Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Jennifer Dubrow - Cosmopolitan Dreams - The Making of Modern Urdu Literary Culture in Colonial South Asia-University of Hawaii Press (2018)
Jennifer Dubrow - Cosmopolitan Dreams - The Making of Modern Urdu Literary Culture in Colonial South Asia-University of Hawaii Press (2018)
v
Cosmopolitan Dreams
v
The Making of Modern Urdu Literary Culture
in Colonial South Asia
Jennifer Dubrow
23 22 21 20 19 18 6 5 4 3 2 1
Preface vii
Acknowledgments ix
Note on Transliteration and Translation xv
Notes 121
Bibliography 151
Index 167
Preface
Cosmopolitan Dreams
vii
viii Preface
ix
x Acknowledgments
ing light for the future. I am especially grateful to Jim Nye for al-
ways encouraging and facilitating my archival research.
I have been fortunate to be surrounded by several wonderful
intellectual communities at the University of Washington. In the
department of Asian Languages and Literature, I thank Nandini
Abedin, Ian Chapman, Justin Jesty, Tim Lenz, David Knechtges,
Amy Ohta, Prem Pahlajrai, Pauli Sandjaja, Wang Ping, and Anne
Yue-Hashimoto for many words of encouragement over the years.
My colleagues in the South Asia program in the department pro-
vided advice, support, and models of how to get things done. I
have been joined by three other scholars of print culture in Asia,
Chris Hamm, Ted Mack, and Heekyoung Cho, whose work has
inspired me. I am especially grateful to Michael C. Shapiro, Da-
vinder Bhowmik, Collett Cox, Chris Hamm, Ted Mack, Zev
Handel, Heidi Pauwels, Richard Salomon, William Boltz, and Paul
Atkins for their mentorship and support over the years.
A brilliant cohort of South Asia scholars at the University of
Washington, including Manish Chalana, S. Charusheela, Radhika
Govindrajan, Sudhir Mahadevan, Vikram Prakash, Priti Rama-
murthy, Cabeiri DeBergh Robinson, K. Sivaramakrishnan (Shivi),
and Craig Jeffrey, provided a vibrant intellectual atmosphere for
the study of South Asia. I thank Keith Snodgrass and the office
staff of the South Asia Center for organizing activities and events
that have made the UW such a warm and productive place.
The thriving Textual Studies community at the University of
Washington has nourished my research. I thank Jeffrey Todd
Knight, Geoff Turnovsky, and Beatrice Arduini for their intellec-
tual and material support, and camaraderie. The Simpson Center
for the Humanities, especially Kathy Woodward, has provided an
intellectually stimulating place to think about and explore the hu-
manities.
Friends and colleagues, located both near and far, have moti-
vated, challenged, and supported me over many years. From afar, I
thank Hajnalka Kovacs, Xi He, Scott Relyea, Anjali Nerlekar,
Krupa Shandilya, Preetha Mani, Priti Joshi, Asiya Alam, Rajeev
Kinra, Walt Hakala, C. Ryan Perkins, Pasha M. Khan, Richard Del-
acy, Jonathan Ripley, Manan Ahmed Asif, Whitney Cox, Blake
Wentworth, Sean Pue, Sunit Singh, Atiya Khan, Arnika Fuhrmann,
Shreeyash Palshikar, Ed Yazijian, Spencer Leonard, Debali
Mookerjea-Leonard, Juned Shaikh, Madhavi Murty, and Daisy
xii Acknowledgments
Fictions: Urdu Print Culture and the Novel in Colonial South Asia,”
Indian Economic and Social History Review 54, no. 4 Copyright
2017 © The Indian Economic and Social History Association. All
rights reserved. Reproduced with the permission of the copyright
holders and the publishers, SAGE Publications India Pvt. Ltd, New
Delhi; and “Sharafat and Bhal Mānsī: A New Perspective on Re-
spectability in Fasana-e Azad,” South Asian History and Culture 9,
no. 2 (2018): https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rsac20.
A circle of friends reinvigorated me at every stage of this proj-
ect, offering their knowledge, expertise, support, companionship,
and cheer. I thank Sonal Khullar, Anand Yang, Susan Gaylard,
Beatrice Arduini, and Sareeta Amrute for so many conversations,
and for always inspiring and guiding me. My parents, Linda
Dubrow-Marshall and Steve Eichel, have exemplified the cosmo-
politan impulses discussed in this book. Finally, this book would
not have been possible without the support and care of my fellow
traveler, Jameel Ahmad.
Note on Transliteration and Translation
xv
Map 1 Major Urdu Publishing Centers of British India until 1900.
Introduction
1
2 Introduction
modernism lie in the late nineteenth century, with what she describes
as the “initial moment of rupture from indigenous tradition brought
about by colonialism, one that contains all subsequent disjunctions as
extensions of the original breach.”8 But despite scholarly recognition
of literary modernity’s origin in the nineteenth century, work on that
period’s literature has focused on other aspects of its production, aes-
thetics, or concerns.9 The late nineteenth century is often seen as tran-
sitional, lacking in artistic quality, or—to cite Dipesh Chakrabarty’s
well-known phrase to describe historical accounts of Indian moder-
nity—“not yet” modern.10
I use the term “literary modernity” to describe a constellation of
large-scale developments. The most important change to take place in
the late nineteenth century in South Asian literatures was the devel-
opment and dominance of what various scholars have called a self-
critical, ironic, more distant, and self-reflexive narrative perspective.11
To put it simply, modern South Asian literature became that litera-
ture that laughs at itself, and indeed at the moral structure of the
world of the (colonial) present. This is not to suggest that premodern
literatures in South Asia could not be parodic or engage in irony, but
rather to point out that in the second half of the nineteenth century,
this particular narrative consciousness started to dominate.12 Further,
that consciousness was stylized into the narrative form itself, so that
self-critique became central to choice of form, genre, characteriza-
tion, narrative voice, style, and so on.
A second feature of literary modernity in South Asia has been a
rhetorical break with the past. The colonial critique of South Asian
literatures, summarized in British politician and historian Thomas
Babington Macaulay’s iconic statement that all of South Asian litera-
tures were not worth a single shelf of a European library, led to a
wide-scale rejection of tradition by late nineteenth-century writers.
Premodern literatures were recast as “unnecessarily difficult,” infe-
rior, decadent, and obscene.13 Modern writers declared their break
from this tradition, as in the statement by Urdu novelist Ratan Nath
“Sarshar” (1846/1847–190314) in 1879 about his novel Fasana-e
Azad, “I do take pride in the fact that I have done something that no
one else has done—and what is that? I’ve written the novel of all nov-
els” (discussed in chapter 2).15 Yet such statements were often more
rhetoric than reality, as modern writers drew deeply from, reinvented,
and reinvigorated premodern traditions in the process of crafting a
Print, Literary Modernity, and the Urdu Cosmopolis 5
13
14 Chapter One
the men lived in Lucknow, but Azad appears to have lived in Dhaka
(in present-day Bangladesh); he may well have communicated via
the mail.
According to Braj Narayan Chakbast, an early twentieth-century
nationalist poet, a gathering (suhbat) of “friends of discernment and
wit” would take place “morning and night” in Lucknow, in which
“one was wittier than the next.” This group included Husain and
Hijr. When Sarshar returned to Lucknow in 1877 after serving as a
teacher in the nearby district of Lakhimpur, Kheri, he joined the
group. Chakbast’s description of the gathering recalls the “brother-
hood of authors” who worked for the London Punch, as described
by Patrick Leary.15 These authors met weekly over dinner, and their
working relationships were defined as much by personal intimacy
and informal table talk as by professional matters. Avadh Punch also
functioned as a friendly circle that would often discuss literary topics.
In Chakbast’s account, one day in the gathering Hijr said that “if
there’s any novel so funny that one cannot read a single page without
laughing twenty times,” it was Don Quixote.16
Avadh Punch quickly became very successful; 250 copies per is-
sue were printed for the first few years; by the early 1880s that num-
ber had doubled, bringing Avadh Punch to only 200 copies per issue
less than Avadh Akhbar, which was better endowed.17 A rivalry soon
developed between Avadh Punch and Avadh Akhbar. In 1878, when
Naval Kishore sought a new editor for his newspaper, he hired Sar-
shar, who was then a young and unproven author. One of Sarshar’s
first acts as editor of Avadh Akhbar was to inaugurate a new humor
section called zarafat, where he published satirical vignettes of the
type he had been writing at Avadh Punch. This fact was not lost on
the Avadh Punch circle; once Sarshar’s writing at Avadh Akhbar be-
came successful, Avadh Punch began vigorously attacking Sarshar
and Fasana-e Azad (these attacks are discussed in chapter 4).
The Avadh Punch circle exemplified key elements of the career
of the new professional author. Two authors in Hindi and Bengali,
Bharatendu Harischandra (1850–1885) and Bankimchandra Chat-
terjee (1838–1894), illuminate (as I shall briefly discuss) how similar
career trajectories operated across languages and regions. To become
a professional author in the late nineteenth century, one followed a
general framework that reflected the impact of print in reshaping
what it meant to be a writer in the modern period.
Printing the Cosmopolis 19
resign the editorship of Avadh Akhbar and become Urdu’s first full-
time novelist; between 1880 and 1893, he published three more ma-
jor novels with Naval Kishore Press.27 Sharar, Sarshar’s successor at
Avadh Akhbar, also resigned the editorship after a trip to Hyderabad
and Bombay, and became a full-time writer. By the end of his career,
he had produced twenty-five historical novels, eight social novels,
twenty-four biographical works, twenty-one histories, two dramas,
four poetical works, and numerous articles and translations.28
It must be noted that when patronage was not available in Luck
now,29 many Urdu authors of this period moved south to the princely
state of Hyderabad, where they often obtained royal patronage. In
1895, Sarshar traveled to south India to participate in the annual In-
dian National Congress meeting in Madras. On the way back, he
obtained employment with Maharaja Kishan Prasad, the minister for
the army to the Nizam of Hyderabad, to correct Prasad’s Urdu poetry
and prose, for a salary of two hundred rupees per month.30 Even
though this employment resembled older patronage structures, in
which poets were often employed to correct a king’s or noble’s com-
positions, Sarshar also continued his print-publishing activities: he
established a literary journal, Dabdaba-e Āsifī (Āsifian Grandeur—
with Āsif referring to the Nizam of Hyderabad), in which he pub-
lished his own fiction under the series title Khumkadā-e Sarshār (The
Wine Pitcher of Sarshar, in a pun on the meaning of Sarshar’s pen
name as “Brimful”). According to Chakbast, this fiction consisted of
short serialized novels.
There are many examples of other Urdu authors (slightly
younger than Sarshar) who also made their way south to obtain em-
ployment in the princely state of Hyderabad. For example, Abdul
Halim Sharar took three trips to Hyderabad to seek out patronage.
Mirza Muhammad Hadi Ruswa, author of the novel Umrao Jan Ada
(1899), also left Lucknow to pursue his fortunes in Hyderabad, tak-
ing up employment in the translation bureau at the first Urdu-medium
university in colonial India, Osmania University, founded in Hyder-
abad in 1918.31
It is thus clear that the rise of print capitalism in the late nine-
teenth century in India led to changed conditions of authorship. The
careers of the members of the Avadh Punch circle show that it be-
came possible at that time for an author to make at least part of a
living by writing for the public, instead of relying on aristocratic or
individual patronage—a massive shift in the profession of author.
22 Chapter One
And the commercial writers of the late nineteenth century shared key
characteristics of this new profession: often, they belonged to certain
caste and personal networks; they got their start writing for periodi-
cals; and they filled multiple roles in addition to writer. That this oc-
curred within two decades of the spread of affordable lithograph
technology points to the remarkable speed with which print culture
took hold in literary centers such as Lucknow.
As these career trajectories show, this generation was the first to
write for the reading and listening public, and to find success there;
however, patronage was still important, with the late nineteenth cen-
tury a transitional moment from patronage to the market.32 How-
ever, this period marked a transformative shift: the next generation of
Urdu writers, writing in the early twentieth century, moved further
toward writing for the public, and found their main source of patron-
age from Indian-owned presses. By the time of Independence in 1947,
an Urdu author such as Saadat Hasan Manto (1912–1955) could
make his living fully as an author, writing short stories for literary
journals, radio dramas for the new technology of radio, and dialogue
for the burgeoning film industry. The late nineteenth-century period
thus marks the beginning of the modern literary field in India, a field
shaped by print capitalism as well as by distinct structures of author-
ship and readership.
it off, there are no improper topics of which the Maulavi sahib [Azad]
complains.”41
The other response, by Munshi Gobind Lal Sahā’e, criticized
Azad’s impudence in declaring that he could write a masnavi (narra-
tive poem) in untraditional meters. Sahā’e’s critique had an effect on
Azad; according to sources, Azad removed the last part of his lecture
in which he had discussed this when preparing it for publication.42
Sahā’e pointed to the works of Persian and Urdu poets “Nizami”
Ganjavi, Mirza Muhammad Rafi “Sauda,” and Abdul Faiz ibn
Mubarak “Faizi” to argue that their masnavis had been able to ex-
plore all kinds of themes without the use of a new meter. Sahā’e im-
plied that Azad’s explanation of a new meter was attributable to his
lack of skill rather than to any inherent lack in Urdu poetry.
Avadh Akhbar intervened in these debates. Given its procolonial
stance, it not surprisingly supported Azad and Hali’s reform pro-
gram. In an editorial piece published on February 2, 1875, before
Azad’s last mushairah in Lahore in March 1875, Avadh Akhbar de-
clared its support for the tenets of natural poetry. In an article titled
“Poetry” (Sha‘iri), the newspaper laid out its support for a new kind
of writing. This writing should “express [real] events, and with the
same eloquence and beauty of expression but completely free of stu-
pid [behudah] exaggeration and padding and redundancies [hashv o
zavā’id].”43 This statement followed closely Azad’s lecture on the re-
form of Urdu poetry, in which he had declared:
ceeded to list eight ghazals by the Navab, three in Persian and five in
Urdu. This circulation of a prominent figure’s ghazals would not have
been available previously to anyone outside the mushairah.45
Yet the newspaper as literary space was not democratic. Its pub-
lished verses from 1875 to 1877 tended to be by prominent figures
such as the Navab of Rampur, or by poets also published by Naval
Kishore Press. By selecting and publishing these verses, the newspa-
per served as taste maker, its circulation of verses acting as an en-
dorsement. In doing this, periodicals like Avadh Akhbar helped to
shift the role of literary master and expert, formerly held by the us-
tad, to the editor. Beginning in the 1870s, deciding what was good
literature increasingly shifted to actors in the print sphere such as
editors, writers, and printer-publishers.
Thus periodicals became a new space for literature, at least par-
tially democratizing access to the formerly elite spaces of the mushai-
rah by making them available in print. Periodicals took over the role
formerly held by ustads, posing themselves as arbiters of literary
taste. Journal editors became tastemakers and literary critics, wrest-
ing authority away from the former gatekeepers of literary culture
and placing the periodical squarely in the center of modern literary
culture.
mill, the Upper India Paper Mill Company Limited, a private com-
pany headquartered in Lucknow, in 1879. Printing on colored paper
was therefore a deliberate, and possibly expensive, decision.
