10

Electronics
(SSC Grade 10)
Quarter 3 (Week 4 to 7) - Module 2:
“Electronics of the Third Industrial
Revolution: Diodes and Transistors”
Electronics – Special Science Class Grade 10
Alternative Delivery Mode
Quarter 3 – Module 2: “Electronics of the Third Industrial Revolution: Diodes and
Transistors”
First Edition, 2021

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Every effort has been exerted to locate and seek permission to use these materials from their
respective copyright owners. The publisher and authors do not represent nor claim ownership
over them.

Published by the Department of Education

Secretary: Leonor Magtolis Briones
Undersecretary: Diosdado M. San Antonio

Development Team of the Module

Writer/s: Melissa B. Gagujas (Master Teacher I-JGMNHS)
Editors:
Reviewer/s: Leonilyn M. Corońa (HTIII-JGMNHS)
Illustrator:
Layout Artist:
Management Team: Regional Director: Tolentino G. Aquino
CLMD Chief: Arlene A. Niro
CID Chief: Cornelio R. Aquino
EPS in Science: Julie G. De Guzman

Printed in the Philippines by ________________________

Department of Education – Region I

Office Address: Flores St., Catbangen, City of San Fernando, La Union

Telefax: (072) 607-8137/ 682-2324_______________________
E-mail Address: region1@deped.gov.ph/ Website: www.depedro1.com
 10
Electronics (SSC Grade 10)
Quarter 3 (Week 4 to 7) - Module 2:
“Electronics of the Third Industrial
Revolution: Diodes and Transistors”

Prepared by:

MELISSA B. GAGUJAS, MAEd

Master Teacher I-JGMNHS

Consultants:

LEONILYN M. COROÑA, EdD

Head Teacher III-JGMNHS

JULIE G. DE GUZMAN, EdD

Education Program Supervisor, Science
The following are some reminders in using this module:
1. Use the module with care. Do not put unnecessary mark/s on any part of the
module. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the exercises.
2. Don’t forget to answer What I Know before moving on to the other activities
included in the module.
3. Read the instruction carefully before doing each task.
4. Observe honesty and integrity in doing the tasks and checking your answers.
5. Finish the task at hand before proceeding to the next.
6. Return this module to your teacher/facilitator once you are through with it.
If you encounter any difficulty in answering the tasks in this module, do not
hesitate to consult your teacher or facilitator. Always bear in mind that you are
not alone.
We hope that through this material, you will experience meaningful learning and
gain deep understanding of the relevant competencies. You can do it!

What I Need to Know

This module was design and written with you in mind. It is here to help you
master the structure, function, and types of diodes and transistors. The scope of this
module permits it to be used in many different learning situations. The language
used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students. The lessons are arranged
to follow the standard sequence of the course.
The module is divided into three lessons, namely:
• Lesson 1 – Semiconductors
• Lesson 2 – Diodes
• Lesson 3 – Transistors
• Lesson 4 – Digital Electronics
After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. Demonstrate an understanding of semiconductors as a raw material in
making electronic devices.
1.1 Differentiate among conductors, insulators, and semiconductors.
1.2 Distinguish the procedure of construction, properties, and application of P
type and N-type semiconductor.
2. Demonstrate an understanding of diodes and its impact in the advancement
in Electronics.
2.1 Describe a PN Junction
2.2 Describe a diode through an investigation of its structure and components.
2.3 Differentiate the types of diodes and their functions.
3. Demonstrate an understanding of transistors and its impact in the
advancement in Electronics.
3.1 Describe a transistor through an investigation of its structure and
components.
3.2 Differentiate the types of transistors and their functions.
3.3 Explain how transistor works as a switch.
3.4 Discuss the process in which a transistor acts as an amplifier.
4. Demonstrate an understanding of the different electrical components that are
used in Digital Electronics.

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 4.1. Identify the possible output in a system of Logic Gates through theoretical
procedure and manual operation.
4.2. Relate the way Logic Gates operate to digital processing of data.

