THE

THE ARAMAIC
ARAMAIC PROVERBS
PROVERBS OF AHIQAR
AHIQAR

by
by

James
Jam es Miller
M i l l e r Lindenberger
L in d e n b e rg e r

A dissertation
d i s s e r t a t i o n submitted
s u b m itte d t o

The Johns
The J o h n s Hopkins
H o pkins University
U n i v e r s it y

i n conformity
in c o n f o rm ity with
w i t h the
t h e requirements
re q u ir e m e n ts

for
f o r the
th e degree
d e g r e e o f Doctor
D o c to r o ff Philosophy
P h ilo s o p h y

B a l t im o r e , Maryland
Baltimore, M aryland

1974

R e p r o d u ce d with p erm issio n of th e copyrigh t ow ner. Further reprodu ction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .
 ABSTRACT
ABSTRACT

y e a r s have
S i x t y - f i v e years
Sixty-five e l a p s e d since
h a v e elapsed d i s c o v e r y of
t h e discovery
s i n c e the th e
o f the

A ram aic version

I m p e r i a l Aramaic
Imperial th e story
o f the
v e r s i o n of A h iq a r , reputed
o f Ahiqar,
s t o r y of coun­
r e p u te d coun-

t o the
s e l l o r to
sellor o f Sennacherib
c o u r t s of
t h e courts E s a rh a d d o n , and
and Esarhaddon,
S e n n a c h e rib and th e
o f the
an d of

c o l l e c t i o n of
collection w h ich is
p ro v e r b s which
o f proverbs t o the
l i n k e d to
i s linked n a r ra tiv e .
t h e narrative. D u rin g
During

t h a t time,
that e d itio n s ,
two editions,
t i m e , two several t r a n s l a t i o n s , and
s e v e r a l translations, c o n s id e r­
a n d a consider-

num ber of
a b l e number
able a n d monographs
a r t i c l e s and
o f articles b e e n devoted
h a v e been
m onographs have th e
t o the
d e v o te d to

o f the
e l u c i d a t i o n of
elucidation t e x t from
f r a g m e n ta r y text
t h e fragmentary f i f t h century
t h e fifth
from the B .C .,
c e n t u r y B.C.,

and its
and t o later
r e l a t i o n s h i p to
i t s relationship S y ria c , A
i n Syriac,
v e r s i o n s in
l a t e r versions rm e n ia n ,
Armenian,

A r a b i c , and
Arabic, la n g u a g e s .
o t h e r languages.
and other Yet s p i t e of
i n spite
Y et in c o n tin u in g
t h i s continuing
o f this

i n t e r e s t , there
s c h o l a r l y interest,
scholarly h a s not
t h e r e has p ro d u c e d an
b e e n produced
n o t y ee tt been a d e q u a te
a n adequate

o f the
e d i t i o n of
edition t e x t o rr a sufficiently
th e text com m entary on
d e t a i l e d commentary
s u f f i c i e n t l y detailed it.
on it.

W ith the
With s trid e s
c o n s i d e r a b l e strides
t h e considerable that b e e n made
h a v e been
t h a t have A ram aic
i n Aramaic
made in

s i n c e the
s t u d i e s since
studies p u b l i c a t i o n s on
e a r l i e r publications
th e earlier A h iq a r text,
t h e Ahiqar
on the and
t e x t , and

g r e a t attention
t h e great
the h a s bbeen
w h ich has
a t t e n t i o n which to w a r d s the
d i r e c t e d towards
e e n directed w isdom
t h e wisdom

o f the
l i t e r a t u r e of
literature T e s ta m e n t and
O ld Testament
t h e Old a n c i e n t Near
t h e ancient
a n d the in
E a s t in
N e ar East

r e c e n t years,
recent s u c h a study
y e a r s , such o v erd u e.
seem s overdue.
s tu d y seems

t a s k undertaken
The task
The i n this
u n d e r ta k e n in s tthat
d i s s e r t a t i o n iis
t h i s dissertation f illin g
h a t ooff filling

t h i s gap
this l i t e r a t u r e by
t h e literature
g ap ini n the new eedition
p r o v i d i n g aa new
by providing th e A
d i t i o n ooff the ra­
Ara-

t e x t ofo f the
m a ic text
maic p r o v e r b s , with
t h e proverbs, and bbrief
t r a n s l a t i o n and
w i t h aa translation n tro d u c ­
r i e f iintroduc-

t o each
t i o n to
tion p r o v e r b , suggesting
e a c h proverb, p o s s i b l e interpretations
s u g g e s t i n g possible and
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s and

p a r a l l e l s with
n o t i n g parallels
noting l a t e r versions,
th e later
w i t h the O ld Testament,
t h e Old
v e r s i o n s , the an d
T e s ta m e n t, and

R e p r o d u ce d with p erm issio n of th e cop yrigh t ow n er. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .
 a n c i e n t Near
ancient N e a r Eastern
E a s t e r n literature,
l i t e r a t u r e , where
w h e re they
th e y are
a r e known
known to
t o exist.
e x is t.

T h is is
This i s accompanied
a c co m p an ied by
by a commentary
com m entary discussing
d i s c u s s i n g in
i n detail
d e t a i l the
th e

p h i l o l o g i c a l and
philological and epigraphic
e p i g r a p h i c problems
p ro b le m s raised
r a i s e d by
by the
th e text
t e x t of
o f the
th e

p ro v e rb s.
proverbs.

The commentary
The com m entary is
i s introduced
i n t r o d u c e d by
b y a summary
summary of
o f the
t h e Ahiqar
A h iq a r

s t o r y as
story a s it
i t is
i s known
known in
i n the
th e later
l a t e r versions,
v e r s i o n s , an
a n account
a c c o u n t of
o f the
th e

d i s c o v e r y of
discovery o f the
t h e Aramaic
A ram aic text,
t e x t , and
and a resume
re su m e of
o f the
th e more
m ore impor-
im p o r­

t a n t scholarly
tant s c h o l a r l y literature
lite ra tu r e t r e a t i n g the
treating t h e Aramaic
A ram aic text
t e x t and
and its
its re ­
re-

l a t i o n to
lation t o the
th e later
l a t e r versions.
v e r s io n s . A long with
Along w i t h this
t h i s are
a r e summarized
sum m arized

som e of
some o f the
t h e study’s
s t u d y 's conclusions
c o n c l u s i o n s regarding
r e g a r d i n g the
t h e original
o r i g i n a l language
la n g u a g e

o f the
of t h e proverbs
p r o v e r b s and
and narrative,
n a r r a t i v e , the
t h e time
tim e and
and pplace
l a c e of
o f the
t h e compi-
com pi­

l a t i o n of
lation o f the
t h e proverbs,
p r o v e r b s , and
and the
t h e poetic
p o e t i c character
c h a r a c t e r of
o f some
some of
o f them.
them .

F o llo w in g the
Following th e commentary
com m entary are
a r e four
f o u r appendices
a p p e n d ic e s dealing
d e a l in g with:
w ith :

(A) the
(A) t h e divine
d i v i n e names
nam es in
i n the
th e proverbs,
p r o v e r b s , (B)
(B) the
t h e character
c h a r a c t e r of
o f the
th e

A ram aic dialect

Aramaic d i a l e c t in
i n which
w h ich they
th e y are
a r e written,
w r i t t e n , (C)
(C) RES
RES 492b,
4 9 2 b , an
an

A ram aic ostracon

Aramaic o s t r a c o n containing
c o n t a in i n g several
s e v e r a l words
w o rd s and
and usages
u s a g e s relevant
r e le v a n t

t o the
to th e interpretation
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of
o f passages
p a s s a g e s in
i n the
t h e pproverbs,
r o v e r b s , and
and (D)
(D) scri-
s c ri­

b a l marks
bal m ark s used
u s e d in
i n the
t h e manuscript
m a n u s c r ip t to
t o set
s e t off
o f f some
som e of
o f the
t h e proverbs
p ro v e rb s

fro m one
from one another.
a n o th e r.

A number
A num ber of
o f conclusions
c o n c l u s i o n s have
h a v e arisen
a r i s e n out
o u t of
o f the
th e study.
stu d y . I t is
It is

c l e a r that
clear t h a t the
t h e proverbs
p ro v e rb s were
w e re n oo tt originally
o r i g i n a l l y joined
j o i n e d to
t o the
t h e narra-
n a rra ­

t i v e , b uu tt originated
tive, o r i g i n a t e d as
a s a separate
s e p a r a t e collection.
c o lle c tio n . They are
They a r e written
w r itte n

i n a dialect
in d i a l e c t of
o f Aramaic
A ram aic similar
s i m i l a r tt oo tt hh a tt of
o f the
t h e narrative,
n a r r a t i v e , b u tt

d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from
distinguishable fro m ii tt in
i n a number
num ber of
o f important
i m p o r t a n t features.
fe a tu re s. The
The

d i a l e c t of
dialect o f the
t h e proverbs
p r o v e r b s shows
show s certain
c e r t a i n affinities
a f f i n i t i e s with
w ith the
th e

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 C a n a a n ite languages
Canaanite la n g u a g e s and
and Old
O ld Aramaic,
A ram aic, pointing
p o i n t i n g to
t o a north
n o r t h Syrian
S y r ia n

o rig in .
origin. T h is is
This i s further
f u r t h e r confirmed
c o n firm e d by
b y the
t h e evidence
e v id e n c e of
o f the
t h e divine
d iv in e

n am e s, which
names, w h ic h also
a l s o indicates
i n d i c a t e s an
a n original
o r i g i n a l north
n o r t h Syrian
S y r ia n locale.
lo c a le . The
The

a s s o c i a t i o n of
association o f the
t h e proverbs
p r o v e r b s with
w i t h the
t h e narrative
n a r r a t i v e of
o f Ahiqar,
A h iq a r , set
s e t in
in

A s s y r i a , is
Assyria, i s evidently
e v i d e n t l y secondary.
s e c o n d a ry .