Avadh Akhbar and Avadh Punch marked festivals such as Holi,
Basant, and Muharram with colored paper. Holi and Basant issues
were printed on yellow paper, marking these festivals’ occurrence in
the springtime. Portions of issues during the observance of Muharram,
the month of the Islamic calendar when Shi‘a Muslims commemo-
rate the martyrdom of the Prophet’s grandsons, used green paper
(reflecting the association of Islam with green). These paratextual
cues helped demarcate empty, homogenous time, at the same time as
they merged festival space, traditionally the domain of the street and
the city, with the domain of print.
Urdu Punches created and participated in an intertextual space,
where certain literary tropes and genres circulated. One such trope or
genre was the festival vignette, a short piece about the observance of
festivals in particular locations. Various forms of festival vignettes
circulated among the cosmopolis created by Punch magazines; one
Punch would publish a festival vignette to which other Punches
would respond. Urdu Punches were published across the Urdu cos-
mopolis; Avadh Punch often reprinted pieces from Dakan Punch in
Hyderabad, Benares Punch, and others. The characteristics of the
Punch genres would become conventionalized and thus open to fur-
ther interpretation and reinterpretation. The conventions of the festi-
val vignette were established quickly, thus opening up a new vocabu-
lary that could be expanded upon by other Punches and turned into a
form of critique.
A vignette, “Muharram al-Harām” (Holy Muharram), by T. N.
Hijr at Avadh Punch exemplifies some conventions of the festival vi-
gnette. The piece begins with dialogue, as an unnamed spectator
awakened a second speaker: “Now listen! Turn your attention this
way. By God, I don’t believe it, I’ve travelled all the way from Pratab-
garh, bare-footed, munching on nothing but corn, raking up the dust,
and here you are, snoring away, deep in your quilt, oil in your ears!
Praise be to God! A man should be like this!”52 The vignette then
continues with a second speaker, who does not appear separately but
rather is integrated into the text: “By God, who are you? Where are
you from? I’m up now!”53 The oral style and its invocation of multi-
ple voices characterized the festival vignette, and became a strategy
for Urdu novelists as well.
30 Chapter One
35
36 Chapter Two
and, finally, mazāmīn, the singular form of which is the term now
used for “essay” but which was more open in the late nineteenth cen-
tury. Sarshar used mazāmīn for the humorous vignettes, as well as the
essays and news articles that he wrote for Avadh Akhbar, pointing to
the newness of these genres as well.
The problem of taxonomy—here, the naming of a new genre—
highlights important questions about the travel of concepts, ideas,
genres, and styles from one context to another. Literary scholar Lydia
Liu has suggested the term “translingual practice” to expand the con-
cept of translation to include shifts in “words, meanings, discourses,
and modes of representation” as they traverse east or west. Liu points
to the unequal power relations among early twentieth-century China,
Japan, and the West as disproving the trope of “linguistic equiva-
lence” between languages and concepts. The present volume, by con-
trast, highlights literature in South Asia as a zone of resistance, as a
place where authors were relatively free to imagine, interpret, trans-
late, and relate concepts as they wished. It was an imaginative space
of great agency and relative equality.5
The novel exploded in popularity in late nineteenth-century
South Asia. According to one source, works identified as novels sur-
passed all other narrative genres “in the number of titles as well as in
copies printed” by the early decades of the twentieth century.6 Sascha
Ebeling has speculated that “the reason why the novel genre became
so popular throughout India was the fact that it was the ideal form of
holding a changing Indian world of life under a permanent critical
light.”7 The rise of the novel led Muhib-e Husain, editor of a major
Urdu women’s journal, Mu‘allim-e Nisvan (The Women’s Teacher),
to decry, in 1900, “Every day thousands of romantic novels are pub-
lished the reading of which does not offer any spiritual or worldly
gain apart from a short-lived distraction/entertainment.”8 Husain
worried about the effect of “romantic novels” on his female readers,
echoing a common anxiety among both Indian readers and the Brit-
ish readers of Victorian England. In South Asia, the novel genre
quickly became bound up in dominant discourses about the purposes
and proper aims of literature. British colonial officials saw literature
as an important part of an educational curriculum that would im-
prove and civilize its subjects.9 Literature was to provide “moral in-
struction,” and be “useful.”10
It is clear from the case of Fasana-e Azad that the novel, or at
least the major popular strain of novels, emerged from periodical
38 Chapter Two
c ulture and the kinds of short prose genres practiced there. Unlike the
didactic works often produced for government prizes, such as Nazir
Ahmad’s influential trilogy of novels for the instruction of women,
Mirāt ul-‘Arūs (1869), Banāt un-Na‘sh (1872), and Taubat al-Nasūh
(1874), works such as Fasana-e Azad had to please the greatest num-
ber of potential readers-listeners. This tradition of the vernacular
novel investigated the limits of acceptable behavior. It delved into
“liminality”—the phrase used by Sudipta Kaviraj to describe the
works of the Bengali novelist Bankimchandra Chatterjee, which ex-
plored the “central conflict . . . between the inevitability of moral or-
ders and the inevitability of their transgression.”11 This tradition ran
parallel to the social reform novels produced by social and educa-
tional reformers in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries,
some of whom drew in Urdu from a long tradition of moral and im-
proving literature, summarized by the Persian word adab (literature,
culture, civility, manners).12
Sarshar’s concerns for these two parallel traditions can be seen
in his statement about writing the novel of all novels. He joined two
words, mazaq and akhlaq, “humor” and “ethics,” to claim didactic
aims for his humorous writing. He likely was responding to colonial
critiques of Urdu humor, in particular of the genre of hajv (the satiri-
cal poem), as obscene. He also placed Fasana-e Azad within colonial
aims for fiction, by which fiction, “in the dress of zarafat,” would
benefit “fellow countrymen” and bring national progress. By refer-
encing akhlaq, a genre of moral and ethical writing that experienced
a resurgence in the late nineteenth century, Sarshar drew on a long
Indo-Persian and Urdu tradition. As for mazaq, it was not recognized
as a genre at the time; the word itself could mean “humor” but also
“taste” and “relish.” Mazaq drew on a precolonial way of under-
standing humor as a characteristic of a man of taste; in precolonial
Urdu literary culture, to be a cultivated man was also to be a wit. In
connecting mazaq with akhlaq, a choice also probably inspired by the
two words rhyming, Sarshar reframed the practice of wit into an ed-
ificatory and patriotic act.
Yet Sarshar’s choice of terms belied his stated purpose. As liter-
ary critic Meenakshi Mukherjee wrote in 2006, “The early novels in
India need to be read closely, sometimes against the grain, to go be-
yond their stated intentions and pry open the operations of other,
often subterranean forces in their formation.”13 The other term Sar-
shar used to describe Fasana-e Azad was, of course, zarafat, the title
The Novel in Installments 39
of the humor section in which the novel segments were published (see
figure 2.2). The word zarafat promised humor, wordplay, wit, clever-
ness, fun, and jest; it was a key word used at Avadh Punch, the sa-
tirical literary journal for which Sarshar wrote from 1877 to 1878.
The word promised no edificatory purpose but rather suggested plea-
sure for pleasure’s sake. Sarshar therefore began reframing the word
as an “adornment” (in Urdu, perāyah), an outer form for an inner
purpose. Sarshar tried to blend two competing traditions by suggest-
ing that zarafat was only an ornament for didactic aims.
The tension between zarafat and akhlaq can be seen in the title
page of Fasana-e Azad’s fourth book edition, published by Naval
Kishore Press in 1899 (figure 2.1). The subtitle declares, “From this
Urdu novel, the audience obtains excellent moral [akhlaqi] points
adorned in refined [muhazzab] zarafat.” The word muhazzab is the
adjective form of the noun tahzib, which in the second half of the
nineteenth century came to signify “culture” and “civilization,” in
response to British emphasis, as a justification for colonialism, on the
superiority of its civilization. According to C. M. Naim, the word
tahzib brought together a host of words that “earlier used to be con-
sidered separately under such rubrics as adab (‘protocols’), akhlaq
(‘moral codes’), aʾin (‘administrative rules or constitution’), rusum
(‘customs’), riwaj (‘local practices’), riwayat (‘traditions’), funun
(‘arts and crafts’) and so forth.”14 Sarshar’s attempt to enlist zarafat
within the narrative of civilizing progress reflects this new connota-
tion of “civilization.”
The development of Fasana-e Azad from serialized vignettes in
Avadh Akhbar to what its author called a “novel” illuminates how
the novel genre developed in colonial South Asia. Its early vignettes
dramatized uncertainty in an era of social, political, and cultural up-
heaval. As the series grew in popularity, however, and Sarshar began
to imagine it as a novel, the work became more prescriptive. Yet it
still offered multiple points of view through pairs of contrasting char-
acters. Through this technique Fasana-e Azad subjected its own posi-
tions to debate and criticism, opening up a space for self-reflection
and self-critique in the genre.
Fasana-e Azad illustrates other key features of the evolution of
the novel genre in colonial South Asia. Because it was a work that its
author consciously evolved into a novel, it demonstrates how the
genre developed over time. In particular, its location in the newspa-
per Avadh Akhbar reveals how the novel emerged out of periodical
Figure 2.1. Title page of Fasana-e Azad, vol. 3, 4th book ed. (Naval Kishore Press, 1899).
© British Library Board 14112.ee.3.
The Novel in Installments 41
irectly exported the concerns and style of those vignettes to the early
d
sections of Fasana-e Azad.
According to Dallas Liddle, “Magazines, reviews, and newspa-
pers were the discursive context and physical medium of most
important British literature in the nineteenth century.”20 The novel
and the newspaper developed in tandem in South Asia, leading to a
close relationship (which is often occluded in the scholarship, where
literary form and material conditions are usually considered sepa-
rately). As Walter Benjamin noted, the rise of the novel in Europe
was directly tied to the dissemination of the news.21 In South Asia,
there was strong interaction between late nineteenth-century novels,
many of which were serialized, and the periodicals in which they
appeared.22
The connection between the novel and periodical culture is par-
ticularly evident in Fasana-e Azad, first published in the daily news-
paper Avadh Akhbar. This may be seen in figure 2.2, which shows
two pages from the August 23, 1878, issue of Avadh Akhbar. In the
middle of the first page (on the right) is a column labeled “zarafat,”
in which Fasana-e Azad was published from 1878 to 1880. The pages
shown contain the piece, or section, with which Fasana-e Azad’s
book editions now begin. This piece consists of about three columns
in total, followed by the next section of the newspaper, titled “Trans-
lations from English Newspapers” (Tarjumah-e Akhbarāt-e Angrezi).
That Fasana-e Azad is physically located next to news carried in
translation from English places the novel firmly within the world of
the imperial information network (and discussed earlier in chapter 1
as integral to the formation of the Urdu cosmopolis). In this context,
the zarafat column becomes another way of reading about the world;
its proximity to the news draws a connection between fiction and
contemporary news that was new to Urdu literature.
Ian Watt famously declared “formal realism” as “the lowest
common denominator of the novel genre as a whole.”23 Since then,
scholars have considered realism as a space of difference between
South Asian and Western fiction. Since Meenakshi Mukherjee’s
1986 formulation that realism could not develop the same way in
India as it could in Victorian England because of a difference in the
underlying “reality” of India’s social, cultural, and political cir-
cumstances in the nineteenth century, scholars have argued for an
alternative trajectory of realism in the South Asian colony.24 The
development of the novel in close connection with periodicals
The Novel in Installments 43
lalah: You’re very tricky, on one hand you’re very nice to me,
and then you don’t pass my son? He’s been in the same
grade for years, and all the other students advanced.
master sahib: Is that all it is? I thought there was some real
problem.
lalah: Oh, it’s nothing to you. He wastes his whole life in the
same studies, the same books, the same grade, the same
Master—
master: The same whining, the same barking—
lalah: This is all a joke to you. What did we ever do to you
that you should punish us in this way?
Figure 2.2. The first installment of Fasana-e Azad as serialized in Avadh Akhbar,
August 23, 1878.
© British Library Board OP285.
46 Chapter Two
[The Master informed him that the reason his son was not advancing
was because the son’s studies were “spotty.” If he came for two days,
he missed the next four.]
master: Now how can I pass him? That would only make his life
harder, like giving a horse the load of a camel. If his addition is
bad, then his mathematics are nonexistent!
lalah: Ha! The son of a Kayasth [merchant caste], and he can’t add?
master: Please, get some medicine for your head! What difference
does it make that he’s the son of a Kayasth? He has to do the math
himself, doesn’t he? And anyway, I swear by Husain, if you can do
better math than a fourth-grader, I owe you a month’s salary.
lalah: Please, don’t say anything more. The students that gave you
some nice pula’o [savory rice] had no problem passing. If I had
known, I would have sent some delicacies for you. But it’s too
late now.31
The link between vignette and novel is apparent when one com-
pares this first lalah/Master vignette with the series of vignettes that
open Fasana-e Azad. In the latter, Sarshar introduces an anonymous
wandering figure, identified only as Azad (“Free” or “Independent”).
This empty figure possesses no family background, no class or profes-
sional identity, and no past. He in some ways appears to be the
“modern man,” free to make his own destiny, able to define himself
as an individual separate from a social group.35 Yet reading Fasana-e
Azad in the original serialized version shows that in the early vi-
gnettes, Azad in fact originated as a form of the Anglicized babu, a
social type ridiculed in other genres of social parody of the late nine-
teenth and early twentieth centuries, including farces (naql), Kalighat
scroll paintings (pat), and Hindi literary journals.36 Whereas later in
Fasana-e Azad’s development, Azad transformed into a social re-
former and idealist, in the early vignettes he was meant to be mocked.
It becomes apparent how Azad originated as an example of the
Anglicized babu by reconsidering his first appearance in the serialized
version: “Khaki pants, black jacket, yellow ‘coat’ and loose waist-
coat; a dense beard like a rabbit’s thicket; a half-pint [of alcohol]
raised and a cigarette dangling from his lips; a fat walking-stick in
one hand and opium-pestle in the other, he was racing along ‘double-
time,’ his knee-high boots clicking and clacking.”37 This description
is significantly different from that in revised book editions of Fasana-
e Azad, in which Azad enters without the hilarious list of “Western”
objects: half-pint, cigarette, fat walking-stick, and opium-pestle.38
These objects in fact contain the key to the story. That Azad carries
more Western objects than can possibly fit in two hands points to the
larger satire of the description. Azad has put on multiple articles of
Western clothing, including a black jacket (perhaps a blazer) and yel-
low overcoat (kot, which could mean “blazer” or “overcoat”; Azad
wore both, and in clashing colors). He has also adopted behaviors or
modes of comportment that would have aligned him with his colonial
masters in India: the ideal of “efficiency,” here seen in the speed with
which Azad carries himself, as well as the “fat walking-stick” which
points to the Victorian pastime of “taking the air.”39 Sarshar signaled
the foreignness of some of these behaviors and objects by sprinkling
in English words: Azad wore a kot (coat) and walked dabal (double)
chāl (“double-step”), perhaps in the sense of a quick march. The
overall impression is of sycophancy and overattachment to Western
symbols and outward signs.
48 Chapter Two
After facing off in this scene, Azad and Chammi Jān engage in a
spirited debate as to the proper way to spend the morning. Chammi
Jān declares that one should listen to the appropriate morning raga
(song in a musical mode), bhairvīn, as sung by some accomplished
singer, whereas Azad proposes attending an edifying lecture by a Pro-
fessor Locke on the excellence of the Sanskrit language. Their debate
poses the “edifying” activity of listening to an example of a European
Orientalist figure (distinguished by his interest in Sanskrit, an activity
associated with nineteenth-century German Orientalists in particular)
against the old elite practice of listening to classical music. The debate
proceeds:
Chammi Jān: God forbid! I swear, how ugly you are. What bad taste.