What I Know

Direction. Write the letter of your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

1. What are the materials that require high temperature so that electrons may flow
thus producing current?
A. semiconductors B. insulators C. dopants D. conductors

2. What are the two types of semiconductors?

A. extrinsic and intrinsic semiconductors
B. N-type and P-type semiconductors
C. pure and intrinsic semiconductors
D. wafer and dopant semiconductors
3. Silicon wafers can become good conductors of electricity when these are injected
with other materials. This procedure is termed as____________________.
A. welding B. soldering C. doping D. A, B, and C

4. How many valence electrons a dopant should have to create a p-type

semiconductor?
A. 3 B. 4 C. 5 D. 5

5. The other half of a germanium wafer was doped to form an n-type semiconductor
and the other half is doped to form a p-type semiconductor. This new material can
be called a ___________________.
A. reversed-biased point C. potential barrier
B. PN junction D. depletion region

6. What do you call the boundary between a joint p-type and n-type
semiconductor?
A. reversed-biased point C. potential barrier
B. PN junction D. depletion region
7. Which diagram represents a diode?
A. C.
p n p n p

B. D.
p n p n
n
8. What diode is primarily used in the design of high-speed logic gates?
A. Schottky diode B. Tunnel diode C. Varactor diode D. Zener diode

9. Which diagram represents a transistor?

A. C.
p n p p n

B. D.
p n p n
n

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10. Which transistor is current-controlled?
A. bipolar junction transistor
B. junction field-effect transistor
C. metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor
D. None among the given choices

11. Which pair of terms is MISMATCHED?

A. P-type: holes C. P-type: 8 electrons
B. N-type: electrons D. N-type: 9 electrons

12. Which of the following correctly shows the flow of a forward current in a diode?
A. C.

Anode + - Cathode Cathode - Anode

Forward current Forward current

B. D.

Anode + - Cathode Cathode - Anode

Forward current Forward current

13. What is the difference of a light emitting diode (LED) to other types of diodes?
A. A LED requires 0.7 V so that forward biasing may take place while other types
require 1 V.
B. Unlike other types of diode, a LED emits light when current flows through it.
C. LEDs operate when a current flow in a reverse-biased direction.
D. In a LED, current flows either from the cathode or the anode.

14. What diode is used in high-frequency oscillators to cancel out resistance in

passive components?
A. Zener diode B. Varactor diode C. Tunnel diode D. Schottky diode

15. The base, emitter and the collector are the terminals in a transistor. In what
terminal will the middle region of a transistor be soldered?
A. emitter B. collector C. base D. None among the three

16. A given transistor is said to be a voltage-controlled transistor. Which of the

following correctly describes this transistor?
A. The voltage source is connected to the emitter and base of this transistor.
B. The current that this transistor allows to flow is dependent on the current
flowing into the base.
C. This transistor allows a current to flow which is dependent on the voltage that is
flowing into the base.
D. The operation of this transistor starts when a potential voltage of 0.7V pass
through the depletion regions.

17. In cut off region, a transistor acts as an open switch. Which of the following
DOES NOT support the given statement?
A. There is negligible current due to minority carriers.
B. The emitter emits charge carriers to the base.
C. The transistor has practically zero current.
D. Both the junctions are reversed biased.

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18. In saturation region, a transistor acts as a closed switch. Which statement
CORRECTLY explains this state?
A. The negative terminal of the battery is connected to the emitter.
B. The collector current is dependent of the base current.
C. Their transistor has practically zero current.
D. Both the junctions are reversed biased.

19. Why is it necessary for a transistor to conduct biasing if it is to function as an

amplifier? Through biasing, the transistor
A. is cutoff.
B. will be in saturation region.
C. can fix the value of current amplification.
D. can establish suitable D.C. working conditions.

20. What does it mean to say that an output signal is amplified?

A. The “noise” in the input signal is removed producing a refined output signal.
B. The input signal is rectified, removing pulses in the signal.
C. The output signal is greater than the input signal.
D. The voltage of the output signal is increased.

II. Supply the correct information to complete the given table.

LOGIC GATE INPUT INPUT SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OUTPUT
A B
Inverter 1 21. 26.

XOR Gate 0 0 22. 27.

OR Gate 1 1 23. 28.

NAND gate 1 0 24. 29.

AND gate 0 1 25. 30.