R e p r o d u ce d with p erm issio n of th e copyrigh t ow ner. Further reprodu ction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .
 5
5

t h e various
the v a r i o u s versions
v e r s i o n s (including
( i n c l u d i n g that
t h a t from
fro m Elephantine)
E l e p h a n ti n e ) is
i s sum-
sum­

m a r iz e d in
marized i n Fig.
F i g . 1.
1. T h is was,
This w a s , in
i n brief,
b r i e f , the
t h e state
s t a t e of
o f the
t h e know-
know­

l e d g e of
ledge o f the
t h e text
t e x t of
o f the
t h e Ahiqar
A h iq a r story
s t o r y and
a n d proverbs
p r o v e r b s at
a t the
t h e begin-
b e g in ­

n i n g of
ning o f the
t h e twentieth
t w e n t i e t h century,
c e n t u r y , when
when excavations
e x c a v a ti o n s in
i n Egypt
E gypt unearthed
u n e a rth e d

aa version
v e r s i o n several
s e v e r a l centuries
c e n t u r i e s older
o l d e r than
t h a n any
an y previously
p r e v i o u s l y known.
known.

I n the
In t h e early
e a r l y years
y e a r s of
o f this
t h i s century,
c e n tu r y ,^ num ber of
a number o f Aramaic
A ram aic

p a p y r i began
papyri b e g a n filtering
f i l t e r i n g onto
o n to the
t h e antiquities
a n t i q u i t i e s market
m a rk e t at
a t Aswan.
Aswan.

They had
They h a d evidently
e v i d e n t l y been
b e e n found
fo u n d by
b y peasants
p e a s a n t s on
on the
t h e adjacent
a d j a c e n t island
is la n d

o f Elephantine.
of E l e p h a n ti n e . The publication
The p u b l i c a t i o n of
o f a number
num ber of
o f these
t h e s e by
b y Sayce
S ay ce

a n d Cowley
and Cowley aroused
a r o u s e d considerable
c o n s i d e r a b l e interest
i n t e r e s t in
i n Europe
E u ro p e and
a n d stimulated
s tim u la te d

s c h o l a r s of
scholars o f various
v a r io u s nationalities
n a t i o n a l i t i e s to
t o attempt
a t t e m p t to
t o locate
l o c a t e and
a n d exca-
exca­

v a t e the
vate t h e source
s o u r c e of
o f the
t h e documents.
d o cu m e n ts. German and
German a n d French
F re n c h teams
te a m s were
w e re

g r a n t e d permission
granted p e r m i s s i o n by
b y the
t h e authorities
a u t h o r i t i e s in
i n Egypt
E g y p t to
t o dig
d i g in
i n adjoining
a d jo in in g

a r e a s of
areas o f the
t h e southern
s o u t h e r n tip
t i p of
o f the
t h e island,
i s l a n d , where
w h e re the
t h e ruins
r u i n s of
o f the
th e

a n c i e n t city
ancient c i t y of
o f Elephant
E le p h a n tin e /Y e b lay.
ine/Yeb la y . The German
The German mission,
m i s s i o n , spon-
spon­

s o r e d by
sored b y the
t h e Konigliche
K o n ig lic h e Museen
M useen zu
zu Berlin
B e r l i n (now
(now the
t h e Staatliche
S ta a tlic h e

M useen in
Museen i n East
E a s t Berlin)
B e r l i n ) ,, was
was to
t o excavate
e x c a v a te the
t h e western
w e s te r n part
p a r t of
o f the
th e

o l d city.
old c ity . T he French,
The F r e n c h , directed
d i r e c t e d by
b y Ch.
Ch. Clermont-Ganneau
C le rm o n t-G a n n e a u on
on behalf
b e h a lf

o f the
of t h e Academie
A cadem ie des
d es Inscriptions
I n s c r i p t i o n s et
e t Belles
B e l l e s Lettres,
L e t t r e s , were
w e re to
t o dig
d ig

t h e eastern
the e a s t e r n sector.
s e c to r .

T h re e campaigns
Three ca m p aig n s were
w e re carried
c a r r i e d out
o.ut by
b y the
t h e Germans
Germans during
d u r i n g the
th e

w i n t e r s of
winters o f 1906-1908,
1 9 0 6 -1 9 0 8 , the
t h e first
f i r s t two
two directed
d i r e c t e d by
b y Otto
O tto Rubensohn,
R u b en so h n ,
19
a n d the
and t h e final
f i n a l season
s e a s o n by
b y F.
F . Zucker
Z u c k e r and
and W.
W. Honroth.
H o n r o th . The direc-
The d ire c ­

t o r s frankly
tors f r a n k l y described
d e s c r i b e d the
t h e excavation
e x c a v a ti o n as
a s aa hunt
h u n t for
fo r A ram aic papyri,
Aramaic p a p y r i,

an d it
and i t was
was a disappointment
d i s a p p o in tm e n t tt oo them
them when
when none
no n e were
w e re found
fo u n d in
i n the
th e

R e p r o d u ce d with p erm issio n o f th e cop yrigh t ow n er. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .
 6

FIGURE
FIGURE 11

Relationship
R e l a t i o n s h i p of
of

the
t h e Versions
V e rs io n s of
o f Ahiqar
A h iq a r

Presumed
P resum ed
Aramaic
A ram aic Prototype
P r o t o ty p e

[Elephantine
|E l e p h a n ti n e |

Armenian
A rm enian Syriac
S y ria c A r a b ic (G ree k )
Recensions
R e c e n s io n s Recensions
R e c e n s io n s

[Old
O ld Turkish]
T u r k is h ] ^ S la v o n i c J

| R um anian J

R e p r o d u ce d with p erm issio n o f th e cop yrigh t ow n er. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .
 7
21
21
f i r s t season.
first season. B ut the
But t h e second
s e c o n d season
s e a s o n more
m ore than
t h a n justified
j u s t i f i e d the
th e

e x c a v a t o r s ' hopes.
excavators’ hopes. D u rin g the
During t h e first
f i r s t few
few days
day s of
o f the
t h e campaign,
ca m p aig n ,
22
t h r e e caches
three c a c h e s of
o f Aramaic
A ram aic documents
docum ents were
w e re unearthed
u n e a rth e d i n the
in t h e remains
re m a in s
23
23
o f buildings
of b u i l d i n g s situated
s i t u a t e d near
n e a r one
one another.
a n o th e r. In the
In t h e first
f i r s t of
o f these,
th e se ,

t h e remains
the re m a in s of
o f a large
l a r g e number
num ber of
o f Aramaic
A ram aic rolls
r o l l s were
w e re found,
f o u n d , but
but

t h e y were
they w e re moist
m o is t and
a n d so badly
b a d l y decomposed
decom posed that
t h a t they
t h e y disintegrated
d is in te g ra te d

c o m p le te ly when
completely when handled.
h a n d le d . The second
The s e c o n d produced
p ro d u c e d another
a n o t h e r large
l a r g e col-
c o l-
2b
211
l e c t i o n in
lection i n much
much better
b e t t e r condition.
c o n d itio n . The papyri
The p a p y r i were
w e re found
fo u n d about
about

o n e - h a l f meter
one-half m e te r below
b elo w the
t h e surface,
s u r f a c e , strewn
s tre w n around
a ro u n d in
i n the
t h e rubble
r u b b l e of
of

t h e fallen
the f a l l e n brick
b r i c k walls
w a ll s of
o f the
t h e building.
b u ild in g . They were
They w e re not
n o t in
i n containers
c o n t a in e r s

o r otherwise
or o th e r w is e protected
p r o t e c t e d for
f o r storage.
s to ra g e . I n aa third
In t h i r d building
b u i l d i n g nearby,
n ea rb y , a
25
few additional
few a d d i t i o n a l fragments
fr a g m e n ts of
o f papyrus
p a p y r u s were
w e re found.
fo u n d .

Among the
Among t h e texts
t e x t s in
i n the
t h e large
l a r g e cache
c a c h e of
o f papyri
p a p y r i were
w e re found
fo u n d the
th e

re m a in s of
remains o f an
an Aramaic
A ram aic version
v e r s i o n of
o f the
t h e story
s t o r y and
a n d proverbs,
p r o v e r b s , origi-
o rig i­

n a l l y comprising
nally c o m p ris in g more
m ore than
t h a n fourteen
f o u r te e n columns,
c o lu m n s , with
w i t h well
w e l l over
o v e r two
two

h u n d re d lines
hundred l i n e s of
o f text.
te x t. The physical
The p h y s i c a l condition
c o n d i t i o n of
o f the
t h e papyrus
p a p y ru s

was very
was v e r y poor.
p o o r. Some columns
Some colum ns had
h a d been
b e e n lost
l o s t entirely,
e n t i r e l y , others
o t h e r s were
w ere

p r e s e r v e d only
preserved o n ly in
i n fragments.
f r a g m e n ts . None was
None was undamaged,
u n dam aged, and
a n d only
o n ly a

h a n d f u l of
handful o f lines
l i n e s remained
re m a in e d intact.
in ta c t. The papyrus
The p a p y ru s was
was painstakingly
p a in s ta k in g ly

r e c o n s t r u c t e d by
reconstructed b y the
t h e noted
n o t e d papyrologist
p a p y r o l o g i s t Hugo
Hugo Ibscher
I b s c h e r of
o f the
th e

B e r l i n Museum
Berlin Museum staff,
s t a f f , and
an d mounted
m ounted in
i n glass
g l a s s plates
p l a t e s for
f o r study
s t u d y ,, having
h a v in g

b e e n catalogued
been c a ta l o g u e d in
i n the
t h e Papyrus
P apyrussam m lung as
sammlung a s P.
P . 13
1 3 ^ 66..