Yuck! Even if one person testifies to Professor Sahib’s fame, still, I’ve
lived my whole life and if I heard even his name before today then you
can put me under oath. Is he more famous than Dunni Khan? You just
say his name and you can already feel the joy of his presence, that’s all
I know. Honestly, if you hear him sing “Tumhāre Ghongariyāle Bāl”
[Your Curly Locks] just once, you won’t forget it your whole life. My
God, what a melodious voice. You’d think you were hearing a stringed
instrument. But what does a thick-headed person like you care about a
beautiful or elegant voice? You’re caught in Professor Sahib’s web. You
just woke up, and you’re saying “Let’s go to a lecture.” There are only
three letters [lām ‘ain nūn, short for la‘nat, or “damn”] for such taste.
Azad: Your Honor, you can curse me as much as you want. Make a
fool out of me. But for God’s sake, don’t talk idly about such a good-
natured, eloquent, and discerning man, the pride of the human race.
Nowadays in Europe he’s considered the most distinguished of scholars
and thousands have benefited from the remarkable inquiries made by
this ocean of knowledge.
...
By God, this singing and dancing has turned you into the kind of man
who trims his moustache, gets his beard cut, applies henna to his hands,
and dresses up like a woman! For God’s sake, at least be a man now
and give up these things.
Chammi Jān: Right. So I should go see your Professor Locke and swear
allegiance to your fire-worshipper and go from being a man to an ani-
mal? By God, dogs must tear at your legs when you go out and act like
this. Look at your own behavior [vaz‘]. “You disgrace yourself and
preach to others.”42
promised a new mode for Fasana-e Azad. If the earlier sections had
satirized all positions, Sarshar’s new vision of Fasana-e Azad sug-
gested the promotion of an ideal. Readers’ letters highlighted what
they saw as the work’s edificatory purpose. According to one reader,
“you have provided hundreds, no, thousands of counsels for our
countrymen and ways to eradicate evil customs . . . we can never
thank you enough.”47
Yet Sarshar’s rhetoric did not reflect reality. Despite his and
readers’ comments promising edificatory motives for Fasana-e Azad,
Sarshar did not turn the novel into a didactic tale. Rather, he shifted
the anticolonial critique to the minor characters, maintaining the
work’s ideological complexity but making it less visible. Whereas in
the early vignettes Azad was a parody of the Anglicized babu, in later
parts of the novel Azad became a procolonial hero who fought on
behalf of the British Empire in the Russo-Turkish War and emerged
as a proponent of modernity. Yet Sarshar did not let Azad’s new re-
formed views go unquestioned. It was at this very moment in the de-
velopment of Fasana-e Azad that Sarshar introduced a new sidekick
for Azad, an opium-addicted, dwarfish buffoon named Khoji. As
Azad became more idealized, the character of Khoji questioned and
challenged the hero, and also opened up the novel as a space for de-
bate on contemporary issues.48
To see this requires reading Fasana-e Azad historically. Fasana-e
Azad went through several rounds of revisions between its original
serialized version that appeared in Avadh Akhbar between 1878 and
1883, and the novel’s later book editions (first edition, 1881–1883;
second edition, 1886–1887; third edition, 1889–1891; and fourth
edition, 1898–1899). The text transformed between the newspaper
and book versions, as I have shown elsewhere.49 Sarshar toned down
some of the very liberal ideas contained in the newspaper version. He
also sanitized his hero, Azad, by attributing some of his earlier misad-
ventures to other characters, or by removing from book editions non-
respectable behaviors, such as drinking alcohol and fighting with
lower-class characters such as a washerwoman (dhobin).50 The open
nature of serialization in South Asia, in which novels were not
planned in advance but rather could develop and change while in
progress, meant that serialized versions of novels were often more
experimental than their later book editions.
It has been common to regard Khoji as Azad’s “backward” coun-
terpart, the Sancho Panza to Azad’s Don Quixote, a personification
52 Chapter Two
tion was contentious enough that Sarshar revised the ending of this
scene for the first book edition. The newspaper version ends with
Azad saying, “Did you see how respectfully the women were treated?
Remember that in countries where there is no pardah, virtue flour-
ishes along with independence. Pardah exists in one’s heart. If women
are bad, it won’t matter how much pardah they keep. And if they are
good, they keep pardah through their virtue, modesty, and honorable
thoughts.”59 By contrast, the first book edition contains the addi-
tional sentence “But giving too much independence to women is not
appropriate,”60 essentially bringing Azad’s position in this edition
closer to Khoji’s in the newspaper version.
In other scenes, Khoji serves to bring Azad down to size.61 Azad
becomes an increasingly didactic character in the second half of vol-
ume 1; a picaro, a drinker, and a trickster in the first half of that
volume, Azad transforms into a Muslim religious figure, and a man
of status and respectability.62 Yet, even after this transformation of
Azad’s, Khoji remains the character that can chasten him, bringing a
critical light to an otherwise somewhat idealized and model hero.
Khoji can serve as the voice of reason to Azad’s English sycophancy
in the first half of the novel, replying to Azad’s praise of English gar-
dens, “Indians don’t have enough to eat and you’re worrying about
bungalows, flowers, and nightingales?”63 When Azad becomes a
Muslim religious figure, and a bit ostentatiously begins to call himself
Maulana Muhammad Azad, Khoji responds by renaming himself
Janab Mufti Khvajah Badī‘ Sahib (His Excellency the Learned Lord
Amazing), a comic title that also points out that giving oneself a fancy
name does not prove one’s qualities.64 One hundred pages from the
end of volume 1, Khoji opens a chapter by reminding Azad, and by
extension the readers, of Azad’s foibles and misadventures before he
became a hero:
One day Khoji said, you know, this is very unfair. On the way to Tur-
key, where haven’t you gone—you enjoyed the youth of the fairies at
the Parsi’s house, spouted nonsense with Muhammad Abdus Qudūs,
and spent so many days [cheating] at the navab’s. And if I may say
more . . . you fell in love with a beauty at every place—Miss Virginia,
Nazir Begam—but too bad for you, you have to keep your promise to
someone [Husn Ara]. When are you going to go to Turkey, in the after-
life or on the Day of Judgment?65
54 Chapter Two
The speech conveniently serves as plot summary for readers who may
have missed earlier chapters of the novel. But it also reminds readers
of Azad’s past, before he became a more didactic figure. Khoji in this
case serves as a narrative device, a way to recall past events while also
providing a critical commentary, and to remind readers that Azad is
not a straightforward hero but rather a man who has transformed at
the behest of a woman.
In addition, not only does the character of Khoji allow Sarshar
to voice some anticolonial and critical positions after Azad becomes a
more idealized hero, but also, in moving some ideological positions
formerly associated with Azad to Khoji, Sarshar could maintain the
self-critical ethos of the early pages of Fasana-e Azad but shift them
to other characters. This reading goes against prior readings of Khoji,
which have portrayed him as an icon of Lucknow’s feudal culture
now overthrown by colonialism, and therefore backward and in need
of reform. Khoji may have been such an icon in some scenes, but his
main role was to serve as an interlocutor for Azad, and, by extension,
for Azad’s new procolonial positions.
Through this character pair, Sarshar subverted old norms and pro-
posed the norms of a reformed female respectability, one centered on
moderation and on agency within the home.
In doing so, Sarshar responded to debates on women’s educa-
tion and reform in late nineteenth-century South Asia. As is well
known, by the end of the nineteenth century women’s roles were at
the center of constructions of national identity. As pointed out by
Partha Chatterjee, women were increasingly portrayed as protectors
of tradition and partners of men within the private sphere. However,
at the same time, as Gail Minault has argued, the intense debate
among religious and social reformers, both Hindu and Muslim, about
women’s education contributed to women’s roles becoming a part of
the public sphere.68 Women’s roles were intensely debated in Urdu-
language periodicals, especially in the early twentieth century, with
the beginning of periodicals written for and by women.
The project of redefining respectability and creating middle-class
identity was a gendered one. Using Lucknow as a case model, Sanjay
Joshi has examined how middle-class reformers defined proper wom-
en’s roles against two models: on the one hand, the courtesan, for-
merly an example of education and relative autonomy; on the other
hand, the “low-class woman.”69 As scholars such as Francesca Orsini
and Charu Gupta have traced, this project of refashioning women’s
respectability continued into the twentieth century, when the param-
eters of middle-class and largely Hindu women’s respectability were
debated and consolidated.70 Sarshar appears to have had less freedom
with female characters than with his male characters. His initial main
female character in Fasana-e Azad was Bi Allah Rakhi; at about the
same time that the author developed Azad into a hero, he introduced
a new love interest for him, a respectable heroine who “had it all”:
named Husn Ara, she was beautiful, intelligent, and educated but
also extremely devoted to modesty and propriety. Fasana-e Azad in-
tervened in the debates over women’s roles as well but carefully
skirted the main issues.
This introduction of Husn Ara as a respectable love interest for
Azad occurred on July 11, 1879, about ten months after Fasana-e
Azad had started serial publication. Husn Ara and her younger sister,
Sipahr Ara, were introduced, from their beginning, as a successful
compromise between new and old. They were described as chaste and
modest, well educated, and sufficiently familiar with Western ideals
such as cleanliness and “taking the air.” They were introduced by a
56 Chapter Two
War and emerge victorious. These conditions were laid out over a
series of episodes in Avadh Akhbar, and testified to Husn Ara’s care-
ful calculation as a new sharif woman.74 As she said to her cousin
after declaring her conditions, which even her cousin objected were
too onerous, “I swear to God, I will not marry without thoroughly
testing and examining him.”75
In stressing her own agency in choosing a marriage partner,
Husn Ara enacts the model of the “new woman” imagined by Hindu
and Muslim reformers in the late nineteenth and early twentieth cen-
turies.76 Yet in her emphasis on the bride’s consent, Husn Ara pushes
the role of the new wife further than suggested by reformers. Here
was a “respectable” woman demanding that a man should satisfy her
conditions for marriage, without recourse to parental advice or con-
sent (in fact, the mother is shown to be incapable of choosing a suit-
able marriage partner).77 This was one way that Fasana-e Azad imag-
ined the “world as it should be” rather than the world that was. Husn
Ara exercised remarkable agency and independence—more than re-
formers imagined.
Concerns in Asia and the Middle East for women’s roles and
respectability in modernity appeared in other locations, such as colo-
nial Korea and early twentieth-century Egypt. They were part of a
transnational formation of the “new woman” that accompanied the
rise of print and periodicals in these regions. In late nineteenth- and
early twentieth-century Korea, periodicals and literature investigated
the modern Korean woman, who through education was to “become
[a] good mother for modern citizens.”78 A similar discourse arose in
turn-of-the-twentieth-century Egypt, where a flourishing market in
women’s periodicals linked debate about proper roles for women
with antiimperial nationalism.79 In contrast to these formations,
Husn Ara’s focus on her own happiness and individual pleasure, sep-
arate from her possible future status as wife and mother, appears
even more revolutionary.
Toward the end of volume 1 of Fasana-e Azad, Husn Ara lays
out a new vision for respectability (called sharafat in Urdu), based on
moderation. She begins by commenting on the respectable girls of her
time, saying, “God knows, the problem with the sharif ladies
[sharifzādī] of this country is that they know nothing except how to
cook and feed and raise children. They’re completely uneducated.
Boys can get educated, but women think that sharafat comes only
from light skin and pretty clothes.” Husn Ara’s critique then went on
58 Chapter Two
Akbar insisted that the basis of British power in South Asia was
might, citing an Urdu proverb, “He who wields the cudgel owns the
buffalo.” In the first two lines, Akbar pries apart two key words of
British civilizing discourse. “Progress,” the word by which British co-
lonialism was justified, and “association,” the close relationship be-
tween ruler and ruled desired by some pro-British elites, were shown
to be ruses, empty signifiers disguising more material aims. The last
line, which consists of the Arabic syllables used to count meter in
Urdu poetry, suggests that after exposing the true nature of colonial
rule, nothing more need or can be said.
Akbar Allahabadi, a lawyer, government servant, and judge,
was one of the earliest writers at Avadh Punch. Avadh Punch, pub-
62
Experiments with Form 63
P unch in India
Writing in 1862, Charles Dickens remarked on the appearance of
Punch magazines in India: “Punch in India. The idea seems unprom-
ising. A professed jest must surely be out of place among people who
have but little turn for comedy.”11 Archibald Constable, member of
the Asiatic Society of Bengal, tried to refute Dickens’s orientalist at-
titude toward humor among Indians. In his introduction to a book of
Avadh Punch cartoons sent to the British government in 1881, Con-
stable wrote,
the 1870s. The first major Urdu-language Punch was probably Avadh
Punch; it was joined by a rival Urdu Punch in Lucknow, The Indian
Punch, which appears to have begun the same year.16
The Indian Punches were in dialogue with the English Punch.
Itself an adaptation of the French magazine Le Charivari (established
in Paris in 1832), Punch developed into one of the most popular Vic-
torian British periodicals. In the 1840s and 1850s, it housed success-
ful writers such as Dickens and W. M. Thackeray, and established
some of the most important illustrators of the time, including Sir
John Tenniel,17 John Leech and Richard Doyle,18 and Charles
Keene.19 The magazine has been read as exposing the “trials and trib-
ulations of the still emergent middle classes,” and constantly reas-
serted a particular type of bourgeois respectability.20 Punch also
helped establish the illustrated satirical magazine as a format.21 As
argued by Brian Maidment, its particular square page format and use
of wood engraving allowed the interplay between visual and textual
elements, as images could be dropped into the text and proliferated
“in carnivalesque profusion,” “deconstruct[ing] the centrality of the
word.”22
The visual style of the Avadh Punch cover page referenced con-
ventions of the London Punch while translating them into the Urdu
literary milieu (figure 3.1). The preponderance of images spread
about the page, with a table scene in the center, a band of musicians
underneath, and carnivalesque scenes of acrobats, street performers,
and circus entertainers along the sides, echoed Punch’s characteristic
visually prolific style. The central image of a Mr. Punch dressed as a
jester, seated at the head of a table, surrounded by diverse social
types, referenced the legendary Punch table, described by Patrick
Leary as a weekly gathering over dinner in which the issue was
planned over conversation and gossip.23 More specifically, the Avadh
Punch table was posed as a literary symposium that mediated be-
tween East and West. Mr. Punch is seen seated between a caricature
of a navab, Lucknow’s former king, on his right, and an Englishman
on his left. If Avadh Punch bridged these two opposing figures, the
remainder of the dinner gathering included a diverse group of social
types. According to Constable, Mr. Punch’s companions consisted of
a Sikh, a Maratha, a Persian, a Bengali, a Parsi, a Jew, and a Turk.
Constable interpreted this in ethnographic terms, stating, “The Artist
who drew this title page, Ganga Sahai (Shauq-Intense), has delineated
very cleverly the characteristic features and dress of each of the Na-
Figure 3.1. Avadh Punch cover page, 1878.
68 Chapter Three
Scholars have also noted the translatability of the Mr. Punch figure,
itself derived from the Pulcinella of the commedia dell’arte tradition.
Indeed, the trickster or clown figure has a long lineage in South Asia.
As Vasudha Dalmia points out, “The Punch character was, among
other things, a fusion of the vidushaka (clown and commentator) tra-
ditions of Sanskrit drama.”29
Lakhimpur, Kheri
Shikār Kār-e Bākarān Ast (“Hunting Is a Job for the Capable”)
Excuse me? What? A job for the capable or the stupid? Praise God, you
don’t remember your basic grammar and you want to be a journalist
for Avadh Punch?
Why not? In these upside-down times, when potters are called “sir,”
children “baba” [Grandpa], and the silver-bodied [i.e., beautiful
women] “Miss,” why shouldn’t I confuse “capable” and “stupid”
(bākār and bekār)?
This opening relied on a linguistic pun for its humor. The report’s ti-
tle, which was in Persian, used the word bākār (“capable” or “use-
ful”) to describe shikār (“hunting”) in a rhyme. However, bākār also
sounded like the common Persian and Urdu word bekār (“useless” or
“pointless”). The report’s title played with the similarity in the sounds
of the words shikār, kār (“job” or “work”), bākār (“useful,” “capa-
ble,” comprised of the prefix bā (“with”) plus kār), and bekār.
The report also engaged the trope of “upside-down times,”
which circulated in north Indian languages as a way to comment on
and critique rapid social change. In Bengali, this theme was expressed
through the trope of Kaliyuga, the mythical “last age” of Hindu cos-
mology, in which the world devolves into chaos and destruction. But
whereas in Bengali the trope of Kaliyuga was used as a “language for
expressing the anguish, frustration, and resentments of less successful
educated men of the higher castes,”43 in Urdu the trope came to sym-
bolize a general state of upheaval and reversal. The unnamed com-
mentator suggested that in such upside-down times, the difference
between “useful” and “useless” had become meaningless.
74 Chapter Three
The point is, when in the end of April, the District Commissioner of
Sitapur got the itch for “reform” (rifāh), he decided to rid the forest of
tigers. You know the man, he took a six-barreled rifle and hightailed it
into the forest. Such a renowned officer, a Colonel and all. The “wild
man” invited everyone.
“All the gazelles of the desert have put their head on the line
In the hopes that one day he/she will come to hunt.”44
Now Mr. Deputy Commissioner of Kheri thought to himself, I’ll be
left behind. With one stride he ran right into the tiger’s claws. Then the
real fun began. Now the top lords, nobles, and honorable of this tiger-
less district are looking for lions, tigers, and deer. The eminent Raja
Indra Bikram, ruler of Kheri, has made the hunting-ground the envy of
heaven with his auspicious arrival:
“On top of his head, from his intelligence
shone a lofty star.”45
Then for several days the forest was assailed by bullets and hunting
knives. If a wild pig came out, boom! A deer? Boom! A leaf rustling in the
breeze? Boom! A rabbit stuck out its neck? Boom! A fox? Boom, boom,
boom! Several tigers got lost in the swamp [in their fleeing]. As for the Raja
sahib, he never misses his mark. Even the children of Kheri have hunting in
their blood. As the saying goes, “Even the mice of the wise are logical.”
teenth and early twentieth centuries; between 1890 and 1919 the dis-
ease was estimated to have killed around four million people per de-
cade.47 In a final ironic twist, the report pointed to the profit made by
doctors from the disease: doctors seemed to be the only residents of
Kheri who benefitted from shikār.
c ommon form used for classical shahr ashobs.) The first four lines of
each stanza are organized around a theme. For example, the second
stanza focuses on foods (hunger, bread, rice, lentils, sugar); the fourth
stanza lists various kinds of intoxicating substances: pān (betel nut
similar to tobacco), ganja (marijuana), the huqqa, and opium; the
fifth stanza has no discernable theme, however, with its lines seeming
to have been determined by the requirements of the rhyme scheme.
Other stanzas focus on birds and elite pastimes (stanza 3), the end of
pleasurable activities (stanza 6), and a general mood of calamity and
misfortune (stanza 7). This poem is of middling quality; compared to
some of the premodern shahr ashobs, it lacks complexity of meta-
phor and sophistication of language.65
This poem specifically attacks merchants, who are referred to as
baniyas, a term that can describe merchants, traders, shopkeepers,
grocers, and the like but can also have a derogatory connotation of
pettiness, small-mindedness, and miserliness. Avadh Punch thus took
aim at the mercantile classes, suggesting that they had risen to good
fortune under the colonial administration but lacked intelligence and
good breeding. The term baniya here may have also expressed frus-
tration among the Muslim former elites and aristocrats of north India
against a rising middle class, in which Hindu traders and mercantile
families had an increasingly large role.66 In Avadh Punch, baniya also
took on the particular connotation of “sellout,” which according to
the journal meant selling out to the causes and concerns of the British
government. The periodical frequently lobbied the term baniya at
Naval Kishore, the owner and proprietor of the Naval Kishore Press,
and at Avadh Punch’s rival, Avadh Akhbar, which it called Baniya
Akhbar (The Baniya’s Newspaper).
Yet the poem’s real target is famine, as depicted in the last
stanza. In fact, the poem as a whole presents an overall picture of suf-
fering and want, in which both bare necessities and elite leisure ac-
tivities are no longer available. The stanzas alternate between descrip-
tions of common suffering as experienced by both rich and poor
(“People die for bread, but no bread’s to be found”), and a lament for
the end of elite pastimes: hen and quail fighting, keeping and training
pigeons, consuming opium, pān, ganja, or alcohol, and visiting the
kotha (bordello) of the elite courtesan, whose assistant (“dancing
girl”) and musicians the poem mentions. Thus the poem shows both
the end of the elite’s pleasures and the wretched state of the general
population. It ends with a final two lines that borrow the theme of
Experiments with Form 81
inversion from the classical shahr ashob. In the fallen times of the
present, only the merchants profit, while the rest suffer.
As this chapter’s examples show, Avadh Punch writers inno-
vated with literary form, producing short prose genres that parodied
official print culture in the forms of the dictionary, news report, and
medical prescription. This periodical used fiction to address impor-
tant late nineteenth-century issues, from cholera to the ways to suc-
ceed under British rule to famine. It used satire as a voice to express
dissent, opening up aspects of British colonial rhetoric to critique and
ridicule. It also criticized what it saw as the mimicry of Western be-
havior and actions by native rulers. Through all of these innovations,
Avadh Punch established itself as a purveyor of literary modernity. It
helped establish literature as the premier mode for interrogating mo-
dernity in South Asia.
Chapter Four
For his words of praise regarding my novel, that is the story of Azad, I
credit Mr. S. Barsar’s personal judgment and courtesy. That leaves his
friendly objection, to which my answer is this: First, in a novel it is not
even considered where the hero, that is, the particular man or woman
whom the novel is about, got travel-money. In Pickwick’s novels [i.e.,
The Pickwick Papers], or Walter [Scott’s] novels or Monte Cristo,
which the English regard as dearer than life itself, money was never ar-
ranged for, and this is not illegitimate. . . . Now you’ll say, “But if Azad
82
Reading the World 83
had money when he left, why wasn’t it mentioned in the novel?” Lis-
ten, it was because there was a fear of robbers, thieves, and pickpock-
ets. I said to Zarāf’s wife, let Azad take the money quietly. Don’t let
anyone know about it. These are delicate times.1
there to say? I’d die for Sipahr Ara’s simplicity and loveliness.
You go on defaming me, I’m not afraid of you.
—Signed Humayun Mirza, from Eranpurah,
December 22, 18793
Mr. Editor—after the formalities you deserve, I’d like to say that
when you get letters from proper, pardah nashin [veiled, i.e.,
respectable] women, or some veiled woman writes you something
or takes the courage to challenge something you wrote, or accord-
Reading the World 95
This reader, too, played with the conventions of fact and fiction, also
intervening in the text by suggesting a line of poetry for Husn Ara to
read. Yet Sarshar’s response focused on the reader’s anonymity,
which he connected to the rail network. He suggested that the letter
was a “fake” and could not have been written by a woman: “The
envelope only has the stamp from Lucknow. I was able to find out
that someone mailed it from a railway post office somewhere between
Kanpur and Etawah. So I couldn’t find out the address. But in my
opinion, the letter’s fake. It’s not written by any woman. God knows
all [va allah ‘alam bis savāb].”37 This issue inspired a response from
other readers as well as from Sarshar. Another reader wrote in anon-
ymously to defend Sarshar and Fasana-e Azad from the female read-
er’s charges. He explained that the female reader had focused too
much on the category of birth, emphasizing too much the suffix -zād
(to be born of) in the word sharifzādī. Giving the examples of Shaha-
razad and Dīnazad, the heroine and her younger sister of A Thou-
sand and One Nights, both of whose names ended in -zād, the reader
explained, “Regarding Bi Allah Rakhi’s character, using the word
sharifzādī is appropriate, but it’s not an [illegible] idiom [so it’s a lit-
tle unusual to hear it used in this way]. Whoever . . . has only heard
the words ‘shahzādah’ [prince] and ‘shahzādī ’ [princess], how can
they understand one’s nature just from the word zād [literally, “born
of”]? From the word zād they get stuck on this issue of being born of
someone or other.”38 Despite this rather dubious argument being
based on an amateurish linguistic analysis, the reader’s objection
seemed to cause Sarshar to make an important intervention in the
novel. In the next two days’ installments, he had Bi Allah Rakhi have
an epiphany after being called a common bazaar woman. She r evealed
96 Chapter Four
From the 1860s, the partisans of Hindi argued that Urdu was a Muslim
language and Hindi was the language of Hindus. Since Hindus consti-
tuted a majority in the area, their logic went, Hindi should be the offi-
cial language in these provinces. Partisans of Urdu argued its merits as
the official language, suggesting that Hindi would be ill suited to gov-
ernment use. Advocates from both camps petitioned the colonial state
and tried to sway public opinion through literary journals and societ-
ies. Hindi agitators succeeded in gaining official recognition for Hindi
in 1900, but this was only a partial victory because Hindi did not
98 Chapter Four
their problems and cause their own misfortune, and then there was a
naql [anecdote] completely against reason.
In conclusion, this is a style of writing zarafat that never occurred to
Avadh Punch or Delhi Punch, but only because he is a very capable
man, untouched by foolishness, who is capable of writing these topics,
we have included here some examples below:
“The day that the plane trees are frosted over in Badakshan /
The snake’s [fine] skin becomes Damascus faluda” [i.e., a nonsense
verse].
[Example 3.] There was a man named Azad who was superstitious.
He asked a Pandit to find an auspicious time for him to marry, but by
coincidence, a Pandata’in [female Pandit] who was beautiful [in Urdu a
set of rhyming words: rangīli chel chabīlī, shakar lab sīm ghabghab,
malā’ik-e nazar fareb, tā’ūs-e zeb . . . ] passed by, but what’s this? She
suddenly disappeared [fauran ghā’ib ya mazhar ul-ajā’ib]. Azad was a
naughty person and thought nothing of flirting with women, at that
time he said nothing but in the evening he went straight to her house,
“Whatever will be, will be.”
Audience: Ha ha ha ha.
—“Allahabad”50
The first installment of the next volume of Fasana-e Azad, which is full
of lust, and the granny of the sandfish [a kind of lizard that hides in the
102 Chapter Four
This same review had also objected to Sarshar’s depiction of the hero-
ines’ drying of their hair: “[Page] 35. ‘Husn Ara’s hair dangled here
and there from the bed.’ Most [women] keep their hair braided or
tied. For a woman as refined and ‘delicate’ as Husn Ara to keep her
hair unbraided for no reason like this would be considered improper
[ma‘yūb].” Here the reviewer suggested that Sarshar was unfamiliar
with respectable Muslim ladies, showing his lack of familiarity by
referring to the still common practice of drying one’s hair by spread-
ing it out along some horizontal surface, or in the sun.
Finally, a writer at Avadh Punch, Sitam Zarif, the pen name for
Mirza Macchu Beg (1835–1894), implied that as a man of Kashmiri
background, Sarshar did not truly belong to the set of writers who
could be considered true masters of the Urdu language (ahl-e zabān).
This critique accused Sarshar of not knowing the language of “the
city,” meaning Lucknow, which Avadh Punch considered the c ultural
center (markaz) of Urdu.
In the third segment of a multipart critique of Fasana-e Azad’s
next (that is, second) volume, Sitam Zarif flayed Sarshar’s language
Reading the World 107
109
110 Conclusion
s ecular, critical modernity does not end in the late nineteenth century
but rather reappears in other forms and locations.
Two moments of Urdu cosmopolitanism from the colonial and
postcolonial periods illustrate this. The first moment comes from the
1930s through 1960s, when a wave of radical artistic movements,
called “progressive,” swept across the emerging nation-states of India
and Pakistan. Taking inspiration from both the Russian Revolution
and the Bloomsbury Group, the progressives called for a new vision
of art that would uplift the “masses” and achieve social and political
progress. The all-India Progressive Writers’ Association promoted so-
cial realism, rejecting fantastical and epic modes and advocating for
literature as a mode for awakening political consciousness rather
than for entertainment.1 In his inaugural address to the first Progres-
sive Writers’ Conference, held in Lucknow on April 9, 1936, the
Hindi-Urdu novelist and short story writer Premchand (1880–1936)
explained,
Once, if only once, I get my Lajo back, I shall enshrine her in my heart.
I shall tell others that these poor women were blameless, it was no fault
of theirs that they were abducted, that they fell prey to the brutal pas-
sions of the rioters. . . . With all the eloquence at his command he
pleaded and preached that such women be given the status normally
accorded to wives, sisters, mothers and daughters in a home, and that
not even by hint or suggestion should they ever be reminded of the hei-
nous torments to which they had been subjected. Their hearts were
torn and bleeding, for they were delicate, tender, like the touch-me-not
plant.5
112 Conclusion
view” section, in which the novels on which the dramas are based
are, in many cases, broken into segments and uploaded. In the case of
the superhit drama Humsafar, shown in Pakistan from 2011 to 2012,
the “Book Review” contains the text of the novel in romanized script,
expanding the possible readership to include those who know Hindi
or might speak Urdu but cannot read it. This feature makes clear the
textual basis of the dramas and promotes comparison between novel
and television versions, and the website also contains video inter-
views with actors from the series. Thus the website in essence creates
a broad, self-contained reading/viewing public for the serials, reward-
ing connoisseurship by the site’s extra materials.
I followed the reception online for the serial Mataa-e Jān Hai
Tu, which aired on the Hum TV channel from March to June 2012,
in seventeen episodes of about forty minutes each. It has shown in
Pakistan, Europe, the UAE, India, and the United Kingdom on vari-
ous Hindi or Urdu TV channels, pointing to the ways in which the
new media landscape allows for greater fluidity between Hindi and
Urdu by focusing on spoken language. The show featured a young
third-generation Pakistani American woman named Haniya and her
love affair with a young Pakistani man who is in the United States for
graduate school. About half of the serial takes place in New York
City, and was shot on location at Columbia University. The show
deals with many issues that occupy second- and third-generation im-
migrants in the United States, especially young women. These include
domestic violence, arranged versus “love” marriages, negotiating
family relations to marry a person of one’s own choosing, and the
professional lives of young educated women in Pakistani cities.