Lesson

1 Semiconductors
The Third Industrial Revolution was characterized by an upgrade of data
processing. With the advent of storing data through computing devices, engineers
cracked their minds to improve the device used in computers: Vacuum tubes.
This device, as we previously discussed, was actually big and easy to increase its
temperature. These features post problems like limited data storage and feeble data
processing speed. Vacuum tubes were improved, and diodes and transistors were
brought into the world.
What are diodes? What are transistors? What were their roles in the onset of Third
Industrial Revolution? What are the materials used in constructing these devices?
How do these devices work? This module will help you find answers to the questions
mentioned. Along the process, you are asked to be an active independent learner and
do the tasks given at the best of your ability. Happy learning!

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 What’s In

Activity 1.1. Guess that Word

Directions: The pictopuzzles below are clues to the key words for our Lesson 1.
Write the word depicted in the box.

1. - A + MI + +ORS

2. L + -S + T + -R

3. - EA + I (middle) +

4. + -T+ + UM

5. - M + D (first) + -B

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 What is It

Semiconductors
The name semiconductors (semimetal) for materials such as silicon and
germanium mean that they are not good as the metals as electrical conductors, but
they are not insulators. The reason is atomic structure.
FAST FACTS ABOUT SEMICONDUCTORS
➢ Have atoms with an electron valence of  4 (There are 4 electrons in the
outermost shell of the atom. Take as an example a silicon (Si) atom as shown in
the diagram below.)

Figure 1. The Atomic Structure of Silicon, a semiconductor

Source: http://www.testandmeasurementstips.com

➢ Requires additional 4 electrons in the outermost shell to fulfill the Octet Rule.
The Octet Rule tells us that an atom requires 8 electrons in its outermost shell
to become stable. This condition is satisfied when semiconductor atoms share
their 4 electrons to the other element’s atom. Together they form a covalent bond
or sharing of atoms.
➢ Semiconductors that have not yet bonded covalently with other elements are
known as pure semiconductors or intrinsic semiconductors. They do not
have impurities. Pure semiconductors have the following resistance
characteristics:
1. Medium resistance
2. Negative temperature coefficient α (The negative α means that R decreases
with higher temperature)
➢ Semiconductors include silicon, germanium, tin, and carbon.
Covalent Bonds and Crystal Structure
Because of the covalent bonds between atoms, either Si or Ge, the atoms form
a network or lattice structure in a regular pattern that is characteristic of a crystal
solid. A crystal has a definite geometrical form for the internal atoms. A diamond is
an example of the crystalline structure for pure carbon which, incidentally, is also a
semiconductor. When a crystal is broken into smaller segments, each has the same
structure as the original crystal.
With covalent bonds for the semiconductor elements Si and Ge and the crystal
structure, it becomes possible to add impurity elements that result in the desired
electrical characteristics. This process is called doping the pure semiconductor.

8
 Extrinsic Semiconductors
➢ The doped form of a pure semiconductor
➢ Doping Process is done by vaporizing certain impure elements under high heat
in an oven with the semiconductor disk (e.i. silicon disk). Dopant is the term
given to the impurity added to pure semiconductors.

➢ Two types: N-type semiconductor and P-type semiconductor

1. N-type semiconductor
◼ Is created when pure semiconductors are doped with elements having valence
electrons of 5, thus providing free electron charges.
Pure semiconductors with 4 v. e. + dopants with 5 v.e. = 9 electrons in the
outermost shell. An atom requires 8 electrons in the outermost shell to become
stable, but this allows the atom to have a free electron charge, hence N-type or
negative or having an excess electron.

◼ The excess electron is now the major charge in N-type semiconductors.

2. P-type Semiconductors
◼ Is created when pure semiconductors are doped with elements having valence
electrons of 3, thus a missing electron. This is called a hole or free positive charge
because a missing electron in an atom is the same as adding the same amount
of positive charge.
Pure semiconductors with 4 v. e. + dopants with 3 v.e. = 7 electrons in the
outermost shell. An atom requires 8 electrons in the outermost shell to become
stable, but this makes the atom with one missing electron. This is equivalent to 1
extra positive charge added to the atom. Hence P-type or positive semiconductor.
◼ The “hole” is now the major charge in P-type semiconductors. This is new
type of free charge that is only present among P-type semiconductors.

