STA 399: RESEARCH METHODS

Report Writing

Complied by I.K. Vorsah Amponsah (PhD/Mrs)

Without publication, science is dead

(Gerald Piel)

Work, finish, publish

1

(Michael Faraday)
 Report
Written

Oral

2
 Data management cycle
Design Enumerators collect
questionnaire data in the field

Design
survey Manual checking,
Conception
editing etc.
Reporting of results

We are now
finishing off Data entered
Data onto computer
the data
analysis
analysis and
are ready to
write it up. 3
Computer data management
Introduction

 This presentation is intended to equip you

with the basic skills of communicating
information to others without necessarily the
need for meetings.

 Effective reports give a professional image

and get others to take your work seriously

4
Definition
A report is a prepared account of what
happened, about a particular event, presented in
formal and organized format backed with
statistical evidence.
A report is a talkative work (usually of writing,
speech, television, or film) made with the
specific intention of relaying information or
recounting certain events in a widely
presentable form
It may be a single report or a series of them.
5
Which Reports?
Sales Reports

Inspection Reports

Annual Reports

Audit Reports

Feasibility Reports

Progress Reports

White Papers
Technical Writing Reports
 Proposals
 User Manuals
 Technical Manuals
 White Papers: is an authoritative report or
guide helping readers to understand an
issue, solve a problem, or make a decision.[1]
White papers are used in two main spheres:
government and business-to-business
marketing.
 Classification of Reports
 Formal Reports and Informal Reports

 Information Reports

 Analytical Reports

 Recommendation Reports
 Types of Reports
 Academic Report:

Academic reports are usually detailed and

in most cases targeting academicians.
They are of high content and the producer
and the reader are at the same level or a
little different.

9
 Types of Reports continued

Professional Report:
 Professional reports are for informing and
persuading people as well as initiating change
 They may be detailed depending on the targeted
audience/taste of the sponsor.
 In most cases they have a mixed audience of those
who may understand the in-depth of the subject
content and non technical people like the decision-
makers.

10
 Good Report

The following comments have been made

by senior managers
about what they look for in a good report.

Assess the comments and evaluate them

11
 Good Report Continued

 A report must meet the needs of the

readers and answer the questions in their
minds
 A report must be at the right level for the
readers. Some readers have an in-depth
knowledge of the subject while others
may be decision-makers without
specialized, technical knowledge
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 Good Report Continued

 A report must have a clear, logical

structure-with clear signposting to show
where the ideas are leading

 A report must give a good first

impression.
 Presentation is very important

13
 Good Report continued..

 A report must not make assumptions about

the readers’ understanding.
 All writers need to
 apply the ‘so what’ test
 explain why something is a good idea
 Reports must be written in good English
 using short sentences with correct grammar and
spelling
 Reports should have a time reference 14
How to Write a Good Report
 Front matters
 Title: What is this?
 Author(s) & affiliation: Who wrote this?
 Abstract: Summary of the work
 Acknowledgements: Who helped?
 (Table of Contents)
 (List of Tables)
 (List of Figures)

15
Structure
 Body of the report
 Introduction: What are we talking about?
 Method: How did we measure?
 Results: What did we measure?
 Discussion: What does it mean?
 Conclusions: What should be remembered?

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Structure
 End matters
 References: Whose work was referred to?
 Appendices: Extra information

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Title
 Short
 Accurate
 Informative
 Include key-words
 Allow search engines to find the article
 No abbreviations

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Title
 Title should be concise, complete,
comprehensible, correct, descriptive (and not
the title of the lab procedures)
 Title PAGE should have the following: title,
authors, affiliation, date
 Does not have to be on a separate page, see sample
journal articles
Examples
 Pulse, Echos, and Goo”
 “The Applicability of Ultrasound in Determining
Mechanical Properties of Materials”
 Which one is good or bad?