T h is text,
This t e x t , along
a lo n g with
w i t h the
t h e other
o t h e r Aramaic
A ram aic material
m a t e r i a l discovered
d is c o v e r e d

b y the
by t h e German
German excavators
e x c a v a to r s of
o f Elephantine,
E l e p h a n ti n e , was
was promptly
p ro m p tly published
p u b lish e d

b y Eduard
by E d u ard Sachau
S ach a u in
i n his
h is A ra m a isc h e Papyrus
Aramaische P a p y ru s und
un d Ostraca
O s t r a c a aus
a u s einer
e in e r

6
R e p r o d u ce d with p erm issio n of th e cop yrigh t ow n er. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .
 8
jjudischen
u d i s c h e n Militarkolonie
M i l i t a r k o l o n i e zu Elephantine
E l e p h a n ti n e (1911),
( 1 9 1 1 ) , with
w i t h excellent
e x c e lle n t

photographs
p h o to g ra p h s (Tafeln
( T a f e l n liH-60),
* 0 - 6 0 ) , a transcription
t r a n s c r i p t i o n of
o f the
t h e Aramaic
A ram aic text,
te x t,

a German translation,
t r a n s l a t i o n , and
a n d a brief
b r i e f line-by-line
l i n e - b y - l i n e commentary,
com m entary, nnoting
o tin g

some
some of
o f the
t h e parallels
p a r a l l e l s in
i n the
t h e later
l a t e r vversions.
e r s io n s . The same
sam e yyear,
e a r , A.
A.

Ungnad published
p u b l i s h e d a smaller
s m a l l e r edition
e d i t i o n (Aramaische
(A ra m a is c h e Papyrus
P a p y ru s aus
au s

Elephantine
E l e p h a n t i n e ) containing
c o n t a i n i n g only
o n ly the
t h e Aramaic
A ram aic text
t e x t and a number
num ber of
of

footnotes
f o o t n o t e s suggesting
s u g g e s t i n g readings
r e a d i n g s differing
d i f f e r i n g slightly
s l i g h t l y from
fro m those
t h o s e of
of

Sachau.
S achau. Scholarly
S c h o l a r l y interest
i n t e r e s t in
i n the
t h e t e xx tt,, pparticularly
a r t i c u l a r l y in
i n Europe,
E u ro p e ,

was
w as intense
i n t e n s e and
a n d immediate.
im m e d ia te . Sachau’
S ach a u * s publication
p u b lic a tio n stimulated
s tim u la te d a

host
h o s t of
o f review
re v ie w articles,
a r t i c l e s , most
m ost of
o f them
th em appearing
a p p e a r i n g in
i n the
t h e ppages
ages of

OLZ
OLZ and
a n d ZAW between
b e tw e e n 1911
1911 and
an d 191
191**,, many of which
of w h ich offered
o f f e r e d improved
im p ro v ed

readings
r e a d i n g s or
o r new interpretations
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of
o f the
t h e difficult
d i f f i c u l t text.
te x t. Sachau
S a c h a u’'ss

German rendering
r e n d e r i n g of
o f the
t h e text was
te x t w as translated
t r a n s l a t e d into
i n t o English
E n g l i s h and
an d ap-
ap­

peared
p e a r e d in
i n two
tw o studies
s t u d i e s devoted
d e v o te d pprimarily
r i m a r i l y to
t o the
t h e later
l a t e r Ahiqar
A h iq a r ttra-
ra ­

ditions:
d itio n s : J. R
Rendel
e n d e l Harris,
H a r r i s , The Story
S to r y of Ahikar,
o f Ah i k a r , ppp.
p . 168-173,
1 6 8 -1 7 3 ,

and
a n d a reprint
r e p r i n t of
o f the
t h e same
sam e version
v e r s i o n in
i n R . H. Charles, Apocrypha
C h a rle s, A p o c ry p h a and
an d

Pseudepigrapha
P s e u d e p ig ra p h a of
o f the
t h e Old
O ld Testament,
T e s ta m e n t, vol.
v o l . 2 , ppp.
p . 777-779
7 7 7 -7 7 9 (both
( b o th

dated
d a t e d 1913).
1 9 1 3 ). The
The same
sam e yyear,
e a r , a major monograph
m a jo r m onograph by
b y Th.
T h . Noldeke
N o ld ek e

entitled
e n t i t l e d Untersuchungen
U n te rs u c h u n g e n zum
zum Achikarroman
A c h ik a rro m a n appeared,
a p p e a r e d , which
w h ic h dealt
d e a lt

in
i n some detail
d e t a i l with
w i t h unresolved
u n r e s o lv e d philological
p h i l o l o g i c a l problems
p ro b le m s in
i n the
t h e Ara-
A ra ­

m a iicc , Syriac,
S y r i a c , and Arabic
and A r a b ic versions,
v e r s i o n s , and
a n d sketched
s k e t c h e d the
t h e rrelationship
e la tio n s h ip

of
o f the
t h e various
v a r io u s later
l a t e r traditions.
tra d itio n s . In
I n the
t h e following
f o l l o w i n g year
y e a r (191M,
(1 9 1 * 0 ,

F.
F . Stummer
Stum m er published
p u b l i s h e d a dissertation
d i s s e r t a t i o n (Per
(P e r kritische
k r i t i s c h e Wert
W ert der
d e r alt-
a lt-

aramaischen
a r a m a is c h e n Afrjkartexte
A h j k a r te x t e aus
a u s Elephantine)
E l e p h a n t i n e ) surnmarj z i n g most
su m m a rizin m o st o f the
th e

proposals
p r o p o s a ls for
f o r reading
r e a d i n g the
t h e text
t e x t made up to
t o tthat
h a t time,
t i m e , and
a n d adding
a d d in g

i
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 9

a few new suggestions,

s u g g e s t i o n s , though
th o u g h he
h e did
d i d nnot
o t include
i n c l u d e a connected
c o n n e c te d

translation
t r a n s l a t i o n of
o f transcription
t r a n s c r i p t i o n of
o f the
t h e Aramaic
A ram aic text.
te x t. The text
t e x t con-
con­

tinued
t i n u e d to
t o be mentioned
he m e n tio n e d often
o f t e n in
i n the
t h e secondary
s e c o n d a ry literature
l i t e r a t u r e of
o f tthe
he

time,
t i m e , but
h u t no further
f u r t h e r major
m a jo r studies
s t u d i e s appeared
a p p e a r e d until
u n t i l the
t h e ppublication
u b lic a tio n

of
o f A. Cowley’s
C o w le y 's Aramaic
A ram aic Papyri
P a p y r i of
o f the
t h e Fifth
F i f t h Century
C e n tu ry B.C.
B .C . in
i n 1923.
1923.

There
T h e re (pp.
(p p . 20U-2ii8)
20U—2lt8) the
t h e text
t e x t was re-edited
r e - e d i t e d for
f o r the
t h e first timee
f i r s t tim

since
s i n c e Sachau,
S a c h a u , with
w i t h brief
h r i e f notes
n o t e s on each
e a c h l i n ee, , noting
n o t i n g many of
o f tthe
he

proposals
p r o p o s a l s o f earlier
e a r l i e r scholars.
s c h o la rs .

Cowley’s
C o w le y 's edition
e d i t i o n of
o f the
t h e text
t e x t (along
( a lo n g with
w i t h the
t h e pphotographs
h o to g ra p h s iin
n

Sachau’
S a c h a u 1ss editio
e d i t i o princeps)
p r i n c e p s ) has
h a s continued
c o n t i n u e d tto
o be
h e the
t h e basis
h a s i s of
o f nearly
n e a rly

all
a l l subsequent
s u b s e q u e n t study
s t u d y of
o f i tt .. H. Gressmann’s
G re s s m a n n 's Altorientalische
A lto rie n ta lis c h e

Texte
T e x te zum Alten
A l t e n Testament
T e s ta m e n t ( 1 9 2 6 ) ,, ppp.
p . 1j5
k 5 k--k 6 2 , included
i n c l u d e d a trans-
tra n s ­

l a t i o n closely
lation c l o s e l y following
f o l l o w i n g tthat
h a t o f Cowley.
C ow ley. S in c e tthat
Since h a t ttime,
i m e , only
o n ly

two
tw o scholars
s c h o l a r s have
h a v e published
p u b l i s h e d new translations
t r a n s l a t i o n s of
o f the
t h e entire
e n t i r e ttext,
e x t,

one
o n e in
i n English
E n g l i s h by
b y H. L . Ginsberg
G in s b e r g in
i n J.
J . B. Pritchard
P r i t c h a r d ( e dd ..)),, A
Ancient
n c ie n t

Near
N e a r Eastern
E a s t e r n Texts
T e x ts (unchanged
(u n c h an g ed since
s i n c e the
t h e first
f i r s t edition
e d i t i o n in
i n 11995500)) »
,

pp.
p p . k27-b30,
1+27-1*30, and
a n d a French
F re n c h translation
t r a n s l a t i o n by
b y P . Grelot
G r e l o t in
i n RB
RB 68 (1961),
(1 9 6 1) ,

