K (2002). Water Harvesting and Re-
cycling -Indian Experience. Central, Soil and Water Conservation Research &
Training Institute, 218, Kaulagarh Road, Dehradun.
Sharda, VN., Sikka, AK and Juyal, AK (2006). Participatory Integrated

Watershed Management, A Field Manual. Central Soil and Water Conservation
Sharma, Shriniwas and Mishra, P.K. (1995). Watershed Management in Dry

Land Areas-Principles and Practices. In: Book on 'Sustainable Development of
Dry land Agriculture' by Dr. R.P. Singh, Scientific Publisher, Jodhpur.

Strahler, AN. (1957) Quantitative Analysis of Watershed Morphology, Trans.

Am. Geophys. Union, Vol 38, pp 913-920.
Tideman, E. M. (1996). Watershed Management Guidelines for Indian

38
Concept, Scope and
Warren, P. (2001). Developing Participatory and Integrated Watershed
Management Daya Publishing; House, New Delhi. Management

of India. .

PROGRESS
1) Watershed aims at optimal utilization of natural resources namely soil, water and
vegetation for long term sustainability.
2) (a) Engineering and Biological Practices
• Land Management
• Water Management
• BiomassManagement
(b) Improved Production Practices
3) Tillage, contour cultivation, strip cropping and vegetative barriers are some of
the biological practices for soil erosion.
1) Micro watershed: Micro watershed having a drainage area of less than 400
ha is drained by hex ad streamlet, a tributary of pentad.
Mini watershed: Mini watershed having a drainage area of 400-2000 ha is

drained by a tributary of quaternary also called pentad streamlet.
2) Drainage density as expressed below is an important characteristic of the

watershed influencing runoff and defined as the ratio of total length of all
streams and catchment area.
. densitv
Drainage ensity = --Total length of all streams,km
2
Catchment area, km
3) D Scarcity of surface and ground water for different sectors particularly

drinking water.
ii) Predominance of wastelands/degraded land due to soil erosion, water-

logging and salinity.
39
Concept of Watershed Check Your Progress 3
Management
1) Integrated watershed management refers to an integral approach for sustainable
use of natural resources, viz. land, water, vegetation, livestock, fisheries and
human resources.
2)
National Rainfed Area Authority (NRAA) at
the national level
• t
State Level Nodal Agency
(SLNA)
• t
District Watershed Development Unit
(DWDU)
• t
Panchayati Raj Institutions
(PRIs)
,r t
Project Implementation Agency Watershed Development Team
(PIA) ~ (WDT)
Flow diagram ofinstitutional arrangement
3) Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) comprising of District Panchayat/Zila

Parishad, Intermediate Panchayats and Gram Panchayats are actively involved
planning, implementation and review of the watershed development
programmes.
40
UNIT 3 DESIGN OF WATERSHED
PROJECTS
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Role of Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographical Information System (GIS)
3.3 Selection of Watershed
3.4 Watershed Prioritization
3.5 Coding of Watersheds
3.6 Administrative Support
3.7 Sharing of Common Property Resources For Equitable Distribution of Benefits
3.8 Development of Watershed Management Work Plan
3.8.1 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) Exercise
3.8.2 People's Participation

3.8.3 Importance of People's Participation in Watershed Management
3.8.4 Role of Women in Watershed Management
3.8.5 Self Help Groups (SHGs)
3.9 Let Us Sum Up

3.10 Keywords
3.0 OBJECTIVES
• highlight the role of remote sensing (RS) and geographical information system
(GIS) in watershed development projects;
• outline the steps for prioritization and coding of watersheds;
• acquaint yourself with participatory rural appraisal for watershed work plans; and
• underscore the importance of people's participation in watershed management.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, you were explained the role of watershed management, its
different components; major characteristics and criteria for selection of watershed.
Integrated watershed management and the importance of institutional arrangement
were also highlighted.
41
Concept of Watershed Watershed is the basic unit for integrated development of all resources in a given
Management
terrain. Land, water and vegetation resources in the watershed need to be integrated
and properly managed. The formulation and characterization of the developmental
plan for the watershed need accurate information related to land use, soil, geology,
water resources etc. in spatial domain. The synoptic, multi-spectral and repetitive
information at different spatial resolution is provided by the remote sensing satellites.
The capability of GIS to handle the remote sensing data with non-spatial information
helps in watershed development planning process for conserving land and water
resources, The experience of watershed management programmes operated during
the last five decades in the country has underscored an important conclusion that
people's participation is of utmost importance for realizing the full potential of such
projects. However, how to ensure people's participation in such programmes
remains a very big question.
In the next unit, watershed approach for resources conservation and rural
development and the institutional arrangements for watershed development
programmes in the country will be covered. You will also study the role and
functions of various institutions engaged in the watershed management and the
role of transparency in different phases of the projects.
3.2 ROLE OF REMOTE SENSING (RS) AND