Silicon, on its original state, is an

intrinsic semiconductor. Now study Figure 2. A
silicon wafer is doped with boron; it becomes a
p-type semiconductor. Silicon has 4 valence
electrons while boron has 3 valence electrons,
making a total of 7 electrons. Hence, there will
be a “void” region. This becomes the hole- a
major charge in P-type semiconductors.

Figure 2. Silicon wafer Doped with Boron

(Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Silicon_doping_-_Type_P.svg)
In Figure 3, the silicon wafer is doped
with antimony; it becomes an n-type
semiconductor. Silicon has 4 valence
electrons while antimony has 5 valence
electrons, making a total of 9 electrons. Hence,
there will be an extra electron. This becomes
the major charge in N-type semiconductors.
Figure 3. Silicon wafer Doped with Antimony
(Source: https://www.watelectronics.com/what-is-an-n-type-
semiconductor/)

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 What’s More

Activity 1.2. Map Your Concept about Semiconductors

Direction: Complete the following concept maps.
A. Semiconductors

Types

Description Examples Description Examples

B. Extrinsic Semiconductors

Types

Structure/ Structure/
Description Description
Drawing Drawing

Majority Charges Minority Charges Majority Charges Minority Charges

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 What’s More

Activity 1.3. P-type or N-type?

Direction: Given are doped wafers. Classify whether this is a P-type or N-type
semiconductor. Write your answer in the space provided. You can look for the
valence electrons in your periodic table or check the net.
Semiconductor Dopant Valence Valence Total Valence N-type or
electrons of Electrons of electrons P-type?
Semiconductor Dopant (A + B)
(A) (B)
1. Silicon Arsenic
2. Germanium Antimony
3. Tin Phosphorus
4. Tin Aluminum
5. Germanium Boron
6. Silicon Gallium

Lesson

2 Diodes
In the previous lesson, you learned that a pure semiconductor can be doped
with impurities creating either a p-type or an n-type. What if a half of a silicon wafer
is doped producing a p-type semiconductor and the other half is doped creating an
n-type semiconductor? Continue reading to learn the answer to our question.

What’s New

Activity 2.1. Combining P-type and N-type

Directions: Study the given diagrams below then answer the corresponding
questions.
1. Wafer A
Semiconductor: _____________________________
Number of Valence Electrons per atom: _____
What type of semiconductor is this?
_______________________

11
2. Wafer B
Semiconductor: ________________________________
Dopant: ________________________________________
Number of Valence Electrons per atom:
___________
What type of semiconductor is this?
_____________________________________________
What can you see in this Germanium wafer?
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
3. Wafer C
Semiconductor: _______________________________
Dopant: _____________________________________
Number of Valence Electrons per atom: _________
What type of semiconductor is this?
_____________________________________________
What can you see in this Germanium wafer?
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________

4. Combining P-type and N-type Semiconductor

Describe the following based from the given diagrams.

A. PN Junction
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
B. Diffusion
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
C. Depletion Region/ Layer
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

12
 What is It

PN Junction
Newly doped N-typed and P-typed semiconductor materials do very little on
their own as they are electrically neutral. However, if these two are joined together,
they behave in a very different way merging. A PN junction is produced.

Characteristics of Combined P-type and N-type Material

1. Method of Construction
A semiconductor wafer’ s left side is doped with an element having 3 valence
electrons, thus creating a P-type semiconductor. The right side is doped with an
element having 5 valence electrons, thus creating an N-type semiconductor.
2. The Diffusion Process
A very large density gradient exists between both sides of the PN junction. This
causes the free electrons in the N-type to migrate across the newly formed junction
to fill up the holes in the P-type material producing negative ions. As a result, the N-
type has now positively charged donor ions (ND).
The holes from the P-type migrate across the junction in the opposite direction
(N-type). As a result, the charge density of the P-type along the junction is filled with
negatively charged acceptors ions (NA). The charge density of the N-type along the
junction becomes positive.
This process continues back and forth until the number of electrons which
have crossed the junction have a large enough electrical charge to repel or prevent
any more charge carriers from crossing over the junction.
3. Potential Barrier Zone
A state of equilibrium or an electrically neutral situation will eventually occur
after the diffusion process. A potential barrier zone will occur around the area of the
junction as the donor atoms (N-type side) repel the holes and the acceptor atoms (P-
type side) repel the electrons.
4. The Depletion Layer
No free charge carriers can rest in a position where there is a potential
barrier. Thus, the regions on either side of the junction now become completely
depleted of any more free carriers in comparison to the N and P type materials
further away from the junction. This area is now called the depletion layer.

The combined P-type and N-type creating

PN junction and depletion layer is what
we call a DIODE.

Figure 4. Construction of a Diode

(Source: https://www.electronics-
tutorials.ws/diode/diode_2.html)

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 What’s More

Activity 2.2 PN Junction

Directions: Create a flow chart to summarize the processes that take place to
create a Diode. The processes are summarized below.
Processes
1. Depletion layer is created where either side of the PN Junction becomes
completely depleted with free charge carriers.
2. A silicon wafer’s side is doped thus creating P-type and N-type semiconductors.
3. An electrically neutral situation occurs in the PN Junction giving way to a potential
barrier zone.
4. A PN Junction is created.
5. The holes in the P-type side migrates to the N-type side. At the same time, the
negative charges migrate to the P-type side.

What is It

Diodes
A diode is essentially a PN Junction. It is a component that allows current
to flow in one direction only. Common diodes consist of a junction of p-type and n-
type semiconductor materials.
A diode has two leads known as the anode, on the left-hand side, and the
cathode, on the right-hand side. The standard symbol is an arrow to indicate the
direction of hole current and a bar. The arrow is at the anode, which must be
positive for current flow, while the bar is the cathode.

Forward Current
• This happens only when the anode is connected to the positive side of the
power supply and the cathode connected to the negative side so that current
will flow.
• When connected in this way the diode is said to be forward biased.
• With reverse polarity, no forward current can flow.

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 • Diodes in forward biased stated works as a rectifier, it allows current to flow
through it in one direction only. This means a diode must be connected the
correct way around in a circuit for current to flow.

Biasing
The diode (PN Junction) having negative ions in the p-type region and leaves
behind positive ions in the n-type region, reacts differently depending on which way
the voltage is applied. This process is called biasing.
It can be done in two ways:
1. Forward-biased Diode- Allowing the current to flow from the anode to the cathode
2. Reversed-biased Diode- Allowing the current to flow from the cathode to the
anode

Forward-biased Diode
◼ The voltage is put across a diode so that current can flow easily.
◼ The voltage is applied in such a way that the N-type region is connected to the
negative terminal of the voltage source and the P-type region is connected to the
positive terminal of the voltage source.
◼ The electrons and holes move toward the junction as they are repelled from the
positive and negative terminals of the voltage source respectively.
◼ When the voltage applied is great enough, both the holes and electrons overcome
the depletion region and meet near the junction. This becomes a continuous
process, allowing current to flow.
◼ 0.7 V- The required minimum threshold voltage in diodes to overcome the
depletion region.
◼ A great enough reverse voltage will result in the electronic breakdown of the diode
and allow current to flow through the diode in reverse direction.

Reverse-biased Diode
◼ The voltage is put across a diode in the opposite direction so there is no
appreciable current to flow.
◼ This is useful for changing AC to DC.
◼ It has other uses in manipulating electronic signals.
◼ The N-type region of the diode is connected to the positive terminal of the voltage
source and the P-type region is connected to the negative terminal. Then
electrons from the external circuit create more negative ions in the P-type region
by filling the holes” and more positive ions are created in the N-type region as
electrons are displaced toward the positive terminal of the voltage source.

What’s More

Activity 2.3 The Schematic Diagram of a Diode, Forward-

Biased Diode, and Reverse-Biased Diode
Part I. Below is the schematic diagram of a diode. Label its ANODE and
CATHODE. Identify which side is connected to the positive terminal source and
negative terminal source by labeling + and - sign respectively.

15
Part II. Complete the table to differentiate between forward-biased diode and a
reverse-biased diode. Base your answer from the discussion above.
FORM OF A DIODE SKETCH (how the diode Description and Work
is connected in a Mechanism
circuit)
1. Forward- biased Diode

2. Reverse-biased Diode

What’s More

Activity 2.4 Types of Diodes

Directions. The following are some types of diodes. Search the internet to
give the functions of these diodes.