I 78- I 9 I+ (including
178-19 ( i n c l u d i n g only
o n ly tthe
h e pproverbs
r o v e r b s with
w i t h n o ttee ss)),, revised
r e v i s e d in
in
9
Grelot
G r e l o t*'ss Documents
D ocum ents arameens
aram ee n s d *Egypt
E g y p tee ((1
1 9 77 22;; bboth
o t h pproverbs
r o v e r b s and
and
2
narrative).
n a r r a t i v e ) . 2^ A. Furaiha,
F u r a i h a , in
i n hhisi s Ahlqar
A h iq a r hhakim min
ak im m in as-sarq
a s - s a r q al-
a l-
2
adna
adnL al-qadim
a l- q a d lm ( 1 9 6622)),, translated
t r a n s l a t e d about
a b o u t twenty
t w e n t y of
o f tthe
h e pproverbs
r o v e r b s 2^ into
in to

modern
m odern Arabic
A r a b i c , offering
o f f e r i n g colloquial
c o l l o q u i a l Arabic
A r a b ic pparallels
a r a l l e l s t o many of
of

them,
th e m , as
a s well
w e l l as
a s a survey
s u rv e y o f Arabic
A r a b ic material-
m a t e r i a l - from
fro m various
v a r i o u s sources
s o u rc e s

relating
r e l a t i n g to
t o the
t h e Ahiqar
A h iq a r traditions.
tra d itio n s . F . Rosenthal’s
R o s e n t h a l ’s An
An Aramaic
A ram aic

Handbook 1/1,
I / l , p . 1l 6 ,, (1967)
(1 9 6 7 ) included
in c l u d e d the
t h e Aramaic
A ram aic ttext
e x t of
o f a ppor-
o r­

i
R e p r o d u ce d with p erm issio n of th e cop yrigh t ow n er. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .
 10
10

t h e narrative
t i o n o ff the
tion a n d a few of
n a r r a t i v e and t h e better
o f the p r e s e r v e d ppro-
b e t t e r preserved ro -
. 28
v e r vb s ..
verbs

In o f this
v ie w of
In view o f scholarly
h i s t o r y of
t h i s history s t u d y of
s c h o l a r l y study e x t , it
t h e ttext
o f the it

i s surprising
is s u r p r i s i n g that t h e r e still
t h a t there r e l i a b l e edition
e x i s t s no reliable
s t i l l exists o f i tt..
e d i t i o n of

e d i t i o n is
S a c h a u 1s edition
Sachau’s an excellent
i s an f i r s t ppublication,
e x c e l l e n t first s u p e r i o r in
u b l i c a t i o n , superior in

o f its
many of i t s readings
r e a d i n g s to h e ’’corrections”
t o tthe o f f e r e d by
" c o r r e c t i o n s ” offered t h e bbook’s
b y the o o k 's

re v ie w e r s .
reviewers. B u t Ahiqar
But A h iq a r studies hav e pprogressed
s t u d i e s have c o n s i d e r a b l y since
r o g r e s s e d considerably s in c e

a n d many pproverbs
1 9 1 1 , and
1911, w e re unclear
w h ic h were
r o v e r b s which t o Sachau
u n c l e a r to ca n now bbe
S a c h a u can e

c o n v i n c in g l y explained.
convincingly e x p l a in e d . C o w le y 's publication
Cowley’s ad v a n c e in
a n advance
p u b l i c a t i o n was an in

t h a t he
that h e was
was able
a b l e to
t o incorporate
i n c o r p o r a t e the r e s u l t s of
t h e results o f scho-
d e c a d e of
o f a decade scho­

l a r l y research
larly r e s e a r c h on the
t h e text.
te x t. B ut his
But A ram aic text
h i s Aramaic i s demonstrably
t e x t is d e m o n s tra b ly

a t a good
f a u l t y at
faulty a n d his
p o i n t s , and
good many points, n o t e s are
h i s notes r a t h e r sketchy,
a r e rather sk e tc h y ,

l e a v i n g many important
leaving im p o r ta n t questions
q u e s t i o n s a ss iiddee,, and t r a n s l a t i o n is
i s translation
a n d hhis is

o f t e n questionable
often q u e s t i o n a b l e on pphilological
h i l o l o g i c a l grounds.
g ro u n d s. m ost rreliable
The most e lia b le

t r a n s l a t i o n is
translation i s unquestionably
u n q u e s t i o n a b l y tthat o f Ginsberg.
h a t of G in s b e r g . But i t is
a s it
B ut as is

p u b l i s h e d without
published w i t h o u t the A ram aic ttext
t h e Aramaic a n d with
e x t , and o n ly scattered
w i t h only s c a tte re d

n o t e s , one
notes, o n e is
i s often l o s s to
a t a loss
o f t e n at how he
t o know how a t a ppar-
a r r i v e s at
h e arrives a r­

t i c u l a r translation
ticular t r a n s l a t i o n or
o r what
w h a t Aramaic
A ram aic word h e restores
w ord he i n a given
r e s t o r e s in g iv e n

passage.
passage.

The u n d e r ta k e n in
t a s k undertaken
The task p r e s e n t study
h e present
i n tthe i s that
s t u d y is o f filling
t h a t of fillin g

gap in
t h i s gap
this l i t e r a t u r e by
t h e literature
i n the p r o v i d i n g a new edition
b y providing o f the
e d i t i o n of th e

A ram aic text

Aramaic t h e proverbs,
t e x t o f the w i t h a translation
p r o v e r b s , with an d a bbrief
t r a n s l a t i o n and rie f

i n t r o d u c t i o n to
introduction e a c h pproverb,
t o each p o s s i b l e interpretation
s u g g e s t i n g a possible
r o v e r b , suggesting in te rp r e ta tio n

a l t e r n a t i v e interpretations)
( o r alternative an d noting
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s ) and w h e re they
p a r a l l e l s where
n o t i n g parallels th e y

I
R e p r o d u ce d with p erm issio n of th e cop yrigh t ow n er. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .
 11
11

e x is t.
exist. T h is is
This i s followed
fo llo w e d in
i n each
e a c h case
c a s e by
b y a commentary
com m entary discussing
d is c u s s in g

i n detail
in d e t a i l the
t h e philological
p h i l o l o g i c a l and
and epigraphic
e p i g r a p h i c questions
q u e s t i o n s raised
r a i s e d bbyy

t h e text
the t e x t of
o f the
t h e proverb.
p ro v e rb . The textual
The t e x t u a l basis
b a s i s of
o f the
t h e readings
re a d in g s

g iv e n here
given h e r e is
i s the
t h e original
o r i g i n a l ppapyrus,
a p y r u s , which
w h ic h the
t h e writer
w r i t e r had
h a d oppor-
o p p o r­

t u n i t y to
tunity t o examine
exam ine in
i n the
t h e Berlin
B e r l i n Museum
Museum in
i n May
May 1972.
1972. (An excep-
(An ex cep ­

t i o n had
tion h a d to
t o be
b e made
made in
i n the
t h e case
c a s e of
o f column
colum n vi
v i LCUl l.. 79-941.
7 9 -9 ^ 1 . In
In

a c c o rd a n c e with
accordance w i t h aa prior
p r i o r agreement
ag re e m e n t between
b etw e en the
t h e Egyptian
E g y p tia n authorities
a u th o ritie s

an d the
and t h e German
German sponsors
s p o n s o rs of
o f the
t h e excavation,
e x c a v a t i o n , about
a b o u t half
h a l f of
o f the
th e

p a p y r i , including
papyri, i n c l u d i n g that
t h a t column,
co lu m n , were
w e re returned
r e t u r n e d to
t o Egypt
E gypt after
a f te r

S a c h a u had
Sachau h a d prepared
p r e p a r e d them
them for
f o r publication,
p u b l i c a t i o n , where
w h e re they
t h e y now
now remain
re m a in

i n the
in t h e Cairo
C a iro Archaeological
A r c h a e o lo g i c a l Museum.
Museum. The readings
The r e a d i n g s in
i n column
colum n vvii

ax e based
are b a s e d on
on the
t h e photographs
p h o to g ra p h s published
p u b l i s h e d by
b y Sachau.
S a c h a u .)) The papyrus
The p ap y ru s

h a s been
has b e e n well
w e ll preserved
p r e s e r v e d since
s i n c e its
i t s publication.
p u b lic a tio n . When it
When i t is
i s com-
com­

p a r e d with
pared w i t h the
t h e pphotographs
h o to g ra p h s published
p u b l i s h e d in
i n 1911,
1 9 1 1 » virtually
v i r t u a l l y no
no signs
s ig n s

o f further
of f u r t h e r deterioration
d e t e r i o r a t i o n can
ca n be
b e detected,
d e t e c t e d , though
th o u g h several
s e v e r a l of
o f the
th e

fr a g m e n ts in
fragments i n column
colum n xiv
x i v have
hav e slipped
s l i p p e d out
o u t of
o f the
t h e proper
p r o p e r position
p o s itio n

i n s i d e the
inside t h e plate.
p la te . One small
One s m a ll fragment
fr a g m e n t containing
c o n t a in i n g the
th e w ord zy
word zy_

( l . 172)
(1. 1 7 2 ) was
was originally
o r i g i n a l l y mounted
m ounted upside
u p s i d e down
down (see
( s e e Sachau,
S a c h a u , APO,
APO,