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM
(GIS)
Remote sensing technique is a unique tool which provides information on spatial
distribution of various landscapes, vegetative density and types, land forms, drainage
and erodibility status. The space borne data combined with field survey data can
provide precise hybrid database for optimal watershed development plan. Remote
sensing data combined with Geographic Information System (GIS) is a holistic
approach to map and generate spatial input layers for predicting response behaviour
and yield of watershed. It also helps in finding optimum land, soil, crop suitability
and judicious crop planning. GIS is used to manage and model various spatial
data sets as a tool for characterization prioritization, developmental planning and
monitoring.
Because of multi-spatial capability,synoptic viewing and repetitive coverage, remote _

sensing is a potential tool for planning watershed development programmes.
Remote sensing helps in acquiring relevant data such as size, shape, physiography
and slope, drainage, geology, soil, land uselland covers and climate for planning
watershed activities.
For successful planning of watershed development programme, availability of up

to date and reliable information of spatial and non-spatial domain is essential.
Remote sensing data in conjunction with secondary data can produce high quality
primary resources maps such as land uselland cover, soil type, vegetation density,
geomorphology, geology, topographic maps, stream network and surface water.
Primary maps are integrated on GIS platform to generate utility maps to help in
planning. Secondary derivative maps are devised by combination of two or more
thematic maps of chosen parameter.
Geographic Information System (GIS)
42 The Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer system capable of

capturing, storing, analyzing and displaying geographically referenced information Design of Watershed
Projects
i.e. data identified according to a location that can be used for scientific
investigations, resource management, development planning and monitoring.
A GIS is a powerful tool to relate different pieces of information in a spatial

context with the help of a loci. 'on reference system comprising of longitude,
latitude, elevation, etc. GIS enables us to relate any geographical information to
any point on the globe. For example, to know about the possible changes in the
cropping pattern in a block at a given time can be determined provided the
present cropping pattern is known. This helps us make most appropriate decisions
regarding resource management in the watershed.
The future of GIS in the context of rural development is very bright. Environmental
studies, geography, geology, planning, business, marketing and other disciplines
have benefited from GIS tools and methods immensely.
GIS is capable of producing wall maps, internet-ready maps, interactive maps

and graphics on the screen or paper to demonstrate to the people the impact of
appropriate interventions on resource management and productivity. Maps and
graphics through GIS facilitate effective communication of the results and finding
of interventions.
After you have been explained the role of remote sensing and geographic information
system in wattfshed management, it is now time to check your progress.
3.3 SELECTION OF WATERSHED

Watersheds are quite complex in their characteristics and are rarely identical.
Their response to development depends upon the nature of resource available
within their boundaries. Therefore, a selective approach is more rational in choosing
more responsive watersheds for a particular programme. Specific criteria and
survey technique need to be developed for selection of priority and responsive
watershed for each individual programme. The selection of watersheds depends
on the following:
• Intensity of problem and prospects of correcting the problem;
• Potential for overall development;

• Availabilityof technology;
• Likely acceptability and participation by the beneficiaries; and
• Infrastructuralavailability.
Standard and uniform system of delineation and codification developed by the All
India Soil and Land Use Survey Organization (AISLUSO) needs to be adopted
in order to plan developmental activities on watershed basis. It follows a 5 stage
sub-division using drainage map of 1:1 million scale at the macro level while at
the micro level, a 3 to 4 stage sub-division is followed using 1:50,000 scale
drainage maps for watersheds of 1000-5000 ha. For farm level planning and
design of different components of the programme and their implementation, base
maps of 1:15,000 can be used. For specific purposes, however, adhoc selection
of small watersheds can also be made.
43
Management 3.4 WATERSHED PRIORITIZATION
The watershed prioritization is undertaken at the initial stage to facilitate investment
decision and make best use of available resources. The watersheds which are in
initial conditions and adjacent to main stream need to be taken up on priority. The
watershed development programmes comprising of soil and water conservation
components are taken up based on their degradation.
In a watershed management prograrnm~, particularly in case of large watersheds,

it may not be possible to treat the entire area of the watershed with land treatment
measures. In such cases, the watershed should be divided into sub-watersheds
and sub-watersheds which need treatment need to be identified. In order to
determine the priority of the sub-watersheds for treatments from soil erosion and
sediment yield point of view, following methods are used.
Reconnaissance survey
A reconnaissance survey of the entire watershed gives a vague idea of the relative
erosion status of the sub-watersheds and therefore, should be-used when other
methods are not available.
Soil and land use survey
A careful interpretation of detailed soil and land use surveys provide information
on the relative erosion status of the various sub-watersheds. However, the soil
survey requires a considerable time and manpower.
Interpretation of aerial photographs
Scientific interpretation of aerial photographs provide qualitative information

regarding land including location, general texture of various soils, general evaluation
of sand, gravel and boulder deposits, drainage characteristics, spread of vegetation
etc. The areas under severe erosion problem can also be determined.
Sediment observations
Actual measurement of the-silt load over a period of 3-5 years contributed by

each of the sub-watersheds give an ample idea of the extent of erosion in the sub-
watershed.
3.5 CODING OF WATERSHEDS