The bulk of Drama Pakistani is dedicated to reviews and discus-
sion of each episode of the dramas. A regular commentator usually
presents a long review of the episode, and this is followed by viewers’
comments. Each episode of Mataa-e Jān usually received between
eighteen and fifty comments; a more popular serial such as Zindagi
Gulzar Hai, which aired on Hum TV from late 2012 to early 2013,
often received one hundred comments per episode. The user names of
commenters point to a diverse viewership of Mataa-e Jān.17 Continu-
ing the possibilities for play between a writer’s public persona and
private identity (discussed in chapter 4 of this volume), the user names
of viewers could be funny (“[Pakistani] Drama Buff,” “Howzzat”) or
anonymous (“SK,” “MJ,” etc.). One particular feature of the recep-
tion of Mataa-e Jān was that Farhat Ishtiaq (the author of the novel
116 Conclusion
on which the serial was based), Sarwat Gilani (its main actress), and
Momaina Duraid (a producer at Hum TV) all participated online in
the discussion. The interactivity of the late nineteenth-century print
public sphere continues in the early twenty-first-century digital age.
Discussion of social and cultural issues, which was a feature of
the late nineteenth-century Urdu cosmopolis, is energetic, passionate,
and argumentative on Drama Pakistani. For example, this is the final
note presented in the review of the season finale of Mataa-e Jān:
Mataa-e Jaan began on a very rocky note. The overt nods to Mr. Hun-
tington’s tired old thesis of the clash of civilizations had many of us
grinding our teeth. The Born-in-the-USA but dil-hai-desi [literal trans-
lation “my heart is South Asian”] Haniya’s characterization as the ho-
lier than thou bearer of mashriqi [Eastern] values, her perfect Urdu
diction, and her lovely, but oh not so tomboy-ish, wardrobe, became
another bone of contention. Add to that the lack of palpable sizzle be-
tween the lead pair, and it seemed impossible to see the serial leaving its
mark. What kept it going though, or at least kept me hooked through
the first few episodes, apart from the beyond gorgeous cinematogra-
phy, was the Adam/Yamina track. I loved the fact that after such a long
time a very important issue was being highlighted on our TV screens.
For too long we’ve treated spousal abuse as an issue specific to the il-
literate, lower-/lower-middle-class households. Here we saw an upper-
middle-class, supremely confident, and highly educated Yamina being
abused by Adam, her equally successful and ostensibly charming hus-
band. Sanam Saeed and Junaid Khan [the actors] were fabulous.18
r eviewer wants the serial to push further on social issues, a push made
possible in this cultural space to a degree beyond what might be pos-
sible in the political and social spheres. The reviewer is satisfied with
the serial’s depiction of domestic violence, especially the fact that it
has not been relegated to the lower classes but is here shown to also
be a part of the upper middle class.
In the last several years, Pakistani dramas have begun to be aired
on Indian television, bringing a kind of telediplomacy to the often-
contentious political relations between India and Pakistan. In 2014,
Zee Network in India launched the Zindagi (Life) channel with the
slogan “Jore Dilon Ko” (Connecting Hearts).20 The channel began by
showing four Pakistani television dramas, including the hits Humsa-
far (aired in 2011–2012 in Pakistan) and Zindagi Gulzar Hai (aired
in 2014). The dramas are wildly popular in India.21 For many Indi-
ans, the television serials represented their first exposure to daily life
and culture in Pakistan. Viewers found familiar the social and cul-
tural contexts in the serial, as well as the language and issues it pre-
sented. As indicated by Madhu Goswami, a retired government offi-
cial in New Delhi, “It was a surprise to see that they used Hindi
words in their day-to-day conversations and that they face the same
problems in daily life as we do. After watching these soaps it oc-
curred to me, culturally we are so similar. Then why is there such a
divide between us.”22 The political implications of the dramas’ suc-
cess is clear to its parent company, Zee Entertainment Enterprises
Limited, whose next project, Zeal for Unity, was a commission of
twelve short films, six by Indian directors, and six by Pakistani direc-
tors, released around the seventieth anniversary of Partition.23 Ac-
cording to the project’s press release, it is intended to “inspire people
from either side of the border towards fostering peace and harmony,”
building on the work of the Pakistani dramas to “continue this cul-
tural dialogue between people from both sides of [the] border through
varied forms of art.”24 The dramas may therefore effect a rapproche-
ment between Indian and Pakistani viewers after decades of mistrust
and political tension.
The crossover appeal of Pakistani television actors in India has
not gone without controversy. The romantic leads of Humsafar,
Fawad Khan and Mahira Khan, have landed roles in the major Bol-
lywood films Kapoor and Sons (directed by Shakun Batra, 2016), Ae
Dil Hai Mushkil (directed by Karan Johar, 2016), and Raees (directed
by Rahul Dholakia, 2017) (with Fawad Khan opposite Aishwarya
118 Conclusion
Rai in Ae Dil Hai Mushkil, and Mahira Khan opposite Shah Rukh
Khan in Raees). Then, Fawad Khan’s role in one of these, the 2016
film Ae Dil Hai Mushkil (This Heart Is Complicated) became the sub-
ject of political controversy when a right-wing nationalist party, Ma-
harashtra Navnirman Sena (MNS), called for the film to be banned
for featuring a Pakistani actor. The film’s director and writer, Karan
Johar, eventually apologized in the media and declared that he would
no longer cast “talent” from Pakistan.25 Thus the fractures of the
nineteenth-century Urdu cosmopolis continue into the present.
There is a peculiar irony, I think, to the resurgence of the Urdu
cosmopolis in the digital and visual realms. A transregional language
of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Urdu has been a language
without a state, unlike South Asia’s other mother tongues, most of
which are connected to a geographical space.26 Yet it is precisely
Urdu’s fluidity that allows it to transition easily into the cross-re-
gional space of electronic media. The current practice of writing
Urdu in transliterated Roman script while using electronic media,
due to the lack of widespread computer fonts for Urdu, collapses the
distance between Hindi and Urdu that was created in the colonial
period largely on the basis of script. The circulation of television
dramas makes Urdu into a spoken language, which has also divorced
it from the divisive issue of script. Urdu is again becoming Hindu-
stani, the shared language of everyday speech envisioned by Gandhi
as a possible unifying force among Hindus and Muslims in indepen-
dent India.
New digital forums and the revival of performance traditions
are also revitalizing the Urdu cosmopolis. In a recent issue of the New
York–based magazine Café Dissensus dedicated to “Urdu in Con-
temporary India: Predicaments and Promises,” contributor Soheb Ni-
azi noted, “[The] democratizing of the [Urdu] language entails mov-
ing beyond literary texts as a medium for the propagation of ideas
and visions in Urdu, to oral and visual traditions that are more pow-
erful with a far-reaching appeal.”27 And this has indeed been the case,
as online projects such as rekhta.org digitize and make available in
Urdu, Hindi, and Roman scripts prose and poetry from the past five
centuries.28 The website at present houses a spectacularly rich collec-
tion of Urdu prose and poetry, augmented by audio and video re-
cordings of renowned poets, musicians, and actors performing the
material, a collection of searchable Urdu dictionaries, and other sup-
plementary material. It has recently added online Urdu lessons. Given
New Spaces of the Urdu Cosmopolis 119
To look
Beyond the horizon
Is banned
To think
Beyond one’s faith and beliefs
Is banned
120 Conclusion
In every sky
Lifting the veil of secrets and looking beyond
Is banned
The poem redefines life and freedom as moving and thinking beyond,
the transgressing of social norms toward new imaginative horizons.
A celebration and invocation of critical thinking, the poem professes
that to be human is to question and to challenge. It is no accident that
the poem’s form is a nazm (free verse), a genre inaugurated in the
early twentieth century to challenge the formal and intellectual re-
strictions of classical Urdu poetry.30 The poem demands that all reli-
gious and social authorities be disputed. It satirizes religious authori-
ties and politicians, and suggests that true faith and freedom lie
outside social norms.
In the late nineteenth century, Urdu readers and writers devel-
oped a modern critical ethos by participating in and dreaming the
cosmopolitan dreams of Urdu print. Literature and the print public
sphere became key sites in which the protocols of modernity were
challenged and new futures imagined. Especially now, we must con-
tinue to recognize the power of literature and the arts to allow us to
think and dream anew.
Notes
Preface
1. Partha Chatterjee, The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolo-
nial Histories (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993), 5.
2. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins
and Spread of Nationalism, rev. ed. (London: Verso, 1991), 25.
3. Jessica Berman, Modernist Commitments: Ethics, Politics, and Transna-
tional Modernism (New York: Columbia University Press, 2011), 3.
121
122 Notes to Page 4
esternization, and the global circulation of commodities, capital, and labor that
W
marked what Jina Kim calls “material modernity.” See Jina Kim, “The Circulation
of Urban Literary Modernity in Colonial Korea and Taiwan” (PhD diss., Univer-
sity of Washington, 2006). Lydia Liu’s examination of “translated modernity” in
early twentieth-century China concentrates on the new “words, meanings, dis-
courses and modes of representation” that “arise, circulate and acquire legitimacy”
from the interaction between Chinese and Western ideas. Lydia H. Liu, Transling-
ual Practice: Literature, National Culture, and Translated Modernity—China,
1900–1937 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1995), 26.
8. Aparna Dharwadker, “Mohan Rakesh, Modernism, and the Postcolonial
Present,” South Central Review 25, no. 1 (Spring 2008): 143.
9. For example, in Hindi the work of Agyeya and the “New Story” move-
ment writers, active in the 1950s and 1960s, has received attention, as has the
work of the postindependence playwright Mohan Rakesh. A recent dissertation
comparing Bengali, Hindi, and English modernisms in South Asia focuses on the
early to mid-twentieth century. See Rita Banerjee, “The New Voyager: Theory and
Practice of South Asian Literary Modernisms” (PhD diss., Harvard University,
2013).
10. Dipesh Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and
Historical Difference (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000).
11. See Kaviraj, “Laughter and Subjectivity”; David Shulman identifies
“irony, broadly defined, and self-parody” as themes of Tamil modernity. David
Shulman, Tamil: A Biography (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016),
249. In his far-reaching analysis of modern Tamil prose and poetry, Shulman also
points to a more distant narrative voice, which he describes as “self-conscious
comment by the narrator” in the sixteenth-century Tamil poem Naitatam; ibid.,
252. Bakhtin considered “laughter” one of two defining characteristics (the other
being polyglossia) of the novel. See Mikhail Bakhtin, “From the Prehistory of Nov-
elistic Discourse,” in The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays by M. M. Bakhtin, ed.
Michael Holquist, trans. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist (Austin: University
of Texas Press, 1981), 50.
12. Cf. Shulman (Tamil, 287), who notes, “The modernizing impulses pres-
ent in the hyper-realistic and naturalistic modes of the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries, often couched in parodic tones, developed further in the nineteenth
century.”
13. Sascha Ebeling, Colonizing the Realm of Words: The Transformation of
Tamil Literature in Nineteenth-Century South India (Albany: State University of
New York Press, 2010), 16; cf. Shulman, Tamil, 290.
14. There is disagreement about the date of Sarshar’s birth and death. See
Braj Narāyan Chakbast, “Sarshar,” in Intikhāb-e Mazāmīn-e Chakbast, ed. Hukm
Chand Nayyar (Lakhnau, India: Uttar Pradesh Urdu Akadami, 1984); Qamar
Ra’īs, Ratan Nāth Sarshār (New Delhi: Sahitya Akadmi, 1983); Firoze Mookerjee,
Lucknow and the World of Sarshar (Karachi, Pakistan: Saad Publication, 1992).
Notes to Pages 4–5 123
Chakbast, Sarshar’s earliest biographer, gave his date of death as January 21, 1903.
See Chakbast, “Sarshar,” 145–146.
15. I have marked an Urdu writer’s pen name (takhallus) with quotation
marks the first time the pen name appears.
16. For the Urdu novel’s relationship to the Indo-Persian genre of dastan (ro-
mance), see Jennifer Dubrow, “A Space for Debate: Fashioning the Urdu Novel in
Colonial India,” Comparative Literature Studies 53, no. 2 (2016): 289–311. For
the relationship between modern Indian art and tradition, see Khullar, Worldly Af-
filiations, as well as Sonal Khullar, “National Tradition and Modernist Art,” in
The Cambridge Companion to Modern Indian Culture, ed. Vasudha Dalmia and
Rashmi Sadana (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012). David Shulman
analyzes “daring experimentation both within the traditional forms and beyond
them” in nineteenth-century Tamil; see Shulman, Tamil, chaps. 7–8. For the Ben-
gali poet Michael Madhusudan Datta’s reimagining of the kavya (classical) form,
see Michael Madhusudan Datta, The Slaying of Meghanada: A Ramayana from
Colonial Bengal, trans. Clinton B. Seely (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004).
17. Dharwadker, “Mohan Rakesh,” 143. Javed Majeed described this as
“how the self-conscious sense of being ‘modern’ was used by South Asian writers
as an ideology of aesthetics in order to distinguish themselves from their ‘tradi-
tional’ predecessors.” Javed Majeed, “Literary Modernity in South Asia,” in India
and the British Empire, ed. Douglas M. Peers and Nandini Gooptu (Oxford: Ox-
ford University Press, 2012), 264.
18. Franco Moretti, in “The Novel: History and Theory,” argued that the use
of prose served as a defining feature of the novel across multiple contexts (he lists
ancient Greek, Japanese, French, and Chinese examples), because prose tends to
move the narrative forward and to increase complexity. To determine whether this
applies in Urdu, which features a well-established genre of narrative poetry (mas-
navi), would require further research. See Franco Moretti, “The Novel: History
and Theory,” in Franco Moretti, Distant Reading (London: Verso, 2013).
19. On this, see Walter N. Hakala, Negotiating Languages: Urdu, Hindi, and
the Definition of Modern South Asia (New York: Columbia University Press,
2016); and Sudipta Kaviraj, “The Two Histories of Literary Culture in Bengal,” in
Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia, ed. Sheldon Pol-
lock (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003).
20. On Miraji, see Geeta Patel, Lyrical Movements, Historical Hauntings:
On Gender, Colonialism, and Desire in Miraji’s Urdu Poetry (Stanford, CA: Stan-
ford University Press, 2002); on N. M. Rashid, see A. Sean Pue, I Too Have Some
Dreams: N. M. Rashed and Modernism in Urdu Poetry (Oakland: University of
California Press, 2014). One might also point out that the classical Urdu poetic
genre of the ghazal, which developed in South Asia in the eighteenth and nine-
teenth centuries, already possessed a kind of modernity, as seen in its celebration of
individual experience and subjectivity and rejection of social norms. The couplet
by the late-classical Urdu poet Asadullah Khan “Ghalib” (1797–1869), “I’m
124 Notes to Pages 5–6
either the loosening of song nor the close-drawn tent of music / I’m the sound,
n
simply, of my own breaking,” translated by the poet Adrienne Rich, is exemplary
of this kind of modern consciousness. Rich’s translation was part of Aijaz Ahmad’s
collaborative translation project of Ghalib’s ghazals: Aijaz Ahmad, ed., Ghazals of
Ghalib: Version from the Urdu by Aijaz Ahmad, W. S. Merwin, Adrienne Rich,
William Stafford, David Ray, Thomas Fitzsimmons, Mark Strand, and William
Hurt (New York: Columbia University Press, 1971).