T a f . 48,
Taf. 1*8, Koi.
K o l. 1,
1 , bottom
b o tto m line),
l i n e ) , but
b u t the
t h e error
e r r o r has
h a s since
s i n c e been
b e e n cor-
co r­

re c te d .
rected. I n c i d e n t a l l y , the
Incidentally, t h e resolution
r e s o l u t i o n of
o f the
t h e old
o l d photographs
p h o to g ra p h s is
is

h i g h and
high a n d the
t h e contrast
c o n t r a s t generally
g e n e r a l l y good
g o o d ,, so that
t h a t in
in m o st columns
most c o lu m n s ,,

o ne can
one ca n only
o n ly rarely
r a r e l y improve
im p ro v e on
on the
t h e readings
r e a d i n g s from
from them
th em by
b y comparing
co m p a rin g

t h e original.
the o rig in a l. O nly in
Only i n column
colum n xiv
x i v is
i s the
t h e photograph
p h o to g ra p h less
l e s s than
th a n

s a tis fa c to ry .
satisfactory. I n this
In t h i s case,
c a s e , the
t h e papyrus
p a p y r u s is
i s rather
ra th e r m ore legible
more le g ib le

t h a n the
than t h e plate,
p l a t e , so
s o that
t h a t preliminary
p r e l i m i n a r y readings
r e a d i n g s from
from the
t h e photograph
p h o to g ra p h

R e p r o d u ce d with p erm issio n of th e copyrigh t ow n er. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .
 12

h a d to
had t o be
h e rejected
r e j e c t e d completely.
c o m p le te ly . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , the
Unfortunately, t h e column
colum n is
i s so

b a d l y mutilated
badly m u t i l a t e d that
t h a t the
t h e superior
s u p e r i o r 'legibility
l e g i b i l i t y of
o f the
t h e papyrus
p a p y r u s re-
re ­

s u l t e d in
sulted i n very
v e r y little
l i t t l e real
r e a l improvement
im provem ent in
i n intelligibility.
in te llig ib ility .

The papyrus
The p a p y r u s was
was originally
o r i g i n a l l y a scroll,
s c r o l l , though
th o u g h when
when found,
fo u n d , it
it

h a d broken
had b ro k e n up
up into
i n t o pieces
p i e c e s none
n one containing
c o n t a in i n g more
m ore than
t h a n parts
p a r t s of
of

on e or
one o r two
tw o columns.
co lu m n s. T h is means
This m eans that
t h a t in
i n most
m o st cases,
c a s e s , the
t h e sequence
sequence

o f columns
of colum ns is
i s determined
d e te rm in e d by
b y context
c o n t e x t in
i n the
t h e case
c a s e of
o f the
t h e narrative,
n a rra tiv e ,

an d is
and i s arbitrary
a r b i t r a r y in
i n the
t h e case
c a s e of
o f the
t h e proverbs;
p r o v e r b s ; see
s e e the
t h e introduc-
in tro d u c ­

t i o n s to
tions t o the
t h e individual
i n d i v i d u a l columns.
c o lu m n s. The text
The t e x t is
i s a palimpsest,
p a l i m p s e s t , and
and a

good many
good many traces
t r a c e s of
o f the
t h e previous
p r e v io u s writing
w r i t i n g on
on the
t h e scroll
s c r o l l are
a r e visi-
v is i­

b le .
ble. From what
From w hat little
little o f it
of i t can
ca n be
b e understood,
u n d e r s to o d , it
i t appears
a p p e a rs to
to

h a v e been
have b e e n an
an economic
econom ic list,
l i s t , containing
c o n t a i n i n g references
r e f e r e n c e s to
t o payments
p ay m e n ts in
in
29
29
s i l v e r for
silver f o r various
v a r i o u s goods
goods and
an d commodities.
co m m o d itie s .

The form
The form of
o f the
t h e narrative
n a r r a t i v e in
i n the
t h e Elephantine
E l e p h a n ti n e text
t e x t is
i s much
much

m ore straightforward
more s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d and
a n d less
l e s s elaborate
e l a b o r a t e than
t h a n that
t h a t of
o f the
t h e later
la te r
30
v e r s io n s . ^
versions. I t is
It i s also
a l s o more
m ore accurate
a c c u r a t e historically,
h i s t o r i c a l l y , since
s i n c e it
it

p l a c e s Esarhaddon
places E sa rh a d d o n correctly
c o r r e c t l y as
a s the
t h e successor
s u c c e s s o r of
o f Sennacherib,
S e n n a c h e r i b , where
w h e re

t h e other
the o t h e r versions
v e r s i o n s have
h av e the
t h e sequence
s e q u e n c e reversed.
re v e rse d . A c c o rd in g to
According t o the
th e

A ram aic text,

Aramaic t e x t , Ahiqar
A h iq a r served
s e r v e d both
b o t h kings,
k i n g s , but
b u t it
i t is
i s Esarhaddon
E sa rh a d d o n who
who

p l a y s the
plays t h e active
a c t i v e role
r o l e in
i n the
t h e story.
s to ry .

The name
The name ’Ahiqar,
’A h i q a r , meaning
m ea n in g ”(my)
"(m y) brother
b r o t h e r is
i s precious,”
p r e c i o u s ,* ' may
may

b e derived
be d e r iv e d etymologically
e ty m o lo g ic a l l y either
e i t h e r from
fro m Akk
Akk ahu
a h u ’’brother”
" b r o t h e r " and
and

(w) aqa.ru "to

(w)aqaru " t o be
b e precious,"
p r e c i o u s , " (w)aqru
(w ) a q ru "precious,
" p r e c i o u s , dear,"
d e a r , " or
o r from
fro m

t h e cognate
the c o g n a te Aramaic
A ram aic roots
ro o ts ’h and
’h a n d yqr
y q r ,, which
w h ich have
h a v e the
t h e same
sam e mean-
m ean­

in g .
ing. The name
The name is
i s known
known in
i n Akk c u n e ifo rm texts
Akk cuneiform t e x t s of
o f the
t h e neo-
neo-

R e p r o d u ce d with p erm issio n of th e cop yrigh t ow n er. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .
 13
13

A s s y r ia n period 31
31
Assyrian p e r i o d as Ahi-ya-gar
A h i - y a - q a r,, an d in
and i n older
o l d e r periods,
p e r i o d s , is
is
32
32
s p e l l e d Ahu-wa-qar,
spelled A h u -w a -q a r, Ahu-a-qar
A h u - a - q a r,, etc.
e tc . The form
The fo rm with
w i t h ya-
jr a - seems
seem s

l i k e l y to
likely t o represent
r e p r e s e n t the
th e A ram aic form
Aramaic fo rm of
o f the
t h e name,
nam e, and
a n d that
t h a t with
w ith

w a - the
wa- t h e Akkadian.
A k k a d ia n .

S in c e the
Since t h e Elephantine
E l e p h a n ti n e text
t e x t became
becam e known,
known, some
some have
h a v e sugges-
su g g es­

t e d that
ted t h a t the
t h e narrative
n a r r a t i v e may
may have
h a v e grown
grow n out
o u t of
o f historical
h i s t o r i c a l events
e v e n ts
33
33
i n the
in t h e time
t i m e in
i n which
w h ich it
i t is
i s set,
s e t, o r at
or a t least
l e a s t that
t h a t the
t h e charac-
ch a ra c -
3U
3U
t e r of
ter o f Ahiqar
A h iq a r is
i s modelled
m o d e lle d on
on a real
r e a l historical
h i s t o r i c a l figure.
fig u re . So
So

lo n g as
long a s nothing
n o t h i n g was
was known
known of
o f such
s u c h a person
p e r s o n in
in M esopotam ian sources,
Mesopotamian s o u rc e s,

o n e could
one c o u ld only
o n ly speculate
s p e c u l a t e about
a b o u t a possible
p o s s i b l e historical
h i s t o r i c a l background
b a c k g ro u n d

f o r the
for t h e story.
s to ry . T h is question
This q u e s t i o n was
was put
p u t in
i n an
an entirely
e n t i r e l y new
new light
lig h t

b y the
by t h e discovery
d i s c o v e r y in
i n the
t h e 1959/60
1 9 5 9 /6 0 excavations
e x c a v a ti o n s in
i n Warka
W arka (ancient
(a n c ie n t

U ruk) of
Uruk) o f aa cuneiform
c u n e ifo rm tablet
t a b l e t containing
c o n t a in i n g the
t h e first
f i r s t evidence
e v id e n c e of
of

A h iq a r * ss position
Ahiqar’ p o s i t i o n in
i n Mesopotamian
M esopotam ian tradition.
tra d itio n . The text,
The t e x t , from
fro m the
th e

S e l e u c id era,
Seleucid e r a , lists
l i s t s the
t h e ummanu,
ummanu, the
t h e court
c o u r t scholars,
s c h o l a r s , of
o f the
th e m a jo r
major

M esopotam ian kings.

Mesopotamian k in g s . What appears
What a p p e a r s to
t o be
b e the
t h e last
l a s t item
ite m on
on the
th e

l i s t reads
list r e a d s as
a s follows:
fo llo w s : " I n the
"In t h e time
tim e of
of K ing Esarhaddon,
King E sarh ad d o n , A ba’ -
Aba’-

m
g n l i l - d a r i,, whom
enlil-dari whom the
t h e Arameans
A ram eans call
c a l l Ahuqar
A huqar ((mA - h u -u’-qa-a-ri
A-hu-u ’- q a - a - r i )) ,,

was umannu.
was um annu. T h is text
This t e x t provides
p r o v i d e s for
f o r the
t h e first
f i r s t time
tim e independent
in d e p e n d e n t

e v id e n c e from
evidence fro m the
t h e Mesopotamian
M esopotam ian side
s i d e of
o f the
t h e existence
e x i s t e n c e of
o f a wise
w is e

man', presumably
man’, p re s u m a b ly an
an Aramean
Aram ean or
o r at
a t least
l e a s t known
known to
t o the
t h e Arameans,
A ram ean s,

w hose name,
whose nam e, date,
d a t e , and
a n d role
r o l e match
m a tc h those
t h o s e in
i n the
t h e Aramaic
A ram aic and
a n d other
o th e r

t r a d i t i o n s about
traditions a b o u t Ahiqar.
A h iq a r .