The watershed has been delineated up to five levels depending on the drainage
pattern namely region, basin, catchment, sub-catchment and watershed based on
code number proposed by All India Soil and Land Use Survey Organization
(AISLUSO), Gol. The watershed is further delineated into sub-watersheds, mini
watersheds, micro watersheds Grade I, Grade ll, Grade III etc.
Region
The following six water resource regions are designated for the country:
• Indus region;
44
Design of Watershed
• Ganges regions;
Projects
• Brahmputraregion;
• All rivers draining in Bay of Bengal;
• All rivers draining in Arabian sea; and
• Ephemeral drainage in Rajasthan.
Basin
Basins are constituted by the individual river or system of rivers.
Example
4A- River in Kanyakumari district to Vaigai in North draining in Bay of Bengal
(Tarnil Nadu, Kerala),
4B - Cauvery - (Tamil Nadu; Karnataka; Kerala)
Catchment
Next drainage system to basin
4B2 Cauvery Districts
Sub-catchments
4B2A Amaravathy Talukas
4B2B Noyyal
4B2D Bhavani
Watersheds
4B2A3 Panchayats
4B2A4
4B2A5
The watersheds with second order streams are considered as a micro-watersheds.
The watershed codes for micro-watersheds in terms of Grade 1, Grade ll, Grade
III are introduced. The relationships between area and stream order are given
below.
Average Unit Stream Approximate Area Watershed

Order (km') Code
Region - - 4
Basin 7 5,00,000 and above 4B
Catchment 6 5,00,000 to 1,00,000 4B2
Sub-catchment 5 1,00,000 to 5,000 4B2A
Watershed 4 5,000 to 1,000 4B2A3
Sub-watershed 3 1,000 to 500 4B2A3a
Mini-watershed 2 500 to 200 4B2A3al
Micro watershed Grade I 1 200 to 100 4B2Aalb
Micro watershed Grade 11 - 100 to 50 4B2A3albl

\
~j 45
Management Check Your Progress 1
1) List the basic criteria for the selection of watersheds.
2) Why do we need to prioritize sub-watershed within the watersheds?
3) What kind of resource maps can be generated with the help of remote sensing?
Now, that you have worked out the CYP 1, let us go over to study of administrative
support.
3.6 ADMINISTRATIVE SUPPORT

Adequate budget supported by trained man power is very crucial for successful
planning and implementation of a watershed project. The trained watershed
functionaries need to be made available in different phases of the project. The
capacity building of the deployed functionaries is of paramount importance and
can be achieved by conducting refresher courses from time to time. The watershed
management projects are undertaken by the government departments, institutions
and non-government organizations with their administrative and financial
arrangements. The administrative and financial arrangements at different levels, for
the development of natural resources and village community on watershed basis
with the participation of community need to be undertaken as per common
guidelines provided by government and revised from time to time.
The institutional arrangements at different levels i.e. from central to state and
down to watershed level made to facilitate finalization of work plan, deployment
of staff and release of funds for successful and timely implementation of watershed
management programme with the active participation of the village community or
watershed beneficiaries.
46
For successful implementation of different watershed programmes, the institutional Design of Watershed
Projects
arrangements at state to village level as proposed by common guidelines 2008 for
watershed development programme has been explained in detail in Unit 2 of the
this Block.
3.7 SHARING OF COMMON PROPERTY

RESOURCES FOR EQUITABLE
DISTRIBUTION OF BENEFITS
Equity in the distribution of benefits of watershed development programmes is
essential to ensure that the benefits reach the most vulnerable sections (marginal
farmers and landless poor) of the society. Until and unless proper care is taken
for different social and economical aspects of the project area and their influence
on equity and poverty alleviation during project implementation, the resulting benefits
of the developmental activities may be distributed disproportionately. Most of the
watershed development activities are concentrated towards conservation and
management of natural resources such as soil and water and the direct benefits
of such actions are enjoyed by the land owners, particularly the resource rich
families. Inequities may arise in watershed programmes due to a number of other
factors such as spatial location (i.e. upstream versus downstream), differences of
class, caste and gender, and choice of technology. The common property resources
(CPRs) may include common land and common water (which may include surface
as well as groundwater).
The landless poor may sometimes feel harmed by the watershed development
programmes. Closing of common lands for grazing is sometimes suggested during
the watershed project implementation. Denying access to common lands in the
absence of any other alternative for grazing may seriously affect livelihood of
many landless people who are dependent on such lands. It is therefore, important
to include some non-farm income generating activities in the watershed development
projects to ensure proper share of benefits to landless section of the society. The
objective of poverty alleviation as included in all the watershed development
programmes cannot be fulfilled unless the suppressed (economically and/or socially)
sections of the society are accorded desired priority. Some of the activities/
actions that may ensure equitable distribution of benefits may include:
L identifying and developing the assets which are more important to the poor and
transferring the ownership of the created assets to target groups;
. ~.
n. identifying specific losers and gainers because of a particular intervention and