21. About this, Kavita Datla has written, “Tied as Urdu has become to the
fate of India’s largest religious minority, Muslims, and to the emergence of the in-
dependent state of Pakistan, for which Urdu is the official national language, histo-
ries of the Urdu language are particularly—and understandably—preoccupied
with explaining how the shared and flexible literary and linguistic traditions of
South Asia’s Muslim community came to be politically focused on the Urdu lan-
guage.” Kavita Datla, The Language of Secular Islam: Urdu Nationalism and Co-
lonial India (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2013), 7. Urdu, currently the
national language of Pakistan and one of twenty-two constitutionally recognized
languages in India, remains in some ways a language without a state. Whereas
other South Asian vernacular languages have been studied in terms of their relation
to place, Urdu does not fit the dominant paradigm in modern South Asia in which
languages have been connected to regions and particular communities. See, for
example, Lisa Mitchell, Language, Emotion, and Politics in South India: The Mak-
ing of a Mother Tongue (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2009); and Su-
mathi Ramaswamy, Passions of the Tongue: Language Devotion in Tamil India,
1891–1970 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997). On Urdu’s status in
Pakistan, see Alyssa Ayres, Speaking Like a State: Language and Nationalism in
Pakistan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009). In the nineteenth cen-
tury, Urdu was a lingua franca spoken by the educated classes across northern
Pakistan and India, and parts of southern India. After being separated from Hindi,
Urdu retained its transregional status, as the work of Nile Green has illuminated.
See Nile Green, “Africa in Indian Ink: Urdu Articulations of Indian Settlement in
East Africa,” Journal of African History 53, no. 2 (2012): 131–150; Nile Green,
“Urdu as an African Language: A Survey of a Source Literature,” Islamic Africa 3,
no. 2 (Fall 2012): 173–199; and Nile Green, “Buddhism, Islam and the Religious
Economy of Colonial Burma,” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 46, no. 2 (June
2015): 175–204. On the production and circulation of Urdu books in colonial
Bombay, also see Nile Green, Bombay Islam: The Religious Economy of the West
Indian Ocean, 1840–1915 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011).
22. Anita Desai, In Custody (New Delhi: Penguin Books, 1984), 42.
23. For example, see Athar Faruqi, ed., Redefining Urdu Politics in Urdu
(New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2010).
24. Quoted in Amina Yaqin, “The Communalization and Disintegration of
Urdu in Anita Desai’s In Custody,” in Alternative Indias: Writing, Nation, and
Communalism, ed. Peter Morey and Alex Tickell (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2005), 92.
Notes to Pages 6–10 125
4. Sean Lathan and Robert Scholes, “The Rise of Periodical Studies,” Publi-
cations of the Modern Language Association of America 121, no. 2 (2006): 517.
5. Shobna Nijhawan, Women and Girls in the Hindi Public Sphere: Periodical Lit-
erature in Colonial North India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2012), 231–232.
6. As shown by Ulrike Stark in Empire of Books, the book became an afford-
able commodity in South Asia in the 1840s, leading to a boom in commercial
publishing across South Asia. The spread of lithography across north India al-
lowed Indians to set up their own presses, transforming the nature of printing in
South Asia away from government or missionary presses, and toward Indian-
owned commercial printing.
7. Sanjay Joshi, Fractured Modernity: Making of a Middle Class in Colonial
North India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2002), 23.
8. Ibid., 24.
9. Ibid., 23.
10. It appears Sarshar studied only at the secondary school “associated” with
Canning College (S. Joshi, Fractured Modernity, 37), but I have been unable to find
more specific information.
11. See S. Joshi, Fractured Modernity, chapter 1.
12. Ram Babu Saksena, A History of Urdu Literature (Delhi: Cosmo Publica-
tions, 2002; repr., Allahabad: Ram Narain Lal, 1927), 322.
13. On Naval Kishore, see Stark, Empire of Books.
14. Saksena, History of Urdu Literature, 322.
15. Patrick Leary, The Punch Brotherhood: Table Talk and Print Culture in
Mid-Victorian London (London: The British Library, 2010).
16. This statement reportedly inspired Sarshar to write the pieces in Avadh
Akhbar that would later become Fasana-e Azad. See Braj Narāyan Chakbast,
“Sarshar,” in Intikhāb-e Mazāmīn-e Chakbast, ed. Hukm Chand Nayyar (Lakh-
nau, India: Uttar Pradesh Urdū Akadamī, 1984). On why Chakbast’s account is
most likely inaccurate, see Jennifer Dubrow, “From Newspaper Sketch to ‘Novel’:
The Writing and Reception of ‘Fasana-e Azad’ in North India, 1878–1880” (PhD
diss., University of Chicago, 2011).
17. Mushirul Hasan, Wit and Humour in Colonial North India (New Delhi:
Niyogi, 2007), 36.
18. Chakbast, “Sarshar,” 121.
19. Saksena, History of Urdu Literature, 323–324. These authors’ shift from
Persian to Urdu reflected the growth of Urdu publishing and Persian’s decreasing
political and cultural importance in the late nineteenth century.
20. Sayyid Shafqat Rizvī, Avadh Panch aur Panch Nigār (Karachi, Pakistan:
Avadh Adabī Akādamī Pākistān, 1995), 10–11.
21. See C. Ryan Perkins, “Partitioning History: The Creation of an Islāmī Pablik
in Late Colonial India, c. 1880–1920” (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 2011).
22. Muhammad Qamar Salim, Ishāriya-e Dilgudaz, vol. 1 (New Delhi: Mak-
tabah Jamiah Limited, 2003).
128 Notes to Pages 20–24
60. Sneezing upon arrival at a new place was a bad sign according to supersti-
tion in late nineteenth-century Lucknow.
61. Avadh Punch, January 22, 1878, 2.
62. Ibid.
63. Ibid.
64. See Barbara Metcalf, Perfecting Women: Maulana Ashraf ‘Ali Thanawi’s
Bihishti Zewar; A Partial Translation with Commentary (New Delhi: Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 2002); and David Kopf, The Brahmo Samaj and the Shaping of the
Modern Indian Mind (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2015).
65. Avadh Punch, March 19, 1878, 7.
Delhi and Lucknow were privileged in Urdu literary histories. See Muhammad
Husain Azad, Ab-e Hayat: Shaping the Canon of Urdu Poetry, trans. Frances
Pritchett (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001); C. M. Naim and Carla
Petievich, “Urdu in Lucknow / Lucknow in Urdu,” in Lucknow: Memories of a
City, ed. Violette Graff (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997).
35. Francesca Orsini, Print and Pleasure: Popular Literature and Entertain-
ing Fictions in Colonial North India (Ranikhet, India: Permanent Black, 2009),
171.
36. Sumanta Banerjee, The Parlour and the Streets: Elite and Popular Culture
in Nineteenth-Century Calcutta (Calcutta: Seagull Books, 1989); Hans Harder,
“The Modern Babu and the Metropolis: Reassessing Early Bengali Narrative Prose
(1821–1862),” in India’s Literary History: Essays on the Nineteenth Century, ed.
Vasudha Dalmia and Stuart Blackburn (New Delhi: Permanent Black, 2004). The
Anglicized babu trope also appears in early twentieth-century Hindi literary maga-
zines; see Charu Gupta, The Gender of Caste: Representing Dalits in Print (Seattle:
University of Washington Press, 2016).
37. Avadh Akhbar, August 23, 1878, 2700.
38. Pandit Ratan Nath Sahib Dar Kashmiri Lakhnavi, Fasana-e Azad, vol. 1,
1st ed. (Lucknow, India: Naval Kishore Press, 1880), 1.
39. Both of these elements would have contrasted with the “decadence” and
“frivolity” of the aristocratic upper classes as maligned by the middle classes in
1870s Lucknow. See Sanjay Joshi, Fractured Modernity: Making of a Middle Class
in Colonial North India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2002), 46–48.
40. Ibid., 61.
41. Avadh Akhbar, August 23, 1878, 2700.
42. Avadh Akhbar, August 23, 1878, 2700–2701.
43. See Mrinalini Sinha, Colonial Masculinity: The “Manly Englishman” and
the “Effeminate Bengali” in the Late Nineteenth Century (Manchester, UK: Man-
chester University Press, 1995).
44. Avadh Akhbar, August 28, 1878.
45. Cf. Kalighat paintings and farces satirizing the overly Westernized Ben-
gali babu. See Banerjee, Parlour and the Streets; Harder, “Modern Babu.” This
powerful rejection of the Anglicized babu figure has been lost in the book editions
of Fasana-e Azad. Sarshar removed some of Azad’s misbehavior in the book edi-
tions. Because the episodes have been combined into one chapter, their narrative
rhythm is also different: the vignettes end with Chammi Jān critiquing or challeng-
ing Azad; their rhetorical punch has been lost in the book editions. For more on the
Anglicized babu figure in Fasana-e Azad, see Jennifer Dubrow, “Serial Fictions:
Urdu Print Culture and the Novel in Colonial South Asia,” Indian Economic and
Social History Review 54, no. 4 (2017): 403–422.
46. Avadh Akhbar, May 17, 1879, 1580.
47. From Madhu Prashad Singh, Honorary Assistant Commissioner and
Ta‘luqdar, Dalīppur, published in Avadh Akhbar, November 6, 1879, supplement 154.
134 Notes to Pages 51–55
48. The Azad/Khoji pair derived in significant part from the dastan tradition.
The romance of Amir Hamza, the most popular example of the Persian romance
genre known as dastan in South Asia, featured a trickster figure named Amar
Ayyar. As I have argued elsewhere, Amar Ayyar served to humanize the hero Amir
Hamza, and also formed an alter ego and shadow self to Amir Hamza, the ideal-
ized and moral hero. Sarshar and other early Urdu novelists drew from the dastan
tradition in using and developing character pairs in their early novels. See Jennifer
Dubrow, “Space for Debate.”
49. Dubrow, “Serial Fictions.”
50. Jennifer Dubrow, “From Newspaper Sketch to ‘Novel’: The Writing and
Reception of ‘Fasana-e Azad,’ in North India, 1878–1880” (PhD diss., University
of Chicago, 2011).
51. As Ralph Russell noted, the roles are reversed in Don Quixote, in which
Don Quixote is the “backward” character to Sancho Panza’s more realistic and
modern mindset. See Ralph Russell, “The Development of the Modern Novel in
Urdu,” in The Novel in India: Its Birth and Development, ed. T. W. Clark (Berke-
ley: University of California Press, 1970).
52. Lakhnavi, Fasana-e Azad, 527. The “New Light” refers to the modern-
izing Muslim reformist movement associated with Sayyid Ahmad Khan.
53. Ibid.
54. Ibid., 526.
55. Ibid., 527. In Fasana-e Azad, “Hindustan” refers to north India; when
Azad and Khoji visit Bombay, this is described as external to Hindustan.
56. Ibid., 528.
57. Ibid.
58. See Rochona Majumdar, Marriage and Modernity: Family Values in Co-
lonial Bengal (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2009).
59. Avadh Akhbar, October 15, 1879, supplement 91.
60. Lakhnavi, Fasana-e Azad, 528.
61. This is reminiscent of Amar Ayyar in Dastan-e Amir Hamza. See Du-
brow, “Space for Debate.”
62. Dubrow, “Newspaper Sketch”; Orsini, Print and Pleasure.
63. Lakhnavi, Fasana-e Azad, 500.
64. Ibid., 549.
65. Ibid., 570.
66. Avadh Akhbar, December 3, 1879, supplement 218.
67. Orsini, Print and Pleasure, 177.
68. Partha Chatterjee, The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolo-
nial Histories (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993); Minault, Secluded
Scholars.
69. S. Joshi, Fractured Modernity, 61.
70. Francesca Orsini, The Hindi Public Sphere, 1920–1940: Language and
Literature in the Age of Nationalism (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2002);
Notes to Pages 56–58 135
Charu Gupta, Sexuality, Obscenity, Community: Women, Muslims, and the Hindu
Public in Colonial India (Delhi: Permanent Black, 2001).
71. Lakhnavi, Fasana-e Azad, 279.
72. Ibid., 307–308.
73. Ibid., 308.
74. Avadh Akhbar, July 28–August 7, 1879. This quality has been the subject
of debate among scholars. Firoze Mookerjee, a scholar of Sarshar’s works, has ar-
gued that Husn Ara’s conditions for marriage showed her to be “an unattractively
hard and calculating person,” who represented an unsuccessful mix of female ar-
chetypes, “the as yet unknown emancipated woman of Sarshar’s ideal,” the hero-
ine of romance narratives, the courtesan, and “the hard and calculating house-
wife”; Firoze Mookerjee, Lucknow and the World of Sarshar (Karachi, Pakistan:
Saad Publication, 1992), 110, 112. Francesca Orsini has argued that Husn Ara’s
demands demonstrate her concern for respectability, and reflect “her definition of
how to become a sharif,” which involved practicing proper conduct, acting accord-
ing to established modes of respectability, and becoming proficient in modern ways
of life (Orsini, Print and Pleasure, 180).
75. Lakhnavi, Fasana-e Azad, 343.
76. Tanika Sarkar, Hindu Wife, Hindu Nation: Community, Religion, and
Cultural Nationalism (New Delhi: Permanent Black, 2001); Minault, Secluded
Scholars; Majumdar, Marriage and Modernity.
77. The issue of consent in conjugal marriages in late nineteenth-century
South Asia is an important one that awaits further study.
78. Ji-Eun Lee, Women Pre-scripted: Forging Modern Roles through Korean
Print (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2015), 8.
79. Marilyn Booth, “Women in Islam: Men and the Women’s Press in Turn-
of-the-20th-Century Egypt,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 33, no.
2 (2001): 171–201.
80. Lakhnavi, Fasana-e Azad, 623.
81. This is similar to the ideal of restraint outlined by Minault as part of the
values associated with “both sharif culture and reformist Islam” (Minault, Se-
cluded Scholars, 51). However, the difference is that Husn Ara moderates between
what she sees as two extremes (the sharifzādī and the courtesan), proposing a mid-
dle ground between the two.
82. I have argued elsewhere that Husn Ara’s model behavior was somewhat
tempered by her less restrained sister, Sipahr Ara. See Dubrow, “Space for Debate.”
83. Kumkum Sangari, “Multiple Temporalities, Unsettled Boundaries, Trick-
ster Women: Reading a Nineteenth-Century Qissa,” in India’s Literary History:
Essays on the Nineteenth Century, ed. Vasudha Dalmia and Stuart Blackburn
(New Delhi: Permanent Black, 2004).
84. Gupta, Sexuality, Obscenity, Community; S. Joshi, Fractured Modernity;
Krupa Shandilya, Intimate Relations: Social Reform and the Late Nineteenth-
Century South Asian Novel (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 2017).
136 Notes to Pages 59–65
35. Ibid.
36. For more about the word tahzib in the nineteenth century, see chapter 2.
37. Kaul, Guldasta-e Panch, 147.
38. On The Devil’s Dictionary, see David Mason, “The Dark Delight of Am-
brose Bierce,” Hudson Review 65, no. 1 (Spring 2012): 81–89.
39. On shikār, see Swati Shresth, “Sahibs and Shikar: Colonial Hunting and
Wildlife in British India, 1800–1935” (PhD diss., Duke University 2009); Shafqat
Hussain, “Forms of Predation: Tiger and Markhor Hunting in Colonial Gover-
nance,” Modern Asian Studies 46, no. 5 (2012): 1212–1238; Joseph Sramek,
“‘Face Him Like a Briton’: Tiger Hunting, Imperialism, and British Masculinity in
Colonial India, 1800–1875,” Victorian Studies 48, no. 4 (Summer 2006):
659–680.