The text
The t e x t of
o f the
t h e proverbs
p r o v e r b s offers
o f f e r s formidable
f o r m id a b le difficulties
d i f f i c u l t i e s to
to

t h e modern
the m odem interpreter.
in te rp r e te r. S e v e r a l factors
Several f a c t o r s are
a r e at
a t work
w ork against
a g a i n s t him.
h im .

with p erm issio n o f th e cop yrigh t ow n er. Further reprodu ction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .
 1U
The first,
The f i r s t , and
a n d most
m ost serious,
s e r i o u s , has
h a s already
a l r e a d y been
"been m e n tio n e d , the
mentioned, t h e poor
poor

s t a t e of
state o f preservation
p r e s e r v a t i o n of
o f the
t h e papyrus
p a p y r u s MS.
MS. Of the
Of t h e nine
n i n e columns
colum ns of
of

p r o v e r b s (not
proverbs ( n o t counting
c o u n tin g any
any which
w h ich have
h a v e been
b e e n completely
c o m p le te ly lost),
l o s t ) , two
two

a r e preserved
are p r e s e r v e d for
f o r aa width
w id th of
o f less
l e s s than
t h a n half
h a l f the
t h e original
o r i g i n a l width
w id th

o f the
of t h e columns,
co lu m n s , and
and two
tw o remain
re m a in only
o n ly in
i n fragments
fra g m e n ts and
a n d pieces.
p ie c e s .

O f some
Of some l1*4U l i n e s of
U lines o f text
t e x t in
i n the
t h e proverbs,
p r o v e r b s , only
o n ly about
a b o u t four
f o u r are
are

c o m p le te ly intact,
completely i n t a c t , and
a n d three
t h r e e of
o f these
t h e s e are
a r e lines
l i n e s consisting
c o n s i s t i n g of
of a

few words
few w ords of
o f text
t e x t followed
fo llo w e d by
b y long
lo n g blanks.
b la n k s . A n o th e r factor
Another f a c t o r is
i s the
th e

n a t u r e of
nature o f the
t h e material.
m a te r ia l. I t is
It i s characteristic
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of
o f wisdom
w isdom literature
lite ra tu r e

t o formulate
to f o r m u l a te its
i t s sayings
s a y i n g s as
a s succinctly
s u c c i n c t l y and
a n d pregnantly
p r e g n a n t l y as
a s possible.
p o s s ib le .

Where there
Where t h e r e is
i s a great
g r e a t deal
d e a l of
o f redundancy
re d u n d a n c y in
i n the
t h e narrative,
n a r r a t i v e , there
th e re

i s virtually
is v i r t u a l l y none
none in
i n the
t h e proverbs.
p ro v e rb s. Some of
Some o f the
t h e shorter
s h o rte r s a y in g s
sayings

c o n t a i n only
contain o n l y seven
se v e n words;
w o r d s ; the
t h e longest
l o n g e s t has
h a s only
o n ly a little
little over
over

th irty .
thirty. I n such
In s u c h brief
b r i e f sayings,
s a y i n g s , the
t h e loss
l o s s of
o f only
o n ly a few
few words,
w o rd s,

i n some
in some cases
c a s e s a few
few letters,
l e t t e r s , can
can destroy
d e s t r o y the
t h e sense
s e n s e of
o f an
an entire
e n tire

p ro v e rb .
proverb. T h is is
This i s compounded
com pounded by
b y the
t h e tendency
t e n d e n c y of
o f some
some of
o f the
t h e say-
say ­

i n g s to
ings t o make
make intentional
i n t e n t i o n a l use
u s e of
o f ambiguity
a m b ig u ity and
and word-play.
w o rd -p la y . Y et
Yet

a n o t h e r factor
another f a c t o r is
i s the
t h e vocabulary.
v o c a b u la ry . T h is is
This i s the
t h e only
o n ly known
known liter-
lite r­

a r y text
ary t e x t in
i n Imperial
I m p e r i a l Aramaic,
A ra m a ic , and
an d much
much of
o f its
i t s vocabulary
v o c a b u l a r y is
is not
not

o t h e r w is e known
otherwise known in
i n IA,
IA , some
some of
o f it
i t not
n o t in
i n any
a n y other
o t h e r Aramaic
A ram aic dia-
d ia ­

le c t.
lect. T h is requires
This r e q u i r e s frequent
f r e q u e n t recourse
r e c o u r s e to
t o etymological
e ty m o l o g i c a l parallels
p a ra lle ls

w i t h other
with o t h e r Semitic
S e m itic languages,
l a n g u a g e s , some
some of
o f which
w h ic h are
a r e rather
r a t h e r tenuous.
te n u o u s.

The initial
The i n i t i a l grounds
g ro u n d s for
f o r putting
p u t t i n g the
t h e narrative
n a r r a t i v e aside
a s i d e and
a n d con-
con­

c e n t r a t i n g on
centrating on the
t h e proverbs
p r o v e r b s were
w e re literary:
lite ra r y : t h e pproverbs,
the r o v e r b s , as
a s is
is

t y p i c a l of
typical o f much
much gnomic
gnom ic literature,
l i t e r a t u r e , are
a r e short,
s h o r t , relatively
r e l a t i v e l y indepen-
in d ep e n ­

with p erm issio n o f th e cop yrigh t ow n er. Further reproduction prohibited without
 15
15

d e n t , and
dent, a n d frequently
f r e q u e n t l y somewhat
som ewhat obscure,
o b s c u r e , with
w i t h little
l i t t l e or
o r no
no contin-
c o n tin ­

u ity .
uity. The narrative,
The n a r r a t i v e , on
on the
t h e other
o t h e r hand,
h a n d , is
i s simple,
s i m p l e , repetitive,
r e p e titiv e ,

a n d much
and much more
m ore closely
c l o s e l y paralleled
p a r a l l e l e d by
b y the
t h e later
l a t e r versions
v e r s i o n s than
t h a n the
th e

p r o v e r b s are.
proverbs are. F u r th e r m o r e , recent
Furthermore, r e c e n t preliminary
p r e li m i n a r y studies
s t u d i e s of
o f the
th e

la n g u a g e of
language o f the
t h e proverbs
p r o v e r b s by
by E.
E . Y.
Y. Kut
K u ts c h e r and
scher and J.
J . Greenfield
G r e e n f ie l d

h a v e produced
have p ro d u c e d evidence
e v id e n c e that
t h a t the
t h e proverbs
p r o v e r b s are
a r e written
w r i t t e n in
i n a dialect
d ia le c t

d i f f e r i n g from
differing fro m standard
s t a n d a r d IA
IA and
a n d the
t h e narrative,
n a r r a t i v e , leading
l e a d i n g to
t o the
t h e con-
con-
36
36
e l u s i o n that
elusion t h a t the
t h e two
tw o parts
p a r t s of
o f the
t h e text
t e x t arose
a r o s e separately.
s e p a r a te ly . A
A

s e c o n d a r y goal
secondary g o a l of
o f the
t h e present
p r e s e n t study
s t u d y was
was to
t o test
t e s t this
t h i s hypothesis.
h y p o th e s is .

Cowley argued
Cowley a r g u e d that
t h a t the
t h e proverbs
p r o v e r b s ’’must
"m ust have
h a v e belonged
b e lo n g e d to
t o the
th e

s t o r y , because
story, b e c a u s e some
some of
o f them
th em clearly
c l e a r l y refer
r e f e r to
t o Nadin’s
N a d in 's conduct’’
c o n d u c t"

(A P, p.
(AP, p . 210).
2 1 0 ). T h ere are
There a r e aa number
num ber of
o f sayings
s a y in g s which
w h ic h could
c o u ld be
b e appro-
ap p ro ­

p r i a t e l y understood
priately u n d e r s to o d in
i n the
t h e context
c o n t e x t of
o f the
t h e narrative
n a r r a t i v e (e.g.
( e . g . proverbs
p ro v e rb s

# 1*5 , U6,
#1+5, 1*6 , 66,
6 6 , and
and ?8),
7 8 ) , but
b u t these
t h e s e can
ca n also
a l s o be
b e understood
u n d e r s to o d quite
q u ite

i n d e p e n d e n t l y of
independently o f it.
it. O t h e r s , particularly
Others, p a r t i c u l a r l y ##50-53
# # 5 0 -5 3 », 76,
7 6 , and
an d 80,
80,

seem to
seem t o bear
b e a r a closer
c l o s e r similarity
s i m i l a r i t y to
t o the
t h e events
e v e n ts of
o f the
t h e narrative.
n a rra tiv e .