understanding the nature or loss and gain for the concerned persons and providing
support in the form of some non-land based and/or land based livelihoods for
improving the income of adversely affected persons;
1lL granting exclusive right to the landless people for fishing in the runoff ponds
constructed under the watershed development project, irrespective of whether
such ponds are on common lands or on the land of landlords;
IV. sharing of resulting produce from the development of coITlIIlonlands among the
landless and marginal farmers as per the agreed arrangement;
47
Concept of Watershed v. encouraging and helping resource poor families (RPFs) to dig community- bore
Management
wellslhand pumps near water harvesting structures constructed under the project
with full right to use for drinking water facility and restricted right to use for
irrigation oflow water intensive crops during droughts. Special care may be
taken to locate the water harvesting structures closer to the wells and lands
owned by RPFs;
Vl. exploring the possibilities of developing barren lands and bed areas of drains,
owned by individual, into productive assets with project funds provided these
could be given to the self help groups of RPFs on lease basis; and
vn. ensuring that the persons belonging to vulnerable groups are given preference
in providing employment opportunities during implementation of project works.
Equitable distribution of benefits would justify the investment of public funds under
the watershed programme and help in achieving sustainable development of physical
as well as social resources of the watershed. Necessary resolutions ensuring
equity need to be adopted by the watershed community before bringing the area
under watershed development programmes.
3.8 DEVELOPMENT OF WATERSHED

MANAGEMENT WORK PLAN
Watershed management work plan is cl documented proposal describing the
watershed problems, objectives, constraints and proposed techniques/works for
improvement and implementation and evaluation strategies for various activities.
Watershed incorporates complex interaction of hydrological, biological, physical,
economical and social systems. All these factors and their likely interactions need
to be closely integrated into the planning process using available information. The
planner/manager should be able to adjust the work plan in response to changes
in basic conditions during implementation.
3.8.1 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) Exercise
PRA is a set of techniques to involve local people in planning, implementation and

evaluation of watershed development projects. The participatory exercise involves
rapport building, historical event recording, social mapping, resource mapping,
transect walking, preferential ranking, synthesis of indigenous technical knowledge,
Venn diagram, seasonal changes/challenges, triangulation exercise and micro-
planning. Some of the above activities are described below:
Rapport Building
A good informal rapport needs to be established between the official PRA team
and the beneficiaries for successful implementation of PRA. Talking with villagers
in their own language, listening and sharing their problems and views, participation
in the village affairs and some community works, undertaking training programme
addressing identified problems, identification of key person from the village, avoiding
controversial people, regularly meeting the villagers are some of the important
means to achieve rapport. Rapport with villagers creates conductive and democratic
working environmental enabling the villagers to analyze their living conditions to
share the outcomes, plan their activities and share indigenous technical knowledge
48 to prioritize the problems to inculcate the sense of responsibility.
Historical Event Recording Design of Watershed
Projects
Historical event recording plays an important role in accessing important events
of last seven to eight decades which directly or indirectly affected their socio-
economic condition and ecology of the watershed. Frank and open discussion on
all these events in chronological order with watershed beneficiaries leads to their
assessment in terms of long term effect. The historicalevent recording is quite
significant as it helps to identify the trends of development and subsequent changes
in respect of social, economical, agriculture and other aspects of living situation.
Social Mapping
Social mapping is an important step to identify involvement of local community in

different activities of the watershed programme as per their sociological attitude.
Social maps indicating different ethnic groups or castes living in a village or locality
are drawn with the help of local people belonging to the same community. Once
a good social map is prepared, it helps to plan initial visit to selected communities
to explore the community's interest in collaborating with the project to identify
potential leaders/influential people of the community to start participatory process
and to identify community's problems and potential sources of conflicts.
Resource Mapping
Resource mapping intends to fully engage the local people in understanding and
solving various watershed problems, understanding causes and effects of various
actions and pathways for accomplishing desired actions helps to locate the natural
resources as well as other resources/assets/facilities available in the watershed.
Resource maps are useful in preparing micro-catchment plan based on soil and
water conservation, forestry and other treatments. Resource mapping is realized
through full participation of the stake holders using rangoli powder or coloured
chalk on the ground or coloured marker pen on paper. The final maps are drawn
on papers for permanent record. Agricultural lands, waste lands, forest lands,
grazing lands, irrigated and rainfed areas, various water bodies, soils types,
groundwaterquality, areas affected by specific problems such as water logging,
salinity, wind erosion, water erosion etc. and other facilities such as roads, canals,
wells and pumps are depicted on these maps. A resource map indicating community
facilities such as health center, veterinary hospital, post office, bank panchayat
building, schools etc. is also prepared. Specific resource maps may be further
refined to provide more insights such as position of check dams in stream and
their effects on upstream and downstream, maintenance requirement etc.
Transect Walk
Transect walk is a systematic exploratory traveling across the watershed form one
end to another end along with the villagers. Depending on the importance, separate
transect walks may also be organized along a special routes e.g. a walk may be
organized along the streams to study the scope of water storage and erosion
control. Different maps prepared during resource mapping and social mapping are
carried by the watershed development team during the walk. The transect walk
serves following purposes:
• verification of the facts supplied by the farmers during social and resource
mapping;
49
• overview of wide spectrum of information such as diversity of eco-systems,
Management
land use etc.;
• understanding o.!Jocal practices of farming tree plantation, common land