40. “Tiger hunting was an important symbol in the construction of British
imperial and masculine identities during the nineteenth century”; Sramek, “Face
Him Like a Briton,” 659.
41. Ratan Nath Sarshar was author of Fasana-e Azad, discussed in chapter 2.
42. Abida Samiuddin, ed., Encyclopedic Dictionary of Urdu Literature,
vol. 2 (New Delhi: Global Vision, 2007), 538.
43. Sumit Sarkar, “Renaissance and Kaliyuga: Time, Myth and History in
Colonial Bengal,” in Writing Social History (Delhi: Oxford University Press,
1997), 191.
44. This verse is from a famous ghazal of Amir Khusrau (1253–1325), with
the matla‘ (opening verse): “Khabaram rasida imshab ke nigar khwahi amad.” I
am grateful to Shariq Khan for identifying this verse.
45. This is from the Gulistan of “Sa‘di” (Abu Muhammad Muslih ud-Din
bin ‘Abdullah Shīrāzī), from the section dar sirat padashahan (“on the conduct of
kings”). The story is about a wise and enlightened young man who eventually at-
tracts the attention of the sultan of the time and gains a high position. His peers are
jealous of him and try to have him killed but fail. The king asks him why they tried
to kill him, and he then recites a few verses about jealousy and how it is an incur-
able illness. The lines quoted describe this young man. I am grateful to Shariq Khan
for providing this information.
46. Avadh Punch, June 18, 1878, 2.
47. On these epidemics, see David Arnold, “Cholera and Colonialism in Brit-
ish India,” Past & Present 113 (November 1986): 123.
48. The “prescription” is from Avadh Punch, January 22, 1878, 2. Seema
Alavi, Islam and Healing: Loss and Recovery of an Indo-Muslim Medical Tradi-
tion, 1600–1900 (Ranikhet, India: Permanent Black, 2007).
49. Alavi, Islam and Healing, 201–204.
50. Akbar Allahabadi cited and translated in Russell, Pursuit of Urdu
Literature.
51. David Lelyveld, Aligarh’s First Generation: Muslim Solidarity in British
India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996), 57.
140 Notes to Pages 76–78
have increasingly sought to reify such accounts as much as possible and to view the
genre as one filled with actual, reliable historical descriptions of urban decay.”
Frances W. Pritchett, “A Long History of Urdu Literary Culture, Part 2: Histories,
Performances, and Masters,” in Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions
from South Asia, ed. Sheldon Pollock (Berkeley: University of California Press,
2003), 904.
62. For a brief biography of Shauq’s life, see Musubāh ul-Hasan Qaisar,
Mu‘āvinīn-e Avadh Panch (Lucknow, India: Nami Press, 1984). Shauq was active
later in a controversy about Gulzar-e Nasim; see Ryan Perkins, “From the Meḥfil
to the Printed Word: Public Debate and Discourse in Late Colonial India,” Indian
Economic and Social History Review 50 (January–March 2013): 47–76.
63. This line implied the speaker’s physical attraction to the shop boy. It re-
fers to the Indo-Persian and Turkish traditions of the shahr ashob, which cata-
logued young boys’ beauty. See note 61 above. Attraction to young boys was a
trope of classical Urdu and Persian poetry. This has often been read as evidence of
same-sex love in medieval South Asia. But the trope was also a common literary
device in Urdu ghazal, where the beloved could be male or female, human or di-
vine. In its open use of gender pronouns the Urdu ghazal drew on the Persian po-
etic tradition, in which gender is often not defined (the Persian language does not
mark gender). See C. M. Naim, “The Theme of Homosexual (Pederastic) Love in
Pre-Modern Urdu Poetry,” in Studies in the Urdu Gazal and Prose Fiction, ed.
Muhammad Umar Memon (Madison: University of Wisconsin, 1979); and, more
recently, Ruth Vanita and Saleem Kidwai, eds., Same-Sex Love in India: Readings
from Literature and History (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000).
64. Avadh Punch, April 23, 1878, 2. My rhyming translation renders the
rhetorical punch of the original Urdu. It is not a literal translation.
65. See Frances W. Pritchett and Shamsur Rahman Faruqi, trans., “‘The Vile
World Carnival’: A Shahr-Ashob by Nazir Akbarabadi,” Annual of Urdu Studies 4
(1984): 24–35; and Frances W. Pritchett and Shamsur Rahman Faruqi, trans., “‘In
the Presence of the Nightingale’: A Shahr-Ashob,” Annual of Urdu Studies 3
(1983): 1–9, for two examples of excellent premodern shahr ashobs.
66. Ritu Khanduri reads this as evidence of caste shaping commercial rival-
ries. See Khanduri, Caricaturing Culture, 58–59.
newspaper is taken from him first, and as soon as they take the paper, they start
reading the humor supplement and everyone listens attentively.” Avadh Akhbar,
November 12, 1879, supplement 172.
3. Published Avadh Akhbar, December 29, 1879, supplement 288.
4. On Fasana-e Azad’s serial formats, see Dubrow, “Serial Fictions.”
5. Michael Warner, “Publics and Counterpublics,” Public Culture 14, no. 1
(Winter 2002): 82.
6. Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An
Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, trans. Thomas Burger (Cambridge,
MA: MIT Press, 1991 [1962]).
7. For example, see Nancy Armstrong, “Rethinking the Public Sphere: A
Contribution to the Critique of Actually Existing Democracy,” and the other con-
tributions in Craig Calhoun, ed., Habermas and the Public Sphere (Cambridge,
MA: MIT Press, 1992), as well as Jacob Soll, Publishing the Prince: History, Read-
ing, and the Birth of Political Criticism (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press,
2009).
8. As Barbara Metcalf, in her study of the Deoband Islamic seminary, notes,
“The reformers not only preached and debated, but were among the first to take
advantage of the new printing presses of the day. . . . Indigenous leaders welcomed
cheap publications and public preaching not as a source of a new world-view but
as a way of spreading their own new formulations of self-statement and identity.”
Barbara Daly Metcalf, Islamic Revival in British India: Deoband, 1860–1900
(New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2002 [1982]), 67, 198. Also see Francis Rob-
inson, The ‘Ulama of Farangi Mahall and Islamic Culture in South Asia (Delhi:
Permanent Black, 2001), for similar findings in relation to the Farangi Mahall
seminary in Lucknow.
9. On this, also see Nile Green, Bombay Islam: The Religious Economy of
the West Indian Ocean, 1840–1915 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2011).
10. Avadh Akhbar, September 25, 1879, supplement 36.
11. “Miyan Azad ki Dastan,” Avadh Akhbar, September 15, 1879, 2899.
12. Sarshar responded to this reader, “This novel will be published separately,
but still needs a lot of revision. . . . In my opinion, this dastan cannot be published
separately without serious consideration [ghor o fikr]. It really needs revision and
changes. Sometimes when my health was not good, the topic becomes vapid
[phīka], and the story [qissah] isn’t finished yet. But this qissah will be published
separately.” Avadh Akhbar, September 25, 1879, supplement 36.
13. His pen name, “Bimar,” meant “Lovesick.”
14. Avadh Akhbar, October 6, 1879, supplement 64.
15. For a discussion of how Fasana-e Azad developed a technique of using
contrasting character pairs from the dastan genre, see Jennifer Dubrow, “A Space
for Debate: Fashioning the Urdu Novel in Colonial India,” in Comparative Litera-
ture Studies 53, no. 2 (2016): 289–311.
Notes to Pages 87–90 143
16. Another reader, Pandit Dahram Chand from Simla, echoed this assertion.
In his letter published on November 6, 1879, Chand described the genre of qissah
(short tale) as having “made everyone fearful and cowardly with their ghosts, spir-
its, witches, magic spells, and incantations. By mentioning ridiculous, false, imagi-
nary, illusionary forms they’ve deceived everyone.” Avadh Akhbar, November 6,
1879, supplement 156.
17. Avadh Akhbar, November 15, 1879, 3546.
18. On Shakespeare in India, see Poonam Trivedi and Dennis Bartholomeusz,
eds., India’s Shakespeare: Translation, Interpretation, and Performance (Newark:
University of Delaware Press, 2005); and Shormistha Panja and Babli Moitra
Saraf, eds., Performing Shakespeare in India: Exploring Indianness, Literatures,
and Cultures (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2016).
19. Ch. Pellat, H. Massé, I. Mélikoff, A. T. Hatto, and Aziz Ahmad,
“Ḥamāsa,” in Encyclopaedia of Islam, ed. P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bos-
worth, E. van Donzel, and W. P. Heinrichs, 2nd ed., accessed May 5, 2017, http://
dx.doi.org.offcampus.lib.washington.edu/10.1163/1573–3912_islam_COM
_0258. R. Blachère and A. Bausani, “Ghazal,” in Encyclopaedia of Islam, ac-
cessed May 5, 2017, http://dx.doi.org.offcampus.lib.washington.edu/10.1163
/1573–3912_islam_COM_0232.
20. The phrase “worldly affiliations” refers to Sonal Khullar, Worldly Affilia-
tions: Artistic Practice, National Identity, and Modernism in India, 1930–1990
(Oakland: University of California Press, 2015), 14. Khullar there drew from Ed-
ward Said’s concept of “affiliation,” which she defined as “a critical act by which
naturalized bonds, or ‘filiation,’ between the state and culture (or between empire
and culture) are dissolved and the worldly conditions, or social and political hori-
zons, of cultural production are revived.” On the incorporation of music into Urdu
drama, see Kathryn Hansen, Stages of Life: Indian Theatre Autobiographies (Ran-
ikhet, India: Permanent Black, 2011), 14.
21. This reflected a larger “culture of corrections” that developed in early
Urdu print culture, as a legacy of manuscript culture. The work of Peter S tallybrass,
Anthony Grafton, and others has established continuities between manuscript and
print culture in early print culture in Europe. Readers in sixteenth-century Eng-
land, for example, were encouraged to submit handwritten corrections to popular
printed texts such as almanacs. This “culture of corrections” developed in South
Asia, as well. On connections between manuscript and print culture, see Peter Stal-
lybrass, “‘Little Jobs’: Broadsides and the Printing Revolution,” in Agent of
Change: Print Culture Studies after Elizabeth L. Eisenstein, ed. Sabrina Alcorn
Baron et al. (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2007), 340–367; and
Anthony Grafton, The Culture of Correction in Renaissance Europe (London:
British Library, 2011). On corrections to almanacs, see Peter Stallybrass, “Benja-
min Franklin: Printed Corrections and Erasable Writing,” Proceedings of the
American Philosophical Society 150, no. 4 (2006): 553–567.
22. Avadh Akhbar, September 11, 1879, 2857.
144 Notes to Pages 91–94
23. Ibid.
24. On a similar use of the word nairang, also by a reader of late nineteenth-
century Urdu print, see C. Ryan Perkins, “Partitioning History: The Creation of an
Islāmī Pablik in Late Colonial India, c. 1880–1920” (PhD diss., University of Penn-
sylvania, 2011). As Perkins has shown, print provided greater anonymity than a
face-to-face exchange. Yet it also made possible greater deception and fraud. See
C. Ryan Perkins, “From the Mehfil to the Printed Word: Public Debate and Dis-
course in Late Colonial India,” in Indian Economic and Social History Review 50
(January–March 2013): 47–76.
25. Francesca Orsini notes that the private was not primary in Hindi fiction
of the 1920s and 1930s. See Francesca Orsini, The Hindi Public Sphere, 1920–
1940: Language and Literature in the Age of Nationalism (New Delhi: Oxford
University Press, 2002), 14–15. Margrit Pernau in her study of the history of emo-
tions in South Asia argued that private life became emotionalized starting in the
1870s. See Margrit Pernau, “From Morality to Psychology: Emotion Concepts in
Urdu, 1870–1920,” Contributions to the History of Concepts 11, no. 1 (Summer
2016): 38–57.
26. On intimacy in the public sphere, see Lauren Berlant, The Female Com-
plaint: The Unfinished Business of Sentimentality in American Culture (Durham,
NC: Duke University Press, 2008); on contradictions within public spheres, see
Michael Warner, Publics and Counterpublics (New York: Zone Books, 2002).
27. See Francesca Orsini, Print and Pleasure: Popular Literature and Enter-
taining Fictions in Colonial North India (Ranikhet, India: Permanent Black, 2009),
chapter 5, especially 164–165 and 191–197.
28. Examples include ‘Ali Khan sahib, ra’īs of Surat, in Gujarat, in western
India, and Muhammad ‘Ali “Bīmār” (“Lovesick”), ra’īs of Daulatpurah, possibly
in Rajasthan or Punjab, both with letters published on October 6, 1879, supple-
ment 64.
29. For example, Sayyid Ghulam Haidar, a subjudge in Sitapur, near Luck
now in Uttar Pradesh; Ram Nath Saha’e, a lawyer in the divani (civil) court, dis-
trict Allahabad; Ibrahim Husain, a teacher in Lāharpūr, near Lucknow; and
Dr. Muhammad Fazl Khan from Assam, in northeastern India, whose letters ap-
peared on October 1 and 24, 1879.
30. Avadh Akhbar, December 12, 1879, supplement 248.
31. Ibid., supplement 247.
32. On this, see Margrit Pernau, Ashraf into Middle Classes: Muslims in
Nineteenth-Century Delhi (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2013); David Lelyveld,
“Ashraf,” Keywords in South Asian Studies (School of Oriental and African Stud-
ies: South Asia Institute), accessed December 5, 2016, https://www.soas.ac.uk
/south-asia-institute/keywords/; and Jennifer Dubrow, “Sharafat and Bhal Mānsī:
A New Perspective on Respectability in Fasana-e Azad,” South Asian History and
Culture 9, no. 2 (2018): 181–193.
Notes to Pages 94–99 145
places. . . . These are his materials and he wants to stop Avadh Punch’s progress!”
Avadh Punch, January 22, 1878, 6.
49. This is from Sa‘di’s Karima, an ethical/didactic masnavi that was stan-
dard memorization for children in the Persianate world. I am grateful to Shariq
Khan for this information. I am also thankful to Hajnalka Kovacs for her help with
Persian verses.
50. Avadh Punch, July 20, 1880, 233.
51. Avadh Punch was also likely responding to Sarshar’s claims that his
writing contained latāfat. In a prominently featured article in Avadh Akhbar pub-
lished on July 1, 1880, Sarshar declared the second volume of Fasana-e Azad a
“sea of latāfat.”
52. The phrase māhi-e saqanqūr ki nani refers to a literary fracas between the
poets “Mushafi” and “Insha” in Lucknow, in which ghazals and rejoinders were
written that had “garden” as the radif (refrain) and “hur,” “saqanqūr,” “langur,”
and so on as the qafiyah (rhyme). C. M. Naim, personal communication, Janu-
ary 4, 2018.
53. What I have translated as “Now hold on a minute,” is actually “A ra ra
ra kabir” (translatable as “a R. R. R. a Kabir”), which I suspect is a play on the
name of the poet Akbar Allahabadi, who probably wrote the piece. The rest of the
piece is signed “Allahabad.”