Even in
Even i n these
t h e s e cases,
c a s e s , one
o n e cannot
c a n n o t really
r e a l l y speak
s p e a k of
o f ’’clear
" c l e a r references’’
re fe re n c e s"

t o the
to t h e story,
s t o r y , but
b u t it
i t is
i s possible
p o s s i b l e that
t h a t they
t h e y are
a r e intended
i n t e n d e d to
t o allude
a llu d e

t o it.
to it. I f so,
If s o , the
t h e explanation
e x p l a n a t i o n may
may be
b e that
t h a t a few
few proverbs
p r o v e r b s were
w ere

a d d e d to
added t o the
t h e collection
c o l l e c t i o n at
a t the
t h e time
tim e it
i t was
was joined
j o i n e d with
w i t h the
t h e narra-
n a rra ­

t i v e , for
tive, f o r the
t h e purpose
p u rp o s e of
o f tying
t y i n g the
t h e two
tw o together.
to g e th e r . The extant
The e x t a n t text
te x t

fro m Elephantine
from E le p h a n ti n e does
d o es not
n o t show
show any
a n y evidence
e v id e n c e that
t h a t the
t h e proverbs
p r o v e r b s were
w ere

im b ed d ed in
imbedded i n the
t h e story.
s to ry . T h ere are
There a r e no
no points
p o i n t s of
o f transition
t r a n s i t i o n from
from
37
37
n a r r a t i v e to
narrative t o proverbs
p r o v e r b s and
a n d back
b a c k again,
a g a in , a n d no
and no indication
i n d i c a t i o n of
o f two
tw o

d i f f e r e n t collections
different c o l l e c t i o n s of
o f sayings,
s a y i n g s , as
a s there
t h e r e are
a r e in
i n the
t h e later
la te r

R e p r o d u ce d with p erm issio n o f th e copyrigh t ow n er. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .
 l6
16
v e r s io n s .
versions. T h e re are
There a r e simply
s im p ly some
some columns
colum ns w h ic h contain
which c o n t a i n narrative
n a rra tiv e

a n d others
and o t h e r s which
w h ich contain
c o n t a i n pproverbs.
ro v e rb s.

The conclusion
The c o n c lu s io n that
t h a t the
t h e original
o r i g i n a l collection
c o l l e c t i o n of
o f proverbs
p r o v e r b s was
was

i n d e p e n d e n t of
independent o f the
t h e narrative
n a r r a t i v e has
h a s been
b e e n strongly
s t r o n g l y confirmed
c o n f ir m e d in
i n the
th e

c o u r s e of
course o f this
t h i s study.
stu d y . The Aramaic
The A ram aic of
o f the
t h e proverbs
p r o v e r b s has
h a s a distinctly
d is tin c tly

n o r t h Syrian
north S y r i a n character,
c h a r a c t e r , with
w i t h clear
c l e a r traces
t r a c e s of
o f Canaanite
C a n a a n ite affinities,
a f fin itie s ,

b u t virtually
but v i r t u a l l y no
no signs
s i g n s of
o f Akkadian
A k k a d ia n influence.
in flu e n c e . By contrast,
By c o n t r a s t , the
th e

n a r r a t i v e has
narrative h a s obvious
o b v io u s A k k a d ia n loan
Akkadian l o a n words,
w o r d s , and
and other
o t h e r features
fe a tu re s

s i m i l a r to
similar t o the
t h e later
l a t e r eastern
e a s t e r n dialects
d i a l e c t s of
o f Aramaic.
A ra m a ic . (The evidence
(The e v id e n c e

b e a r i n g on
bearing on the
t h e dialect
d i a l e c t of
o f the
t h e proverbs
p r o v e r b s is
i s summarized
su m m arized in
in A ppendix
Appendix

B .))
B. A similar
A s i m i l a r statement
s t a t e m e n t can
ca n be
b e made
made with
w i t h regard
r e g a r d tt oo the
t h e cultural
c u ltu ra l

b a c k g ro u n d of
background o f the
t h e two
tw o parts
p a r t s of
o f the
t h e text.
te x t. The narrative
The n a r r a t i v e is
i s set
set

i n the
in t h e neo-Assyrian
n e o - A s s y r ia n court.
c o u r t. The proverbs
The p r o v e r b s have
h av e no
no explicit
e x p l i c i t local
lo c a l

setting,
s e t t i n g , ^ but
b u t aa study
s t u d y of
o f the
t h e divine
d i v i n enames
nam es and
an dallusions
a l l u s i o n sfound
fo u n d

i n them
in them (see
( s e e Appendix
A pp e n d ix A) i n d i c a t e s a pantheon
A ) indicates p a n th e o nwhose
w hosemost
m o stprobable
p r o b a b le

home is
home i s northern
n o r t h e r n Syria,
S y r i a , in
i n a region
r e g i o n subject
s u b j e c t to
t o cultural
c u l t u r a l influence
in flu e n c e

fro m Mesopotamia
from M esopotam ia in
i n the
t h e east
e a s t and
a n d the
t h e Canaanites
C a n a a n ite s in
i n the
t h e west.
w e s t. Thus
Thus

b o t h lines
both l i n e s of
o f evidence
e v id e n c e point
p o i n t independently
i n d e p e n d e n t l y to
t o the
t h e same
same general
g e n e ra l

r e g io n as
region a s the
t h e place
p l a c e of
o f origin
o r i g i n of o the
f t h eproverbs.
p ro v e rb s.

I t has
It h a s often
o f t e n been
b e e n stated
s t a t e d in i nthet h esecondary
s e c o n d a ryliterature
l i t e rthat
a tu r e th a t

t h e Elephantine
the E l e p h a n ti n e text
t e x t is
i s aa translation
t r a n s l a t i o n of
o f an
an Akkadian
A k k a d ia n original,
o rig in a l,

a n d that
and t h a t opinion
o p in io n has
h a s persisted
p e r s i s t e d in
i n many
many scholarly
s c h o l a r l y works
w orks until
u n t i l the
th e
■30
39
p re s e n t.
present. The major
The m a jo r grounds
g ro u n d s for
f o r the
t h e assumption
a s s u m p tio n of
o f an
an Akkadian
A k k a d ia n

o r i g i n a l are
original a r e the
t h e presence
p r e s e n c e of
o f Akkadian
A k k a d ia n loan
l o a n words
w ords in
i n the
t h e narrative,
n a rra tiv e ,

t h e apparently
the a p p a r e n t l y authentic
a u t h e n t i c neo-Assyrian
n e o - A s s y r ia n background
b a c k g ro u n d and
a n d accurate
a c c u ra te

with p erm issio n o f th e copyrigh t ow n er. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .
 17
17

r e n d e r i n g of
rendering o f Assyrian
A s s y r ia n names
names in
i n the
t h e narrative,
n a r r a t i v e , and
a n d the
t h e mention
m e n tio n of
of
W V 1+0
t h e god
the god Samas
Samas in
i n the
t h e proverbs.
p ro v e rb s . Cowley complicates
Cowley c o m p lic a te s the
t h e hypo-
hypo­

t h e s i s of
thesis o f Akkadian
A k kadian origin
o r i g i n by
b y attempting
a t t e m p t i n g to
t o demonstrate
d e m o n s tra te that
t h a t the
th e

p u t a t i v e Akkadian
putative A kk a d ia n original
o r i g i n a l passed
p a s s e d through
th r o u g h an
an intermediate
i n t e r m e d i a t e trans-
tra n s ­

l a t i o n into
lation i n t o Persian
P e r s i a n from
from which
w h ich the
t h e Aramaic
A ram aic version
v e r s i o n was
was translated.
tra n s la te d .
Ul
Hl
B ut his
But h i s reasons
re a s o n s for
f o r this
t h i s assumption
a s s u m p tio n are
a r e not
n o t cogent,
c o g e n t, and the
and th e

i d e a has
idea h a s never
n e v e r gained
g a in e d aa following.
fo llo w in g .

As for
As f o r the
t h e question
q u e s t i o n of
o f Akkadian
A kk a d ia n origin,
o r i g i n , the
t h e fact
f a c t that
t h a t the
th e

b a c k g ro u n d of
background o f the
t h e narrative
n a r r a t i v e is
i s Assyrian
A s s y r ia n and
and that
t h a t there
t h e r e are
a r e some
some

A kk a d ia n terms
Akkadian te rm s in
i n it
i t is
i s no
no proof
p r o o f that
t h a t the
t h e original
o r i g i n a l language
la n g u a g e of
of

t h e entire
the e n t i r e text
t e x t was
was Akkadian.
A k k a d ia n . One could
One c o u ld argue
a r g u e on
on similar
s i m i l a r grounds
g ro u n d s

t h a t the
that t h e book
book of
o f Daniel
D a n ie l is
i s aa translation
t r a n s l a t i o n from
fro m Akkadian!
A k k a d ia n ! The evi-
The e v i­

d en c e of
dence o f Assyrian
A s s y r ia n background
b ac k g ro u n d comes
comes mainly
m a in ly from
from the
t h e narrative,
n a r r a t i v e , and
and

w i t h the
with t h e recognition
r e c o g n i t i o n that
t h a t the
t h e proverbs
p r o v e r b s are
a r e not
n o t an
a n original
o r i g i n a l part
p art

o f the
of t h e narrative
n a r r a t i v e ,, that
t h a t evidence
e v id e n c e becomes
becom es irrelevant
i r r e l e v a n t ,, as
a s far
f a r as
a s they
th e y

a r e concerned.
are c o n c e rn e d . The traces
The t r a c e s o ff Mesopotamian
M esopotam ian influence
i n f l u e n c e in
i n the
t h e pro-
p ro -
k2
1|2 xx * ^-3
3
v erb s,
verbs, i n c l u d i n g the
including t h e references
r e f e r e n c e s to
t o Samas,
S am as, ca n be
can b e accounted
a c c o u n te d for
fo r

e q u a l ly well
equally w e ll if
i f they
t h e y originated
o r i g i n a t e d in
i n Syria,
S y r i a , since
s i n c e during
d u r i n g much
much of
o f the
th e

n e o - A s s y ria n period
neo-Assyrian p e r i o d the
t h e Aramaic-speaking
A r a m a ic - s p e a k in g region
r e g io n of
o f Syria
S y r i a was
was under
under

t h e cultural
the c u l t u r a l influence
i n f l u e n c e of
o f Mesopotamia.
M esopotam ia.