management, w 'and management etc.;
• identification of 1- ilems and local solutions through discussions at the

site itself e.g. villa. .s preferred sites for check dams, storage ponds etc.;
and
et collection of additional information such as damage to crops and river

banks by wild animals etc. not supplied earlier.
Preferential Ranking
In order to prioritize problems and need of the watershed community, villagers'

preference and attitude towards a particular item of interest is discussed in detail.
The local people are requested to rank (between 1 & 10) the selected activity
for various items as per their choice and need. For example, while determining
preference ranking for crop, various items as listed in Table 3.1 may be included.
Table 3.1: Preference Ranking for Crops
S. Crops Food Fodder Taste Market Total Ranking

No Value Score Preferences
l. Wheat 10 7 9 10 36 I
2. Barley 6 7 8 8 'E V
3. Mustard 7 5 8 10 30 N
4. Bajra (Pearl millet) 10 0 8 7 35 IT
5. Guar (Clusterbean) 5 8 7 8 2 VI
6. Gram 9 8 9 8 34 III
Above table shows that wheat and bajra (pearl millet) are the most preferred
crops, followed by gram, mustard, barley and guar. Preference ranking must be
determined for all the major activities that are carried out in the selected watershed.
Further, the preference ranking for different communities must be carried out
separately to identify target groups; to effectively implement a particular activity.
The exercise of preference ranking may be further modified according to the
watershed conditions. For example, in a watershed, preference ranking for crops
may be determined separately for rainfed and irrigated conditions. Crop varieties,
vegetables, fruit crops, tree species, livestock categories, soil and water conservation
techniques, irrigation methods etc. are some of the activities to be considered
during preference ranking. As far as possible, the process of preference ranking
should involve a large heterogeneous group (say 25-30 persons) comprising of
men, women and children of various ages and should not be restricted to assigning
the numbers between 1 and 10 to various items. The reasons for different
preferences need to be explained clearly. For example, if farmers show little
preference for commercial cultivation of vegetables in a particular watershed, the
reason for the same (perishable nature, fluctuating rates, marketing problems or
other) must be identified to implement corrective measures.
50
Indigenous Technical Knowledge Design of Watershed
Projects
Indigenous technical knowledge particularly rainwater management, soil
conservation, drought management, flood management, agricultural operations,
food and fruit preservation, waste management, local construction material etc.
needs to be synthesized with the modem technologies in order to make it cost
effective and efficient.
3.8.2 People's Participation

The active involvement and participation of local communities is vital for the
success of watershed development programme and restoring the environment,
natural resources and consequently allround socio-economic development.
The people's participation in the watershed development programme and natural

resource management through consent, consultation and contribution makes it
people's programme and ultimately people's movement. The government and
non-governmental agencies should work as stimulators, promoters and facilitators
by creating congenial environment through sociological, technological and financial
support.
Consent Phase
Consent of a minimum percentage of land owners, whose holdings are located

within the watershed boundary for taking up developmental work, should be
obtained. In general, the watershed schemes are planned, implemented and funded
as public works.
Consultation Phase
After completion of project period, problems of maintenance of the structural

measures emerge. The farmers should be consulted in the choice and design of
structures on or near their lands for achieving the desired results. But in practice,
it is rarely followed and involvement of local community is limited.
Contribution Phase
There is no indicator which would bring out the degree and quality of contribution.
The actual evidence of people's participation would be seen through contribution
of beneficiaries as a part of the cost of treatments mostly as labour. Another
aspect is that only labourers contribute whereas benefits from common property
resources are utilizedby the entire village population, for example digging/deepening
of village pond.
The following important points need to be considered to ensure people's

participation for natural resource management at the watershed level.
• people are living in the watershed and using its resources;
• evolution of integrated development of watershed resources, instead of

narrow sectoral approaches;
• emphasis and promotion of participatory technology development;
• equity as a fundamental principle of sustainable watershed development; 51

• gender issues;
Management
• arrangements for equitable management of the commons;
• emphasis on capital formation within each watershed;
• provision of incentive which enhances participation;
• conflict resolution and the facilitation of cooperation within the watershed;

and
• build up the stake of the watershed communities.
3.8.3 Importance of People's Participation in Watershed

Management
People's participation is absolutely essential for successful conduct of watershed

management project and goes a long way in achieving the following:
• effective decision making and implementation of sustainable project;
• ensures the involvement of disadvantaged group;

• helps to acquire knowledge of land and confidence of local people;
• leads to shared understanding;
• helps in conflict resolution even in complex and changing situation;
• provides people with ownership;
• encourages commitment of the community to its watershed management
programme.
3.8.4 Role of Women in Watershed Management
The impact of activities of watershed management programmes are felt by the

entire community. It is in the interest of the project that the divergent groups of
the community are mobilized and motivated. These groups must include the landless
generally women and other weaker social groups in order to balance the powerful
influence of certain individuals and families on community decisions. A sense of
local ownership, identification with the intervention and willingness to assume
responsibility for management is the main benefit of community participation. The
community participation clearly indicates that people of the project area are active
partners in the process of bringing about change and its management. Women in
India have less access and control over land, credit and capital and are less
trained in the use of new rural technologies than men despite their significant
contribution to natural resource management and agricultural production. As men
in Indian society are more dominant in public life, there is a danger that the
interests of women will be overlooked.
Example: In a watershed, a small check dam for water conservation was built
after discussion and agreement by the men but without consulting the women's
groups. The dam flooded the path used by women to lead their animals to the
grazing grounds and as a result they had to spend more time using a much longer
52
route around.
Problems in socio-economic development of women Design of Watershed
Projects
Following constraints are responsible for disparity in socio-economic development
of women.
• low social status of women;
• religious and social constraints;

• exclusive usufruct Rights over common lands;
• lack of women's participation;
• lack of integration into mainstream;
Therefore, women need to be empowered by providing training and information

and involving them in activities. The women are the major and most important
section of the village population; therefore their participation in the project is of
utmost importance. However, a meaningful communication with them by a
predominantly male work force is often found less effective. To facilitate the
communication between the project team and women, women motivators need to
be involved in the project. They play an important role in ensuring effective
involvement of the women in project activities and to inculcate a sense of belonging
amongst them towards the assets developed through project intervention so that
their participation is ensured. One female extension worker may also be engaged
in each village for the project period to act as full time contact person in the
village.
3.8.5 Self Help Groups (SHGs)
Self help groups are voluntary groups of people who come together to take up
group activities on a self help basis for the benefit of the group. Forming self help
groups for saving and credit activities will make it possible for the poorest to
generate their own funds and become self reliant in managing then resource base.
Establishing SHG's for income generation to provide alternative methods of
earning a livelihood will not only improve the standard of living but also help in
generating group action for resource management in the watersheds.
Features of a Successful Self Help Groups
The following important features are essential for ensuring success of SHGs.
• The user group members should have common interest, desire, goals and
objectives. Members should be honest, dedicated and hard working to
achieve their objectives.
• The user group should organize regular meetings and every member should
participate in the meetings.
• The user group should have its constitution drafted by the members and
must be flexible to achieve objectives.
• The members should constitute an executive body consisting of very able

chairperson, secretary and treasurer.
5~
• The members should regularly discuss their activities and decide to act upon
Management
fund raising and record keeping and share benefits among beneficiaries.
• The user group needs to clarify its goals and objectives in black and white.
The goals can only be met if objectives are achieved. The objectives should
be clear, simple, observable and quantifiable and realistic.
• The members of the user group must have full freedom to discuss, opine,
comment and present logic.
• There should not be any discrimination on caste, financial and educational

status and the members should always try to learn and teach each other.
Basic Principles in Group Formation
An ideal user group should have at least 8-10 members and maximum up to 15-
20 members because small groups will have the chance to speak and contribute
their energy and ideas to take the right decision. There should be social equality
in groups to facilitate openness, cooperation and mutual trust. Every group should
have income generating goals. Membership should be voluntary and democratic
and members should decide about office bearers such as chairperson, vice
chairperson, secretary and treasurer. The secretary and treasurer maintain office
administration and accounting management, respectively.
1) What is a watershed management work plan?
2) List different PRA exercises.
3) List three important activities/actions which may ensure equitable distribution of

benefits in the watershed.
54
Design of Watershed
4) List the objectives of transect walk during PRA exercise?
Projects
3.9 LET US SUM UP

• Planning and design of a watershed project requires thorough knowledge of the
problems encountered in the specific watersheds characterized by their peculiar
problems.
• The proper selection of watershed and its prioritization are of paramount

importance to facilitate wise investment decision and best use of available
resources.
-i\
• Remote sensing data combined with Geographic Information System (GIS) is a
holistic approach to map and generate spatial input layers for predicting response
behaviour and yield of watershed. It also helps in determining optimum land, soil,
crop suitability and judicious crop planning.
• For successful implementation of different watershed programmes, the institutional

arrangements at various levels and participation oflocal people particularly the
women in planning, implementation and evaluation of watershed development
projects are extremely crucial for successful operation of watershed development
programmes.
3.10 KEYWORDS
Aerial Photographs Photographs taken from an elevated position
usually refer to images in which the camera is not
supported by a ground-based structure.
AISLUSO All India Soil and Land Use Survey Organization.
Common Property May include common land and common water

Resources (CPRs) (surface as well as groundwater).
False Colour Image A colour image where parts of the non-visible

EM spectrum are expressed as one or more of
the red, green and blue components, so that the
colours produced by the earth's surface do not
correspond to normal visual experience, also called
a false-colour composite (FCC). The most
commonly seen false-colour images display the
very-near infrared as red, red as green and green
as blue.
GIS Decision support system involving the integration

of spatially referenced data in a problem solving
environment. 55
Concept of Watershed Indigenous Technical The traditional knowledge based on the skill and
Management
Knowledge experience acquired through generations regarding
different aspects of watershed management.
Multi-spectral It is a technology originally developed for space-

based imaging. Multi-spectral imaging can capture
light from :frequenciesbeyond the visible light range,
such as infrared radiant source.
NGO A non-government organization is an association

which is based on the common interests of its
members, individuals, or institutions, has no
governmental status or function and is not created
by a government, nor is its agenda set or
implemented by the government.
Participatory Rural is a set of techniques to involve local people in

Appraisal (PRA) planning, implementation and evaluation of
watershed development projects.
Preference Ranking Preference ranking (between I & 10) refers to

preference and attitude of watershed community
towards a particular item of interest for prioritizing
problems and needs.
Prioritization Setting priority for a particular watershed for

undertaking activities from soil erosion and
sediment yield point of view.
Rapport Developing understanding.
Remote Sensing Collection and interpretation of information about

an object without being in physical contact with
the object.
Resource Poor Economically weaker sections within the

Families (RPFs) watershed.
Self Help Groups They are a voluntary group of people who come
together to take up group activities on a self help
basis for the benefit of the group.
Social Mapping Involvementoflocal communityin differentactivities

of the watershed programme as per their
sociological attitude.
Spatial Refers to occupying or happening in space.
Stakeholders Agencies, organizations and individuals that could

be affected by water quality management decisions
in a watershed. They may include local, state and
federal agencies, public interest groups,
dischargers, industries, academic institutions,
private landowners, user groups and concerned
56 citizens.
Synoptic constituting a general view of the whole of a Design of Watershed
Projects
subject
Transect Walk is a systematic exploratory traveling across the

watershed form one end to another end along
with the villagers.
3.11 SUGGESTED READING

Brooks, KN., Fftollott, P.E, Gregersen, H.M. and De Bano, L.E (1998).
Hydrology and the Management of Watersheds. Panima Publishing Corporation,
New Delhi.

Land Resources, Ministry of Rural Development, Gol, pp.57.
~
Dhruv Narain, VV, Sastry, G. and Pathak, U.S. (1997). Watershed Management,
Glenn, S. 0., Fangmeier, D.D, Elliot, WJ. and Frewert, RK (2002). Soil and
India Today, June Issue (2007). Monthly Journal Published by India Today Group,
India.
Jensen, J.R (2000). Remote Sensing of Environment: An Earth Resource

Perspective. Prentice Hall. New Jersey.
Khan, M.A, (2002). Watershed Management for Sustainable Agriculture.

Agrobios. (India). Jodhpur.
, Rural Appraisal: Methodology and

Mukharjee, Neela. (1993). Participatory
Applications: Concept Publishing Co. New Delhi.
Murty, J. V S. (1994). Watershed Management in India. Wiley Eastern Ltd.

Rajora, R (1998). Integrated Watershed Management. Field Manual for Equitable

Productive and Sustainable Development. Rawat Publication. Jaipur.
Samra, J.S., Sharda, VN. and Sikka, A K (2002). Water Harvesting and Re-
cycling -Indian Experience. Central, Soil & Water Conservation Research
&Training Institute, 218, Kaulagarh Road, Dehradun.
Sharda, VN., Sikka, AK and Juyal, AK (2006). Participatory Integrated

Watershed Management, A Field Manual. Central Soil & Water Conservation
Sharma, Shriniwas and Mishra, P.K (1995). Watershed Management in Dry

Land Areas-Principles and Practices. In: Book on 'Sustainable Development of
Dry land Agriculture' by Dr. RP. Singh, Scientific Publisher, Jodhpur.

57
Concept of Watershed Tideman, E. M. (1996). Watershed Management Guidelines for Indian
Management
Warren, P. (2001). Developing Participatory and Integrated Watershed Management

Daya Publishing; House, New Delhi.

of India.

PROGRESS
1) The basic criteria for selection of watersheds include intensity of problem,

prospects of correcting the problem, potential for overall development, availability
of technology, participation by the inhabitants and infrastructural availability.
2) In large watersheds, it may not be possible to simultaneously treat the entire

watershed either due to limited funds or manpower. Under such conditions, we
need to set priority to treat sub-watersheds requiring immediate attention.
3) Most of the resource maps required for watershed management can be

generated with the help of remote sensing. Some of the resource maps which
can be generated with the help of remote sensing include land use/land cover
map, vegetation density map, geomorphology map, geology map, water
resource map, stream network map, soil type map etc.
1) Watershed management work plan is a documented proposal describing the

watershed problems objectives, constraints, and proposed techniques/works
for improvement and implementation and evaluation strategies for various
activities.
2) Different PRA exercises include rapport building, historical event recording,

social mapping, resource mapping, transect walking, preferential ranking,
synthesis of indigenous technical knowledge, Venn diagram, seasonal changes/
challenges, triangulation exercise and micro-planning.
3) Following activities/actions may ensure equitable distribution of benefits:
• Identifying and developing the assets which are more important to the poor
and transferring the ownership of the created assets to target groups.
• Granting exclusive right to the landless people for fishing in the runoff ponds
constructed under the watershed development project, irrespective of
whether such ponds are on common lands or on the land of landlords.
• Encouraging and helping resource poor families (RPFs) to dig community-

bore wellslhand pumps near water harvesting structures constructed under
58
the project with full right to use for drinking water facility and restricted right Design of Watershed
Projects
to use for irrigation oflow water intensive crops during droughts. Special
care may be taken to locate the water harvesting structures closer to the
wells and lands owned by RPFs.
4) The transect walk intends to achieve the following objectives:
• verification of the facts supplied by the farmers; during social and resource
mappmg;
• overview of wide spectrum of information such as diversity of eco-systems,

land use etc;
• understanding of local practices of farming tree plantation common land

management, wasteland management etc.;
• identification of problems and local solutions through discussions at the site

itself e.g. villagers preferred sites for check dams, storage ponds etc.;
• collection of additional information such as damage to crops and river banks

by wild animals etc. not supplied earlier.
59
NOTES
,
BNRI-IOl FUNDAMENTALS OF WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
Block 1 CONCEPT OF WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

Unit 1 Introduction to Watershed Management
Unit 2 Concept, Scope and Importance of Watershed Management
Unit 3 Design of Watershed Projects
BI ck 2 IMPLEMENTATION OF WATERSHED PROGRAMMES

Unit 4 Operational Guidelines
• Unit 5 . Community Organization
Unit 6 Indicators of Success
Unit 7 Watershed Management Activities

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"Education is a liberating force, and in

BLOCK PREPARATION TEAM

Unit 2 covers the role, components and major characteristics of watershed

Unit 3 deals with watershed priorities and coding of watersheds. Administrative

1.2 Definition of Watershed

1.3 Watershed Management

1.3.2 Focus of Watershed Management

1.3.3 Concept of Watershed Management

1.3.4 Benefits of Watershed Management

1.3.5 Objectives of Watershed Management

1.3.6 Principles of Watershed Management

1.4 History and Evolution of Watershed Management

1.4.1 Watershed Development in India

1.5 Guidelines for Watershed Programmes

1.7 Let Us Sum Up

1.9 Suggested Reading

1.10 Model Answers to Check Your Progress

• outline the concept of watershed management;

• acquaint yourself with the objectives and principles of watershed management;

• explained the history and evolution of watershed management; and

• enumerate different activities to be undertaken in a watershed project.

In the next unit, role of watershed management, its components, major

1.2 DEFINITION OF WATERSHED·

1.3 WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

Watershed management in the broader sense means maintaining the equilibrium

Watershed degradation in the third world countries threatens the livelihood of

Watershed management has an important role to play in combating the Malthusian

• Socio-economic trend in income generation, employment pattern, household

• Productivity/production of crops and forage, changes in cropping pattern

• Improvement of environment by build up of vegetative cover, reduction of

• U se of land and water in vegetation, animal and environment.

• Soil erosion, moderation of floods, alleviation of drought, water availability

• Development of institutions for planning and implementation.

1.3.2 Focus of Watershed Management

• Village common lands as well as private lands;

• Sustainable rural livelihood support system;

• Decentralized planning and decision making;

• Ridge to valley treatment approach;

• Integrated and holistic development of the watershed unit;

• Providing best unit for planning a development programme.

1.3.3. Concept of Watershed Management

Watershed management is based on the concept of sustainability and meeting the

P = Production of food-fodder fuel fruit fibres fish-milk-combine on a sustainable

o = Over exploitation of resources to be minimized by controlling excessive

= Operational practicability of all on-farm operations and follow up programmes

W = Water storage at convenient locations for different purposes.

= Wild animal and indigenous plant life conservation at selected places.

= Reduction of drought hazard

= Reduction of siltation in multi purpose reservoirs

1.3.4 Benefits of Watershed Management

Watershed management is expected to ensure the following benefits:

• controls floods, erosion and sedimentation;

• increases cropping intensity;

• ensures ecological balance;

• maximizes income through integrated farming system; and

• stabilizes income even under unfavourable weather conditions.

1.3.5 Objectives of Watershed Management

The basic objective of watershed management is to overcome the problems of

• Recognition of watersheds as a proper unit for utilization and development

• Retardation and prevention of floods through small multipurpose reservoirs

• Provision for an abundant water supply for domestic, industrial and