 “A Comparison of Extended Surfaces”

 “Enhancing Convective Heat Transfer using triangular
and cylindrical Extended Surfaces”
 Which one is good or bad?
Example Title for your paper
Environmental Tobacco Smoke Particles in
Multizone Indoor Environments

Shelly L. Miller and William W. Nazaroff

Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering
University of California, Berkeley, California USA

Paper submitted to Atmospheric Environment

October 27, 2000
Abstract
 Abstract is a paragraph summarizing the
content of research.
 Abstract is a miniature version of the
report.
 It should stand alone.
 Structure ~200 words (use “word count” in
MS WORD to make sure that your
abstract is not too long!)

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Abstract
 Summary of work
 Should be self-contained (no references)
 1-2 sentences for each of the 5 main parts
(introduction, method, results, discussion,
conclusions) – then streamline
 High information content
 The discussion is normally removed /ignored in
most researches…….
 But effectively, discuss the findings briefly
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Abstract
The abstract main part breakdown:
Introduction
 Topic of research
 Objectives
Method/Methodology
 Techniques, models, designs
 Data Analysis
 How data was collected
 How it was analysed
 Findings/results
 Conclusion /recommendation
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Abstract
 No abbreviations
 200-300 words
 Best (re-)written last
 All information should be covered in the body
of the report

 An example:

Khalid Al Murrani, "How to Write a Good Report", 25

2008-09
Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop Characteristics of Laminar Flow in Rectangular
and Square Plain Ducts and Ducts With Twisted-Tape Inserts

S.K. Saha and N. Mallick

The present paper reports the results of an experimental investigation of the heat
What
transfer and pressure drop characteristics of laminar flow of viscous oil through
horizontal rectangular and square plain ducts and ducts inserted with full-length
twisted tapes, short-length twisted tapes, and regularly spaced twisted-tape
elements. Isothermal pressure drop measurements were taken in acrylic ducts. Heat
transfer measurements were taken in electrically heated stainless-steel ducts imposing How

uniform wall heat flux boundary conditions. The duct aspect ratios AR were 1, 0.5, and
0.333. The twist ratios of the twisted tapes were y=2.692, 5.385, 2.597, 5.193, 2.308, and
4.615. Short-length tapes were 0.9, 0.7, and 0.5 times the duct length. The space ratios
were s=2.692, 5.385, 2.597, 5.193, 2.308, and 4.615. Both friction factor and Nusselt
number increase by 30% (+ 5%) with decreasing y and AR for AR1 and increasing Re,
Sw, and Pr. As the tape-length decreases by a factor of 2, both friction factor and Nusselt Results
number decrease by a factor of 3. Friction factor increases by 80% (+ 12%) as s
decreases by 50%, and Nusselt number increases by 75% (+ 30%) as s increases by
100%. Isothermal friction factor correlation and comprehensive Nusselt number
correlation have been developed to predict data reasonably well in the entire range of
parameters. Performance evaluation says that short-length twisted tapes are worse and
Conclusion/
regularly spaced twisted-tape elements are better than the full-length twisted tapes. Significance
This is about 200 words
Introduction: chapter
 Usually too long
 Best written last (or at least rewritten). The
work it requires (e.g. background reading)
needs to be done first.
 Provides background information
 Starts wide and focuses quickly
 Tries to catch the interest
 Introduces each and every new idea,
concept, symbol, abbreviation
Khalid Al Murrani, "How to Write a Good Report", 27
2008-09
Introduction
 Places paper in context
 Relation to other work
 Defines scope and purpose of the work.
 What problem(s) are we trying to solve?
(Heading, Problem statement, significance)
 What question(s) are we trying to answer?
(Main objectives, sub-objectives, research
questions/hypothesis)

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Introduction
 Shows what has been done (by others)
before
 = literature review (here or separate chapter)
 Refer to main authors/works in the field (most
relevant work)
 Refer to most recent work in the field (use Citation
Index)

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Integrating Useful Information
After you’ve constructed your argument,
you must:
 Decide how to present information within your
research paper
 Make your voice heard
 Give proper credit to the original source

Quoting
Paraphrasing + Your Analysis
Summarizing
What is Paraphrasing?
 Paraphrasing is stating an idea in
your own words
 To properly paraphrase, you must significantly change
the wording, phrasing, and sentence structure of the
source (not just a few words)

 Follow your paraphrase with an in-text citation and

cite the source in your “Works Cited page” (MLA
format) or “References” page (APA format)
What is Summarizing?
 Summaries are significantly shorter than the original
and take a broad overview of the source material.
 Again, it is necessary to attribute summarized ideas
to their original sources.