Thus there
Thus t h e r e is
i s no
no valid
v a l i d evidence
e v id e n c e that
t h a t either
e i t h e r proverbs
p r o v e r b s or
o r nar-
n a r­

r a t i v e is
rative i s translated
t r a n s l a t e d from
from any
a n y other
o t h e r language.
la n g u a g e . I n all
In a l l probability,
p ro b a b ility ,

t h e proverbs
the p ro v e rb s are
a r e aa native
n a t i v e Aramaic
A ram aic composition,
c o m p o s itio n , or
o r more
m ore precisely,
p re c is e ly ,

aa native
n a t i v e Aramaic
A ram aic collection
c o l l e c t i o n of
o f folk
f o l k sayings
s a y in g s known
known among
among the
th e
HU
A ram eans of
Arameans o f northern
n o r t h e r n Syria.
S y ria .

R e p r o d u ce d with p erm issio n o f th e copyrigh t ow n er. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .
 18
18

The date
d a t e of
o f the
t h e collection
c o l l e c t i o n cannot
c a n n o t he
h e precisely
p r e c i s e l y fixed.
fix e d . Gins-
G in s ­

berg
b e r g writes
w r i t e s ( o ff both
b o t h parts
p a r t s of
o f tthe
h e text)
t e x t ) that
t h a t "the
" t h e composition
c o m p o s itio n of
of

the
t h e work
w ork may antedate
a n t e d a t e the
t h e preserved
p r e s e r v e d copy
copy bbyy as
a s much as
a s a century"
c e n tu ry "

(ANET,
(M E T , p . Ii27b).
k2T b) . Albright
A l b r i g h t dates
d a t e s the
t h e proverbs
p ro v e r b s "from
" fro m about
a b o u t tthe
he

sixth
s i x t h century
c e n t u r y B . .CC. ". T h There
e r e are
a r e signs
s i g n s that
t h a t the
t h e text
t e x t has
h a s uunder-
n d e r­

gone
g one a considerable
c o n s i d e r a b l e period
p e r i o d of
o f ttransmission
r a n s m i s s i o n prior
p r i o r to
t o tthe writing
he w r itin g

of
o f the
t h e Elephantine
E l e p h a n ti n e MS,
MS, a time
tim e long
l o n g enough
enough for
f o r vvariant
a r i a n t forms
fo rm s of
of

some of
o f the
t h e proverbs
p r o v e r b s to
t o develop
d e v e lo p and
an d be
b e preserved
p r e s e r v e d as
a s doublets;
d o u b le ts ;

see
s e e the
t h e introductions
i n t r o d u c t i o n s to
t o proverbs
p ro v e r b s # 3 66 , 39-
39- ^ 2 .

Some
Some of
o f the
t h e closest
c l o s e s t affinities
a f f i n i t i e s of
o f the
t h e language
l a n g u a g e of
o f the
t h e ppro-
ro T

verbs
v e r b s are
a r e with
w i t h the
t h e latest
l a t e s t pphase
h a s e of
o f Old
O ld Aramaic
A ram aic and
a n d the
t h e earliest
e a rlie s t

of
o f Imperial
I m p e r i a l Aramaic
A ram aic ((ss e ee Appendix
A p p e n d ix B )),, a transition
t r a n s i t i o n which
w h ic h ttook
ook

place
p l a c e ±700
±700 B.C.
B .C . The evidence
e v id e n c e is
i s not
n o t sufficient
s u f f i c i e n t t o bbee conclusive,
c o n c lu siv e ,

but
b u t iti t is
i s not
n o t unreasonable
u n r e a s o n a b l e tto
o suggest
s u g g e s t that
t h a t the
t h e present
p r e s e n t collection
c o lle c tio n

of
o f proverbs
p r o v e r b s may represent
r e p r e s e n t Aramean
Aram ean wisdom
w isdom traditions
t r a d i t i o n s going
g o in g bback
ack

as
a s early
e a r l y as
a s the
t h e seventh
s e v e n th century
c e n t u r y B.C.
B .C . or
o r even
ev e n earlier.
e a rlie r. At
A t some

later
l a t e r time,
t i m e , which
w h ich can
c a n no longer
l o n g e r be
b e determined,
d e te r m in e d , these
t h e s e were
w e re integra-
in te g ra ­

ted
t e d into
i n t o the
t h e story
s t o r y of
o f Ahiqar,
A h i q a r , the
t h e fabled
f a b l e d wise man of
w is e man Assyria,
of A s s y r i a , in
in

the
t h e same
sam e way that
t h a t many of
o f the
t h e Biblical
B i b l i c a l pproverbs
r o v e r b s came secondarily
s e c o n d a rily

to
t o be
b e associated
a s s o c i a t e d with
w i t h the
t h e name o ff Solomon.
Solom on.

The
The style
s t y l e of
o f the
t h e pproverbs
r o v e r b s vvaries
a r i e s from
fro m quite
q u i t e prosaic
p r o s a ic (see

particularly
p a r t i c u l a r l y the
t h e fables,
f a b l e s , pproverbs
r o v e r b s #28,
# 2 8 , 35
3 5 » 36)
3 6 ) to
t o the
t h e distinctly
d is tin c tly

p oo eettiicc, , with
w i t h the
t h e metrical
m e t r i c a l symmetry
sym m etry and
a n d pparallelism
a r a l l e l i s m ttypical
y p i c a l of
of

northwest
n o r t h w e s t Semitic
S e m i ti c poetry
p o e t r y ( e . g .. proverb
p ro v e r b # 1 2 , to which
to w h ic h s e e intro-
in tro ­

duction).
d u c tio n ). ^ Since
S in c e proverbs
p ro v e r b s tend
t e n d to
t o be
b e short
s h o r t and
a n d bbalanced
a l a n c e d in
in

I
i
R e p r o d u ce d with p erm issio n of th e cop yrigh t ow n er. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .
 19
19

e x p r e s s i o n , it
t h e i r expression,
their q u i t e often
i s quite
i t is t o decide
d i f f i c u l t to
o f t e n difficult w h e th e r
d e c i d e whether

g iv e n saying
a given c l a s s e d as
s h o u ld h e classed
s a y i n g should n o t.
o r not.
p o e t i c or
a s poetic An e x a m p le ,
An example,

m ore or
c l o s e n more
closen l e s s at
o r less i s proverb
ran d o m , is
a t random, #53:
p ro v e rb #53:

n o t reveal
Do not
Do y o u r secrets
r e v e a l your b e f o r e your
s e c r e t s before fr ie n d s ,
y o u r friends,

l e s t your
lest r e p u t a t i o n with
y o u r reputation th em be
w i t h them ru in e d .
b e ruined.

d o e s not
T h is does
This h a v e distinct
n o t have m em brorum,, but
p a r a lT e lis m u s membrorum
d i s t i n c t parallelismus n e ith e r
b u t neither

i t simply
i s it
is p ro s a ic .
s im p ly prosaic.

h a s writton
Crim has
K. Crim o f the
w r i t t o n of o f defining
p ro b le m of
t h e problem B ib lic a l
d e f i n i n g Biblical

p o e t r y ::
poetry

F o r modern
For s t u d e n t s the
m odern students l i n e between
t h e line H ebrew
b e tw e e n Hebrew

an d Hebrew
p r o s e and
prose p o e t r y is
Hebrew poetry a lw a y s easy
n o t always
i s not to
e a s y to

d raw .
draw. In f a c t , there
I n fact, p r o b a b ly no
i s probably
t h e r e is c le a rly
no clearly

d e f in e d line
defined b e tw e e n them,
l i n e between r a t h e r aa
b u t rather
th e m , but

g r a d u a l shading
gradual o f f from
s h a d in g off p o e tic
c l e a r l y poetic
fro m clearly

t o rhythmical
fo rm s to
forms p r o s e , and
r h y t h m i c a l prose, t h e n to
a n d then e a s ily
t o easily
1*7
p ro se .
i d e n t i f i a b l e prose.
identifiable

u n c e r t a i n t y in
T h is uncertainty
This d i s t i n g u i s h i n g between
i n distinguishing a n d poetry
p r o s e and
b e tw e e n prose is
p o e t r y is

g r e a t e r in
ev e n greater
even c a s e of
t h e case
i n the A h iq a r proverbs,
t h e Ahiqar
o f the our
s i n c e our
p r o v e r b s , since

k no w led g e of
knowledge v o c a l i z a t i o n and
o f tt hhee vocalization a c c e n t u a t i o n of
a n d accentuation Im p e ria l
o f Imperial

i s quite
A ram aic is
Aramaic a n d there
i m p e r f e c t , and
q u i t e imperfect, no other
i s no
t h e r e is p o e try
A ram aic poetry
o t h e r Aramaic

w h ich one
fro m which
from d e r i v e information
c o u ld derive
one could t h e conventions
a b o u t the
in f o r m a ti o n about of
c o n v e n tio n s of

i n that
p o e t r y in
poetry la n g u a g e .
t h a t language.

d o e s appear,
I t does
It t h a t some
h o w e v e r, that
a p p e a r , however, t h e conventions
o f the
some of of
c o n v e n tio n s of

a r e similar
v o r d - p a r a l l e l i s m are
word-parallelism t o those
s i m i l a r to B i b l i c a l Hebrew
i n Biblical
t h o s e in and
Hebrew and

C a n a a n i te .
Canaanite. Note t h e use
N o te the o f dm
u s e of / / bsr
dm // ( p r o v e r b #9;
b s r (proverb c f . Dt.
# 9 ; cf. 32:1*2,
D t. 32: 2,

a n d in
and o p p o s i te order,
t h e opposite
i n the Is.
5 0 :1 3 ; Is.
P s . 50:13;
o r d e r , Ps. U9:2&), / / tt °C n
1 * 9:26), n ss*} //

R e p r o d u ce d with p erm issio n of th e cop yrigh t ow n er. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .