Comparison and evaluation of the accuracies of the Exact and the approximate equations of

Kraus and Tai, using the radiation intensities (power patterns) of the following :

𝑩𝒐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏 𝜽 𝟎≤ 𝜽 ≤ 𝝅∕𝟐, 𝟎 ≤ 𝝓 ≤ 𝟐𝝅
𝑼(𝜽)= 𝒆𝒍𝒔𝒆 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆
𝟎

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It is clear that:
Kraus’ Equation: is more accurate for small values of n < 11.28 (broader patterns)
Tai & Per.’ Equation: is more accurate for large values of n > 11.28 (narrower patterns)
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2.6.2 Omnidirectional Patterns

3
Omnidirectional patterns can often be approximated by:

U(𝜽)= 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏 𝜽 𝟎 ≤ 𝜽 ≤ 𝝅, 𝟎 ≤ 𝝓 ≤ 𝟐𝝅
The exact directivity of the omnidirectional patterns can be obtained by using the
exact formula: 𝑼 𝑼 𝟒𝝅𝑼
𝑫= = =
𝑼𝟎 𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒅
( )
𝟒𝝅
Or using approximate equations:
𝟏𝟎𝟏
𝑫𝒐 ≈ 𝑯𝑷𝑩𝑾 (𝒅𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒔) − 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟕 𝑯𝑷𝑩𝑾 (𝒅𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒔) 𝟐 McDonald Equation

𝑫𝒐 ≈ −𝟏𝟕𝟎 + 𝟏𝟗𝟏 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝟖 + 1∕𝑯𝑷𝑩𝑾 𝒅𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒔 Pozar Equation 4

5
Example: Design an antenna with omnidirectional amplitude pattern with a half-power
beamwidth (HPBW) of 90◦. Express its radiation intensity by U = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏 𝜽.
1- Determine the value of n and attempt to identify elements that exhibit such a pattern.
2- Determine 𝑫𝟎 of the antenna using the exact and approximate equations.
Solution:
1- Since 𝜃 = 1/2 (HPBW) = 45◦ ⇒ U(𝜃 = 45◦) = 0.5 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏 𝟒𝟓 = (𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕)𝒏 or n = 2
Therefore, the radiation intensity of the omnidirectional antenna is represented

U = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽 (Small dipole Antenna)

2π 𝜋 𝟖𝝅
2- Since 𝑼𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 1 ⇒ 𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒅𝜽 𝒅𝝓 = , therefore,
𝟎 𝟎 𝟑

𝟖𝝅 𝟑
the exact directivity: 𝑫𝒐 = 𝟒𝝅 ( ) = = 𝟏. 𝟓
𝟑 𝟐
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and the approximate values:

𝟏𝟎𝟏
a- 𝑫𝒐 ≈ 𝟗𝟎− 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟕 𝟗𝟎) 𝟐 McDonald Equation

b- 𝑫𝒐 ≈ −𝟏𝟕𝟎 + 𝟏𝟗𝟏 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝟖 + 1∕𝟗𝟎 Pozar Equation

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ANTENNA EFFICIENCY: The antenna efficiency (or radiation efficiency) can
be defined as the ratio of the radiated power to the input power of the antenna.
Associated with an antenna are a number of efficiencies. The total antenna efficiency 𝒆𝟎 is
used to take into account losses at the input terminals and within the structure of the
antenna losses due to:
1- Reflections because of the mismatch between the transmission line and the
antenna.
2- 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 losses (conduction and dielectric).
Therefore, 𝑒0 can be written as:
𝒆𝟎 = 𝒆𝒓 . 𝒆𝒄 . 𝒆𝒅
𝑒0 = total efficiency (dimensionless)
𝑒𝑟 = reflection (mismatch) efficiency = (1 − Γ 2 ) (dimensionless)
𝑒𝑐 = conduction efficiency (dimensionless)
𝑒𝑑 = dielectric efficiency (dimensionless)
Γ = voltage reflection coefficient at the input terminals of the antenna
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9
Gain: Another useful figure-of-merit describing the performance of an antenna is the
gain. Although the gain of the antenna is closely related to the directivity, it is a measure
that takes into account the efficiency of the antenna as well as its directional
capabilities.
𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑼 𝜽,∅
G𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝟒𝝅
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑷𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
= 𝟒𝝅
𝑷𝒊𝒏
(dimensionless)

𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝒆𝒄𝒅 𝑷𝒊𝒏

𝑼 𝜽,∅
G𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝜽, ∅ = 𝒆𝒄𝒅 . [𝟒𝝅 ]
𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒅

G𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝜽, ∅ = 𝒆𝒄𝒅 . D 𝜽, ∅
𝑮𝟎 =G𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝜽, ∅ | 𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒆𝒄𝒅 . D 𝜽, ∅ | 𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒆𝒄𝒅 𝑫𝟎
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Absolute Gain:

𝑮𝒂𝒃𝒔 𝜽, ∅ = 𝒆𝒓 . G𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝜽, ∅ = (1 − Γ 𝟐 ) G𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝜽, ∅

= 𝒆𝒓 𝒆𝒄𝒅 D 𝜽, ∅ = 𝒆𝟎 D 𝜽, ∅

Maximum Absolute Gain:

𝑮𝟎𝒂𝒃𝒔 𝜽, ∅ = 𝒆𝒓 . G𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝜽, ∅ | 𝒎𝒂𝒙 = (1 − Γ 𝟐 ) G𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝜽, ∅ | 𝒎𝒂𝒙

= 𝒆𝒓 𝒆𝒄𝒅 D 𝜽, ∅ | 𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒆𝟎 𝑫𝟎

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Partial Gain:
𝐆𝐨 = 𝐆𝛉 + 𝐆𝛟
𝐔𝛉 𝟒𝛑𝐔𝛉
𝐆𝛉 = 𝐏𝐢𝐧
= .
𝐏𝐢𝐧
𝟒𝛑

𝐔𝛟 𝟒𝛑𝐔𝛟
𝐆𝛟 = 𝐏𝐢𝐧
=
𝐏𝐢𝐧
𝟒𝛑

For many practical Antennas, the approximate Gain:

𝟑𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝒐 ≈
𝚯𝒅𝟏 ∙ 𝚯𝒅𝟐
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Example: A lossless resonant half-wavelength dipole antenna, with input
impedance of 73 ohms, is connected to a transmission line whose characteristic
impedance is 50 ohms. Assuming that the pattern of the antenna is given
approximately by:
U = 𝐁𝐨 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝜽
Find the maximum realized gain of this antenna.
Solution:
𝐃𝐨 = 𝟏.67 ⇒ 𝑮𝟎 = 𝒆𝒄𝒅 𝑫𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕, (𝒆𝒄𝒅 = 𝟏)

𝟐 𝟕𝟑−𝟓𝟎 𝟐
𝒆𝒓 = (1 − Γ ) = 𝟏 − = 0.965 ⇒ 𝒆𝟎 = 𝒆𝒓 𝒆𝒄𝒅 = 0.96
𝟕𝟑+𝟓𝟎

Therefore, the realized gain 𝑮𝟎𝒓𝒆 = 𝒆𝟎 𝑮𝟎 = 0.965(1.697) = 1.6376

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BEAM EFFICIENCY:
𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒆𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝜽𝟏
𝑩𝑬 =
𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒅 (𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒆𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒅) 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒏𝒂

𝟐𝝅 𝜽𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝑼(𝜽,∅)𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒅𝜽 𝒅∅
𝑩𝑬 = 𝟐𝝅 𝝅
𝟎 𝟎 𝑼(𝜽,∅)𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒅𝜽 𝒅∅

BANDWIDTH: The bandwidth can be considered to be the range

of frequencies, on either side of a center frequency
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