54. Avadh Punch, July 6, 1880, 223–224.
55. Avadh Punch, January 20, 1880, 234.
56. Charu Gupta, Sexuality, Obscenity, Community: Women, Muslims, and
the Hindu Public in Colonial India (Delhi: Permanent Black, 2001); Orsini, Hindu
Public Sphere.
57. Avadh Akhbar, August 8, 1878, 2500.
58. Such debates were common among Urdu poets in the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries. It was common practice for Urdu poetic masters, known as
ustads, to pay extremely fine attention to matters of poetic diction and the proper
use of idiom.
59. See Carla R. Petievich, Assembly of Rivals: Delhi, Lucknow, and the
Urdu Ghazal (New Delhi: Manohar, 1992); and C. M. Naim and Carla Petievich,
“Urdu in Lucknow / Lucknow in Urdu,” in Lucknow: Memories of a City, ed. Vio-
lette Graff (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997).
60. See Perkins, “Partitioning History” and “Mehfil to the Printed Word,”
for more on this attack.
61. Avadh Punch, October 5, 1880, 327.
62. At this same time Sarshar also began writing volume 2 of Fasana-e Azad
(in a testament to Sarshar’s remarkable productivity during this period).
63. On Kishore’s participation in the elite culture of Lucknow, see Stark, Em-
pire of Books.
64. Avadh Punch, July 20, 1880, 239.
Notes to Pages 106–111 147
Conclusion
1. The all-India Progressive Writers’ Association was officially launched in
Lucknow in 1936. This was only one among several groups associated with the
Progressive Writers’ Movement. For more on the Progressive Writers’ Movement,
see Rakhshanda Jalil, Liking Progress, Loving Change: A Literary History of the
Progressive Writers’ Movement in Urdu (New Delhi: Oxford University Press,
2014), and Gopal, Literary Radicalism in India. Since this book was completed,
Carlo Coppola’s book, a much-revised version of his dissertation on progressive
Urdu poetry, was also published: Carlo Coppola, Urdu Poetry, 1935‑1970: The
Progressive Episode (Karachi, Pakistan: Oxford University Press, 2017).
2. “The Aim of Literature,” translated by Francesca Orsini, afterword to The
Oxford India Premchand (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2004).
3. Ibid. Another founding member of the all-India Progressive Writers’ Asso-
ciation, Mulk Raj Anand (1905–2004), in the foundational manifesto for the group,
written in London in 1935, defined “progressivism” as the following: “Radical
changes are taking place in Indian society. . . . We believe that the new literature of
India must deal with the basic problems of our existence today—the problems of
hunger and poverty, social backwardness, and political subjection. All that drags us
down to passivity, inaction and un-reason we reject as reactionary. All that arouses
in us the critical spirit, which examines institutions and customs in the light of rea-
son, which helps us to act, to organize ourselves, to transform, we accept as pro-
gressive.” Quoted in Priyamvada Gopal, Literary Radicalism in India: Gender, Na-
tion, and the Transition to Independence (London: Routledge, 2005), 13–14.
4. See Gopal, Literary Radicalism in India, 4.
5. Rajinder Singh Bedi, “Lajwanti,” in The Penguin Book of Classic Urdu
Stories, ed. M. Asaduddin (New Delhi: Penguin, 2006), 13. This is Bedi’s own
translation.
148 Notes to Pages 112–117
6. Ibid., 16.
7. Ibid., 17–18.
8. Ibid., 19.
9. Ibid., 20–21.
10. Ibid., 23.
11. Gyanendra Pandey, Remembering Partition: Violence, History, and Na-
tionalism in India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 8.
12. Amritjit Singh, Nalini Iyer, and Rahul K. Gairola, eds., Revisiting India’s
Partition: New Essays on Memory, Culture, and Politics (Lanham, MD: Lexington
Books, 2016), xvi–xvii.
13. Parvinder Mehta, “A Will to Say or Unsay: Female Silences and Discur-
sive Interventions in Partition Narratives,” in Singh, Iyer, and Gairola, Revisiting
India’s Partition.
14. Cited in Carlo Coppola, “Urdu Poetry, 1935–1970: The Progressive Epi-
sode” (PhD diss., University of Chicago, 1975), 108.
15. Zafarullah Khan and Brian Joseph, “Pakistan after Musharraf: The
Media Take Center Stage,” Journal of Democracy 19, no. 4 (October 2008):
32–37.
16. As of this writing, Netflix has four Pakistani dramas; this is likely to
increase.
17. A sample of usernames that appear in the comments for episodes 3, 11,
and the finale for Mataa-e Jān includes names that point to a diverse viewership.
Many usernames are marked as Muslim, but others appear non–South Asian
(Annie, Maria) or preserve anonymity by using only initials.
18. Drama Pakistani, http://www.dramapakistani.net/mataa-e-jaan-finale/,
accessed March 25, 2016.
19. The discussion of feminine respectability also builds on the tradition of
Pakistani television dramas from the 1970s, which frequently examined women’s
issues as their central topic. See Saleha Suleman, “Representations of Gender in
Prime-Time Television: A Textual Analysis of Drama Series of Pakistan Television”
(PhD diss., University of Wisconsin–Madison, 1990).
20. The Zee network spells it Jodey Dilon Ko.
21. Zindagi Gulzar Hai was so popular that it has now shown six times on
Indian television. Times News Network, “Zindagi Gulzar Hai Is Back on TV,”
Times of India, August 13, 2014, http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi
/Zindagi-Gulzar-Hai-is-back-on-TV/articleshow/40121634.cms?.
22. Madhu Goswami quoted in Deepak Dobhal, “TV Shows Helping Bridge
Divide between India, Pakistan,” Voice of America, October 16, 2014.
23. Indo-Asian News Service, “In ‘Zeal for Unity,’ Indian, Pakistani Film-
makers to Bridge Divide,” Indian Express, February 10, 2016.
24. Zee Entertainment Enterprises Limited, “Zee Entertainment Enterprises
Limited Announces ZEAL FOR UNITY, a Historic Peace Initiative to Bridge the
Gap Between India and Pakistan through Cultural Experiences,” http://www.zee
Notes to Pages 118–120 149
television.com/media-relations/press-release/zee-entertainment-enterprises-limited
-announces-zeal-for-unity-a-historic-peace-initiative-to-bridge-the-gap-between
-india-and-pakistan-through-cultural-experiences.html, accessed April 30, 2017.
25. Sonup Sahadevan, “Karan Johar on Ae Dil Hai Mushkil Controversy: I
Will Not Work with Pakistani Talent in Future,” Indian Express, October 19,
2016.
26. Urdu continues to have a fraught existence in Pakistan—it is the official
language of the nation, yet not the mother tongue for the majority of the nation’s
inhabitants. This unusual fact continues to play out in present-day Pakistan, where
there are Sindhi, Siraiki, and Baluchi language movements, to refer to three major
languages spoken by the people of Pakistan. There has also been a longstanding
and important movement on behalf of Punjabi, the first language of the majority of
Pakistan’s population. See Alyssa Ayres, Speaking Like a State: Language and Na-
tionalism in Pakistan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009).
27. Soheb Niazi, “The Politics of Imagining (in) Urdu in Contemporary
India,” Café Dissensus 33 (2017), https://cafedissensus.com.
28. Rekhta.org is based in Gurgaon, outside of New Delhi.
29. The video is available at https://rekhta.org/nazms/ek-darkhvaast-ahmad
-nadeem-qasmi-nazms?lang=ur, accessed May 31, 2017.
30. The nazm has been described by Pritchett as “a genre outside the tradi-
tional poetic system, a genre hospitable to innovation and change.” S. F. Faruqi
and F. W. Pritchett, “Lyric Poetry in Urdu: Ghazal and Nazm,” Journal of South
Asian Literature 19, no. 2 (1984): 114.
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Index
167
168 Index
Hindi (language), 46, 63, 115; Islam, 10; holidays and, 29, 31;
language of administration and, pardah and, 52–53, 94–95;
6, 10; television and, 117; reform and, 28, 76, 85, 142n8;
writers and, 18, 20. See also sharif culture and, 52; women’s
Hindi/Urdu controversy; Urdu roles and, 55, 57, 60, 93, 106.
(language) See also festivals; Muslims;
Hindi/Urdu controversy: Avadh sharafat
Punch and, 85, 96–101, 104; Islamicate, 10, 94
history of, 2, 5, 9; outcome of,
108, 109; resistance to, 113, 118 Japan, 36, 37, 63
Hinduism: religious festivals and, Jahan, Rashid, 110
32–33; women’s roles and, 52, journalism. See newspapers
55–57, 60, 111–112. See also Joshi, Sanjay, 16–17, 48, 55
castes; Hindi/Urdu controversy;
Hindus; Hindustani kacheri, 58–59, 76
Kashmiri Brahmins, 17; Ratan Nath
Hindus: identity of letter writers to
Sarshar’s identity as, 85, 97–98,
Avadh Akhbar and, 93; traders
104
and mercantile families, 80;
Kaviraj, Sudipta, 3, 38
participation in Urdu cosmopo-
Khan, Fawad, 117–118
lis, 11
Khan, Sayyid Ahmad, 30, 76, 99, 103
Hindustani, 6, 9, 113, 118; language
Kheri, 18, 72–73, 74–75
of administration and, 10, 97.
Kingdom of Oudh. See Oudh
See also Urdu (language)
Kishore, Munshi Naval: personal
history of the book, 13–14
attacks on, 80, 96, 98, 105, 107;
Hunter Education Commission, 7, 76
publishing empire of, 16, 17, 18,
Husain, Intizar, 6
28–29. See also print publishing
Husain, Munshi Sajjad, 18, 64; found-
ing of Avadh Punch, 15, 17, 19 Lahore, xvi, 8, 23, 24, 25, 128n39
Husainabad imambarah, 30, 32 Lakhimpur, 18, 72–73
Hyderabad, vii, xvi, 8, 17, 29; Lakhnavi, R. N. See Sarshar, Ratan
Osmania University, 6; royal Nath
patronage of authors, 21 Leary, Patrick, 18, 66
Lelyveld, David, 76, 94
Indian language policy, 9, 76 literary modernity: continuation and
Indian National Congress, 21, 68, decline of, 108, 110, 119;
113, 145n46 definition of, 3–5, 121–122n7;
Indo-Persian: genres and, 26, 36, 38, forms and, viii, 64, 77; Fasana-e
77, 87, 88, 123n16, 140n57; Azad and, 50–54, 61; satirical
mode of comportment and, 76; vignettes and, 14, 41; Urdu and,
shahr ashob and, 141n63 5–7, 14, 34, 64, 120. See also
internet, 114–116, 118 Avadh Punch; Urdu (language);
Iran, 10, 89 Urdu cosmopolis
Index 171
lithography: vii, 1, 19, 22, 68, 127n6 women and, 57. See also
Lucknow, xvi, 130n60, 146n52; Islamicate; literary modernity;
Canning College, 17; Husain- Persianate; Urdu (language)
abad imambarah, 30, 32; Mughal Empire: decline of, 78,
Kashmiri Pandit community in, 140n58; Hindu festivals and, 32;
19; literary circle, 15, 16–18, Persian and, 10, 97; poetry and,
132–133n34; literary and 78; sharafat and, 94; tiger
cultural center, 8, 22, 26, 104, hunting and, 72
105, 107, 128n39; Muharram Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental
and, 30–32, 43; Normal School, College. See Khan, Sayyid
24; photography and, 129n59; Ahmad
Shi‘a pilgrimage site, 30; Urdu Mukherjee, Meenakshi, 38, 41, 42
print culture in, 8, 14, 22, 24, Mumbai. See Bombay
63; print publishing and, 16, 19, mushairahs, 23, 24, 25, 26–27, 119
29, 41, 66, 137n16; Progressive Muslims: courtly lifestyles of, 17;
Writers’ Conference and, 110; food practices and, 105; Hunter
setting for Fasana-e Azad, 36, Education Commission and, 76;
43, 48, 52, 54; women’s migration from India, 6; pardah
respectability and, 55. See also and, 52; participation in Urdu
all-India Progressive Writers’ cosmopolis, 10–11, 86, 93;
Association; Sarshar, Ratan shahr ashobs and, 78; Shi‘a, 29,
Nath 46; transregional Muslim
Ludhiana. See Punjab community (ummah) and, 32;
Urdu as language of, 2, 5, 9,
Macaulay, Thomas Babington, 4, 23, 85, 97, 98, 104, 105–106, 108,
24 109, 124n21. See also festivals;
Madras, xvi, 2, 8, 21; Madras Punch, Islam
65. See also Chennai Mutiny of 1857, 11, 63, 126n41
Manto, Saadat Hasan, 22, 111
Mataa-e Jān Hai Tu, 115 nationalism, vii, 15, 18, 68, 71;
Mir, Farina, 97, 147n68 censorship and, 118; resistance
Miraji, 5 to, 5, 113; fracturing of Urdu
Mitter, Partha, 8, 63, 64, 125n30 cosmopolis and, viii, 2, 9, 109,
modernity: debates and critiques of, 114; women in constructions of,
viii, 7, 28, 61, 64, 76, 108, 52, 57, 112
119–120; experiments with natural poetry, 23–25
literary form and, 69–71, 76; newspapers: development of the novel
ghazals and, 123n20; newspa- and, 42; imagined community
pers and, 7–8, 11; novels and, and, vii; importance of poetry
50–54; postcolonialism and, vii; in, 26–27; modernity and, 7–8,
technology and, 7, 33; shared 11; popularity of Urdu newspa-
Indian and Iranian, 10; Urdu as pers, 1–2, 19, 83, 119; readers’
a language of, 5–7, 109–110; letters and, 82, 84, 89, 90, 92;
172 Index
Urdu readers: Avadh Akhbar and, 2, women: abductions of, 111; depic-
60, 82, 83–84, 86, 89, 91, 93; tions as bhatiyārīs, 50, 58, 59,
community and, vii, 7–8, 27–28, 93, 94; depictions in novels of,
63, 109; as critics and patrons, 54–61, 106, 112, 116; domestic
13, 14, 35, 51, 60–61, 68, violence and, 116–117; “new
83–92, 120, 143n21; experiences woman” and, 57; respectability
of print, 1–2, 26, 33–34, 83, 104, and, 52–53, 57–58, 61, 84–85,
141n2; literacy rates and, 12, 94–95; social reform and,
126n2; letters of, 82–84, 86–89, 52–53, 55–61. See also gender;
90–92, 93–96; print culture and, sexuality
1, 11–12, 82–84, 119; respect- women’s journals and magazines, 14,
ability and, 92–93, 116; role in 20, 37, 57
Urdu cosmopolis, 10–11, 108, writers, professionalization of, 13,
109, 110, 115; role in Urdu print 15–22, 34
culture, 1, 11–12, 82–84, 119;
sharafat and, 61, 84–85, 94; Zaheer, Sajjad, 110, 113
women, 20, 37, 93–96 zarafat: as “adornment” for ethics,
ustads, 23, 27, 77, 105, 107, 128n34, 35; definition of, 38–39, 107;
146n58. See also Urdu poetry section in Avadh Akhbar, 18,
Uttar Pradesh, 6, 90, 144n29. See also 20, 42; Urdu humor and, 50, 68;
Kheri novel and, 87; Avadh Punch
attacks on Avadh Akhbar and,
Victoria, Queen, 63, 71 99–101
Victorian literature, 37, 42, 107. See
also Punch (London)
About the Author