Summarize when:

 You want to establish background or offer an overview of

a topic
 You want to describe knowledge (from several sources)
about a topic
 You want to determine the main ideas of a single source
What is Quoting?
 Quotations are the exact words of an author, copied directly
from a source, word for word.
 Quotations must be cited in your text and in your “Works
Cited” page (MLA format) or “References” page (APA format)

Use quotations when:

 You want to add the power of an author’s words to support your
argument
 You want to disagree with an author’s argument
 You want to highlight particularly eloquent or powerful phrases or
passages
 You are comparing and contrasting specific points of view
 You want to note the important research that precedes your own
(Rohrbach and Valenza cited in “What is Plagiarism?”)
Introducing Quotes
Use signal phrases: The author…

argues observes insists

writes counters reveals
points out implies explains
concludes states suggests
comments claims maintains
notes demonstrates says

According to… (author, character, narrator)

Integrating Quotes
 Combine your analysis with a full or partial
quotation

 In “The Magnolia Tree,” Jake’s failure to find his purpose in life

is symbolized by the deterioration of the family tree: “Its trunk
leaned against Dad’s tool shed, and the branches bore no
flowers despite the early spring” (Walker 32).

 In Walker’s essay “The Magnolia Tree,” the ailing branches

that “bore no flowers despite the early spring” symbolize the
narrator’s failure to find purpose in life (32).
Don’t Drop, Integrate!
 A dropped quote is a quote that isn’t integrated
into the paper. Often, the quote is incorrectly
presented in a sentence by itself:

In How to Write a Research Paper, Johnson reports that a

common form of plagiarism is copying and pasting text from the
Internet without giving credit to the source. “Students don’t
realize that computer programs, such as Turnitin, help teachers
catch plagiarism” (32). “That’s why it’s so important that students
know how to properly summarize, paraphrase, and quote
material”(Smythe 12).

What are some strategies to improve this

paragraph?
Formatting Longer Quotations
 In MLA format, quotes over four lines should be flush indented one
inch (10 spaces) from the left margin, double spaced, without
quotation marks:

Nelly Dean belittles Heathcliff throughout her narration:

They entirely refused to have it in bed with them, or even in their room, and
I had no more sense, so, I put it on the landing of the stairs, hoping it would
be gone on the morrow. By chance, or else attracted by hearing his voice,
it crept to Mr. Earnshaw's door, and there he found it on quitting his
chamber. Inquiries were made as to how it got there; I was obliged to
confess, and in recompense for my cowardice and inhumanity was sent
out of the house. (Bronte 78)

 In APA format, quotes over 40 words should follow the same

indentation format. The citation contains the author, year, and
page number, such as (Smith, 2003, p. 42).
Shortening Lengthy
Quotations
 Consider shortening your quote with an ellipse (three
spaced periods), if you can do so without changing the
source’s original meaning

 Quote: “Felix, my love, my all, my sweet, if you find it in your heart to

forgive me, and to do so would make my heart pound with ferocity, I will
guarantee that my father, the noblest of all kings, will give you a large
reward” (Graw 53).

 Shortened: “Felix, my love,…if you find it in your heart to forgive me,…I

guarantee that my father, the noblest of all kings, will give you a large
reward” (Graw 53).

 Do not use an ellipse if you begin using the quote mid-sentence:

When Genevieve states, “if you find it in your heart to forgive me”
Quoting Poetry
 If you quote two to three lines of poetry, separate each line with a
slash (with a space before and after the slash) and enclose the
entire quotation in quotation marks:
Reflecting on the "incident" in Baltimore, Cullen concludes, "Of all the things that happened
there / That's all that I remember" (lines 11-12).

 Quotations more than three lines should be indented one inch from
the left margin, double-spaced between lines, adding no quotation
marks that do not appear in the original:
Elizabeth Bishop's "In the Waiting Room" is rich in evocative detail:
It was winter. It got dark
early. The waiting room
was full of grown-up people,
arctics and overcoats,
lamps and magazines. (lines 6-10)
Why Paraphrase Instead of
Quoting?

Think of quotation marks as double scissors,

“---” literally cutting out and lifting information
into your paper. If the exact words of the
author are not important, think about
paraphrasing
Quoting vs. Paraphrasing
cont’d.
Look at the differences in the following
examples:
“Aliens have been found to inhabit the craggy surface of
the moon” (Smith, 2000).
vs.
Aliens were discovered on the moon (Smith, 2000).

Does exact wording make a difference?

Quoting vs. Paraphrasing
cont’d.
“The reference to mythology in the garden calls to mind the clash of
Paganism with Christianity where Medusa may rear her ugly
head over Adam and Eve” (Doe 65).
vs.
References to garden imagery symbolize the Garden of Eden and
Christianity, whereas mythology may refer to Paganism (Doe 65).

Although the author may have a reason for

paraphrasing, the paraphrase does “lose
something in the translation.”
In Review: When to
Paraphrase

 To clarify a short passage from a text

 To avoid overusing quotations
 For use when exact wording isn’t important
 To explain the main points of a passage
 For use when reporting numerical data or specific
facts (preferred in APA papers)
How to Paraphrase: Practice
 Original Passage:

James D. Lester explains, “Students frequently overuse direct

quotation in taking notes, and as a result they overuse quotations
in the final [research] paper. Probably only 10 % of your final
manuscript should appear as directly quoted matter. Therefore,
you should strive to limit the amount of exact transcribing of
source materials while taking notes” (qtd. in “Paraphrase: Write it
in Your Own Words”).

Now, try paraphrasing this passage

(Try not to look at the screen while you write)
How Did You Do?
 An Acceptable paraphrase:
According to James Lester, in research papers, students often quote
excessively, failing to keep quoting down to a desirable level. Since the
problem usually originates during note taking, it is essential to minimize
the material recorded verbatim (cited in “Paraphrase: Write it in Your
Own Words”).

 A Plagiarized Version:
Students often use too many direct quotations when they take notes,
resulting in too many of them in the final research paper. In fact,
probably 10 percent of the final copy should consist of directly quoted
material. So it is important to limit the amount of source material copied
while taking notes.
Tips For Note-Taking

 Identify the speaker’s/writer’s name.

 Mark direct quotes or unique phrases taken from
your original sources with a big Q
 Note a paraphrase with a big P
 Include page numbers and source references so
you can go back and check for accuracy as you
write.
Why Should You Document
Carefully?
Failure to correctly cite, summarize,
paraphrase, or use quotations could result in
PLAGIARISM!

 Plagiarism is the intentional or unintentional presentation of another

source’s words, ideas, or images as your own

 Plagiarism could result in an “F” grade for the paper and/or the
class, as well as expulsion from some university

 Students who plagiarize at George Mason violate the Honor Code

and must attend a hearing to determine the consequences
The George Mason Honor
Code
Defines plagiarism as:

Presenting as one's own the words, the work, or the

opinions of someone else without proper
acknowledgment.

Borrowing the sequence of ideas, the arrangement of

material, or the pattern of thought of someone else
without proper acknowledgment.
Should EVERYTHING in my
paper be quoted?
The Following do NOT have to be documented

 Facts that are widely known to the general public

 Information or judgments considered “common
knowledge”
 Facts widely known to your particular discipline
Examples of Common
Knowledge

 John Adams was the second president

 The Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7,

1941
 *?* these common knowledge are not common to some
of you.
If you see a fact in three or more sources, and you are
fairly certain your readers already know this information,
it is likely to be “common knowledge”

WHEN IN DOUBT, CITE IT!

Citation: Giving Credit to the
Source
After you’ve decided how to use the information, it’s time to
give proper credit to the outside source.

You must cite sources within your paper and at the end of your
paper whenever

 You summarize, paraphrase or quote an original idea from a

source, even if you use only one distinctive word
 You use factual information that is not common knowledge to the
general public or to your particular discipline (not sure? cite it)
 You use charts, graphs, photos, or any artwork from a source
 You are citing statistics, evidence, or data from other than your
own experiments

WHEN IN DOUBT, CITE IT!

Choosing a Style: APA, MLA
and Chicago
Although there are many different “styles” for
citation, three of the most common are:

APA (American Psychology Association)

MLA (Modern Language Association)

Chicago (The Chicago Manual of Style)

Which Style Should You Use?
 APA is often used for the disciplines of Psychology and
other fields in which the currency of a study is most
important. Now, APA Style has been adapted by many
disciplines and is used by writers around the world

 MLA is often used in English or other fields where the

currency of a text is not as important as identifying the
page number of the information

 Chicago is often preferred in History and many other

fields.
Other Styles
Other styles not discussed in this workshop
include:
 Turabian
 CBE
 Legal Citation

Check with your Professor if you are unsure which

style to use for your discipline

We will use APA style. Refer to the hard and soft copy
given you.
Introduction
 Shows what has NOT been done before (and
was done in the present work)
 Shows WHY the study needed to be done
(problem statement)
 Objectives

55
Method
 What method(s) did we use to address our
problem(s)? What method(s) did we use to
answer our question(s)?
 Must allow evaluation of the results
 Must allow verification of the results
(convince)
 Describe experimental set-up, instruments,
procedures, statistical processing
 Describe evaluation procedure
56
Method
 Mention all settings, controls, variables,
processing, etc.
 Assume basic knowledge of the field
 Can include photographs and/or diagrams
 May include limitations, assumptions, range
of validity
 Describe what was actually done, NOT what
should have been done
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Example of Theoretical Description
for a Modeling Study

LIF diagnostics have been constructed by pumping from the X-state to both the A and
B-states, although pumping to the A-state (the so-called  bands) is preferable due to
the longer excitation wavelengths required. This reduces problems with attenuation of
laser light and LIF signals and complex electronic energy transfer.

In modeling the excitation process one solves a set of time dependent rate equations,
one for the population Ni of each quantum state i considered. The equations take on
the generalized form
dN i
dt
   
  Q ji  W ji N j   Qij  Wij N i  Qlost N i
j i j i
(1)

Here, the first term represents the rate at which collisions (Qji) and radiative transitions
(Wji) populate state i, the second term the rate at which state i is depopulated by
collisions and radiative transitions, and the final term (Qlost) the sum of all process that
depopulate…
Example of Methods for an
Experimental Study

Intrinsic Inactivation Rate of Airborne Fungal Spores to Ultraviolet Germicidal Irraqdiation (UVGI).
Experiments were conducted in the pilot-scale chamber to estimate the intrinsic inactivation rate of airborne
fungal spores to UVGI. After purging the chamber with clean air, airborne fungal spores were continuously
generated (for usually 15 minutes) to raise the concentration in the chamber to a suitable level for detection.
Two box fans (48-cm diameter, Model 3723, Lasko Inc., West Chester, PA) were turned on to ensure mixing.
No ventilation was provided during this period and the UVGI lamps were kept off. Once the fungal spore
aerosolization was stopped, sampling of the airborne fungal spores was initiated. Also in some of the
experiments, UVGI lamps were turned on at this time. Samples were collected 4 or 5 separate times with
duplicate liquid impingers as the concentration decayed over a 14 or 26 min period. For each sample, the
impingers were operated for 3 to 5 minutes. The shorter decay time (14 min) was used for experiments in
which UVGI lamps were operating, while the longer decay time (26 min) was used for tests with UVGI
lamps not in operation. After the final sample was collected, the chamber was purged again with the clean
air. Decay experiments were conducted without the UVGI system operating to measure removal of airborne
fungal spores by deposition, exfiltration, and natural die-off. No ventilation was provided during these
experiments.
A completely-mixed room model was used to estimate the inactivation rate of UVGI as previously
described (Miller-Leiden et al. 1996; Xu et al. 2003, Xu et al. 2005). In summary, the least-squares method
was used to fit lines to the log-transformed concentrations measured over the decay period, and inactivation
rates were inferred by subtracting the slope of the lines for the no-UVGI experiments from those with UVGI.
The UVGI inactivation rate has units of ACH or h-1.
Results
 Purely objective
 Only facts and observations
 No opinions or interpretations!
 Text
 Summarizes most important results of tables and
figures
 Guides readers through tables and figures
 Provides clarifying information
 Points to anomalies in the results

60
Results
 Figures
 Label all axes
 Mention all units
 Use same scaling for figures that need to be
compared
 Put caption BELOW the figure
 Number the figures sequentially
 Include the figure immediately after the first
reference to it in the text (unless page layout
does not permit)
61
Results
 Figures
 Put all required info on the figure (if possible) –
not in caption or text
 Avoid crowded figures
 Avoid the use of color

62
Results
 Tables
 Label all columns
 Mention all units
 Put caption ABOVE the table
 Number the tables sequentially
 Include the table immediately after the first
reference to it in the text (unless page layout
does not permit)

63
Tables
 Tables need titles! Half or full-page tables/graphs usually work the best.
Remember to refer to table in your text.

Table 1
Airflo w rates measured du ring t wo-room ETS particle expe rimen ts (m 3 h-1)1

ACH
Scenario FN,S FS,N FS,O FN,O FO,S FO,N Ff,S Ff,N (h-1)2
0.001 
Baseli ne 60  4 59  4 2.4  1.7 0.001 1.6  0.2 0.8  0.2 Ğ Ğ 0.04

Segr ega tion 0.6  0.03 1.1  0.01 2.5  0.03 4.2  0.1 3.1  0.04 3.7  0.1 Ğ Ğ 0.1
Exh aus t
ven til ation 92  2.4 17  0.8 107  1.7 0.0  0.0 32  1.8 75  1.4 Ğ Ğ 1.7
Enh anced
ven til ation 154  17 163  17 10  5 11  5 19  1.4 2  1.3 Ğ Ğ 0.3
0.004
N fil tration 128  4 128  4  0.004 2.7  1.9 0.3  0.2 2.4  0.2 Ğ 91  9 0.03

S filt ration 46  0.9 47  0.8 0.0  0.0 2.4  0.8 0.7  0.1 1.6  0.1 91  9 Ğ 0.03

1
Th e air flow rates were e sti mat ed fro m tracer ga s measur em ents using a non li ne ar l east-squares m inimi zation techn ique (Mill er et al., 1997). Refer to Figu re 2
fo r airflow rate no menclat ure .
2
The se air exchang e rates, exp ressed inun its of air -change s per hour (ACH), represent the am ount of air exchanged w it h the outdoor s for th e system acting as a
singl e zone .
 Example Figure
 Tables need Captions, always underneath figure and numbered! Remember to
refer to Figure in your text.
140

120

Medium Flame
100
CO (ppm)

80 Flame
Extinguished
Manually
60
High Flame

40
Flame
20 Extinguished
Automatically
Low Flame
0
0 120 240 360 480 600 720 840 960
elapsed time (min)
Figure 1. Typical CO profiles measured during the operation.
Typical CO profiles measured during the operation of unvented Fireplace A at the low, medium and high heat settings during (a) Spring 1997 and (b) Spring 1999.
Vertical lines indicate the instant when the flame was reduced or extinguished, either manually at the completion of the test or automatically during the test by the
oxygen depletion sensor. The CO monitor's maximum detection limit of 128 ppm was surpassed during the 1999 tests
 Example Figure

Must have a
Title and Figure
Number and reference
This figure number in
Your text!

Figure 1. a) Full length twisted-tape insert inside a duct and b) regularly twisted tape elements.
Results
 Use EITHER table OR figure for a particular
subset of results
 Do not use more decimals in a number than
you could measure
 Give an estimate of the measurement error
 Also include “negative” results
 They are often the source of the major
discoveries

67
Discussion
 Only place where the author can and should
be less objective
 Interpret your results. Did we solve our
problem(s)? Did we answer our question(s)?
 Put results in perspective
 Major patterns
 Relationships, trends, generalizations
 Exceptions to observed patterns and
generalizations 68
Discussion
 Differences with published work or expected
results
 Possible explanations for differences/
discrepancies
 Point out potential shortcomings
 Recommendations for future work
 Theoretical implications
 Possible applications
 Possible generalizations
69
Discussion
 Opinions can be mentioned
 Shows what new things were learned from
the experiments/data
 No new results? Replication.
 What is the relevance of the present results –
what did we learn?
 Explain, analyze, interpret, compare
 Mention the things that are not readily
observable from the data
70
Conclusions
 What do you want the reader to remember?
 Should be self-contained (no references)
 Typically 2-3 paragraphs (1 idea per
paragraph)

71
Or Summary and Conclusions
for 2nd degree and above
 Start with a restatement of objectives
 Again describe briefly the methods
 State the important results: be quantitative with
uncertainty
 State the important conclusions
 Comment on what should be done in future
experiments, what would you recommend doing
next?
Acknowledgements
 Thank all who have directly contributed to the
work
 Thank any sponsoring organizations
 Thank any external reviewer
 Do not thank relatives and friends

 Normally at beginning(preliminary pages) of

report.
73
References
 When you use an idea from a book, or paper, or
website, you need to “cite” that idea.
 Please use the “name and year “ system when
citing in your text.
 Then in the list of references, provide details
about the reference.

 No citations from Wikipedia

References
 All statements, ideas, figures, tables of others
should be referenced
 Cite current AND recent publications
 Current: reference (seminal) papers
 Recent: show that you know what are the recent
developments in the field (use Citation Index, e.g.:
Google Scholar “Cited by …”).
 Reference only the works that you have
actually read
75
References
 Should be clear enough for the reader to locate it
 Should contain: author name(s), title, location, date
 Location:
 Publisher and city (for books)
 Journal name volume and page(s) (for articles)
 Conference name, date, and location, and page in the
proceedings (for conference papers)
 Department and University (for theses)
 URL (for Web pages)
 Follow the imposed format
76
References
 Refereed journals are better than conference papers
 Conference papers are better than Web sites
 Try to avoid Web sites
 They are not reviewed
 They are transient
  try to locate similar information in regular literature
 Encyclopedias, textbooks, lab sheets are poor
references
 Review articles are particularly valuable

77
Example
Introduction

In the early 1990s, many epidemiologic studies suggested that air pollution, even at the lower ambient air
concentrations that had been achieved with regulations and control technology, was still associated with
cardiopulmonary disease and mortality (Samet et al., 2000); especially the fine combustion-source pollution
most commonly found near heavy traffic areas (Pope, 2000).
…

References

Samet, J. M., F. Dominici, F. C. Curriero, I. Coursac, and S. L. Zeger (2000). Fine Particulate Air Pollution and
Mortality in 20 Us Cities, 1987-1994, New England Journal Of Medicine. 343:1742-1749.

Pope, C. A. (2000). Review: Epidemiological Basis for Particulate Air Pollution Health Standards, Aerosol
Science And Technology. 32:4-14.
Appendices
 Additional material that is only meant for
technical reading
 E.g.: mathematical proofs, raw results, circuit
diagrams, …
 Non-essential to comprehension
 Further clarify report
 Each appendix should contain different
data/information
 Appendices should be referred to in the text
79
Style
 Paragraph
 One idea per paragraph
 One paragraph per idea
 First sentence of paragraph is main idea
 Rest of paragraph defines the idea
 Tense
 Passive
 Avoid use of pronouns (I, we, you, …)

80
Style
 Numbering
 Number all pages
 Number all headings except abstract
 Hierarchical numbering of headings
 Avoid repetitions
 Use formal and impersonal language
 Use a consistent style

81
Style
 Respect the structure
 Use the standard model unless there is a
strong reason for not doing so
 E.g. several radically different parts  split up
methods, results (and maybe discussion) per part
 Advantages of standard model
 Helps structure the report
 Avoids forgetting essential parts
 Helps separate data from opinions
 Helps readers to do selective reading

82
Grammar
 Should be impeccable
 Spelling also
 Articles
 First time a process, part or concept is introduced:
“a” or “an”
 Subsequently use: “the”
 No article for uncountable nouns (e.g. NOT “a
happiness”)
 Use short sentences
83
General recommendations
 Be as brief as possible
 Avoid unnecessary abbreviations
 Know your audience
 Don’t repeat the things the reader knows
 Don’t copy the information from the lab sheets
 Remove unnecessary words, sentences,
paragraphs
 Weigh each word
 Every word should be accurate, justified and
useful
84
General recommendations
 The main purpose is to convey information
 Don’t try to entertain
 Good presentation is less important than sound
technical content
 Don’t over-emphasize format (you are not
studying to be a technical secretary)
 Follow the imposed format right from the
beginning

85
General recommendations
 Proofread and let it be proofread
 Follow preferably the same structure (sub-
headings) in methods, results and discussion
parts

86
General recommendations
 A good report should demonstrate
comprehension, not just state facts
 Check visibility and readability

87
Summary

Khalid Al Murrani, "How to Write a Good Report", 88

2008-09
Bibliography
UNiM Library:
 DG Riordan, SE Pauley, "Technical report writing today,“ Houghton Mifflin
Company (Boston), 1999
 R Barrass, "Scientists must write: a guide to better writing for
scientists, engineers and students," Routledge (London), 2002
 JW Davies, "Communication skills: a guide for engineering and applied science
students," Pearson Education Asia Ltd (Singapore), 2001
 JN Borowick, "Technical communication and its applications," Prentice Hall
(New Jersey), 2000
 DF Beer, D McMurrey, "A guide to writing as an engineer," John Wiley & Sons,
Inc (New York), 1997
 R Ellis, "Communication for engineers: bridge that gap," Arnold (London), 1997
 S Goodlad, "Speaking technically: a handbook for scientists,
engineers, and physicians on how to improve technical presentations,“ Imperial
College Press (London), 1996
 HF Wolcott, "Writing up qualitative research," 2001
 JN Borowick, "How to write a lab report," 2000

89
Bibliography
Web:
 CD Ingersoll, “Scientific Writing,” http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/internet/MTPCI/Introcourse04/9.-
Ingersoll---Scientific-Writing.ppt , 23 Nov 2004
 RL Boxman, “How to Write a Good Paper,” http://www.isdeiv.tavrida.com/instructions.ppt, last accessed:
14 Feb 2005
 K Boone, “How to Write a Technical Report,” http://www.kevinboone.com/howto_report.html, 8 Jul 2004
 “The Stucture, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Stye Scientific Paper,”
http://abacus.bates.edu/~ganderso/biology/resources/writing/HTWsections.html, 25 Sep 2003
 “Scientific Paper Writing,” http://www.geocities.com/EnchantedForest/Palace/1170/scipprwrt.html, last
accessed: 14 Feb 2005
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http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~martins/sen_sem/thesis_org.html, last accessed: 14 Feb 2005
 R Irish, “Laboratory Reports,” http://www.ecf.toronto.edu/~writing/handbook-lab.html, 19 Aug 2002
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last accessed: 14 Feb 2005
 “How to Write a Laboratory Report,”
http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/genbio/maderinquiry/supp/moorech5.html, last accessed: 14 Feb 2005
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 M Longan, “How to Write a Research Report and Give a Presentation,”
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