TYPES OF PICTURE (Draw or Function (1 statement only/ bulleted)

DIODES simply cut a print
picture and paste it.)
1. Backward
Diode

2. BARITT
Diode

3. Gunn
Diode

4. Cat’s
whisker

16
 5. IMPATT
Diode

6. Laser
Diode

7. Light
Emitting
Diodes
8. Photodiode

9. PIN Diode

10. Point
Contact Diode

11. PN
Junction

12. Schottky
Diode

13. Step
Recovery
Diode
14. TRAPATT
Diode

15. Tunnel
Diode

16. Varicap or
Varactor
Diode
17. Zener
Diode

Lesson

3 Transistors
In the previous lesson, you have learned about diodes. But did you know that
it was transistors which revolutionized the creation of computers? What are
transistors? How do they work? Before anything else, watch a video about
transistors. Click this link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IcrBqCFLHIY

17
 What is It

Transistors
While diode is simply a PN Junction, a combination of three extrinsic
semiconductors: NPN or PNP are known as TRANSISTORS. See Figure 5 and the
corresponding schematic diagram.
Transistors have three electrodes/ terminals with two junctions. In operation,
the first section at one end supplies free charges, either holes or electrons, to be
collected by the third section at the opposite end, through the middle section. The
middle section controls the current. The names and functions of the electrodes are:

Emitter- supplies free charges (holes or electrons)

Base- controls the flow of charge
Collector- collects the charge from the emitter

Figure 5. Transistor
A. Transistor
B. Simple diagram of the inside of transistor
C. Schematic Diagram for NPN and PNP
(Source: learn.sparkfun.com)

PNP Transistor and NPN Transistor

• With an N-type base, the transistor is PNP.

In a PNP transistor, the emitter arrow shows hole charges can move
from the P emitter into the N base. In the schematic symbols (Figure 5), the
emitter has an arrow and the junction with the base. The arrow indicates that
this is the emitter. The third electrode is the collector. As in all semiconductor
symbols, the arrow is in the direction of hole current.

• A P-type-base is used for an NPN transistor.

In an NPN transistor, the arrow is in the opposite direction to show that

hole charges can move from the P base to the N emitter.

✓ The letters correspond to the polarities for emitter, base, and collector.
✓ Both PNP and NPN transistors operate the same way but they take opposite
polarities of DC supply voltage.
✓ Most small transistors are the NPN type and made of silicon.

18
✓ The NPN and PNP types are called junction transistors/ bipolar junction
transistors (BJT). Also, they can be considered bipolar transistors because they
have two polarities of doped semiconductor. With three electrodes, the transistor
is a triode. Compared with the diode as two-terminal device, a triode has one more
electrode that can control the current.

What’s More

Activity 3.1 Familiarizing yourself with Transistors

Directions. Answer the given questions.
1. There are two types of transistors. What are they?
__________________________________________________________________________________
2. A transistor can be regarded as a type of (underline the correct answer)?
RESISTOR SWITCH DIODE AMPLIFIER
RELAY WIRE
3. A transistor has three electrodes/terminals/legs/leads. Name them.
__________________________________________________________________________________
4. Shown below is the schematic diagram of a transistor. Label the three
electrodes/legs/terminals.

What is It

Transistor Biasing
The supply of suitable external dc voltage is called as biasing. Either forward
or reverse biasing is done to the emitter and collector junctions of the transistor.
These biasing methods make the transistor circuit to work in four kinds of regions
such as:
Active Region Saturation Region
Cutoff Region Inverse Active or Reverse Active Region

ACTIVE REGION
◼ In this region, transistors have many applications
◼ Also called the linear region
◼ A transistor in this region acts as an amplifier. The current from collector to
emitter is proportional to the current flowing into the base.
◼ This region lies between saturation and cutoff

19
◼ How to achieve this?: The emitter junction is forward biased and collector
junction is reversed biased.

SATURATION REGION
◼ A transistor during this region behaves as a closed switch.
◼ The transistor’s collector and emitter are being shorted. The collector and emitter
currents are maximum. Current freely flows from collector to emitter.
◼ How to achieve this?: The emitter junction and the collector junction are both
forward biased.

CUTOFF REGION
◼ The transistor during this region behaves as an open switch. The transistor’s
collector and base are being opened. The collector, emitter and base currents are
all zero in this mode of operation. No current flows from collector to emitter.
◼ How to achieve this?: The emitter junction and the collector junction are both
reverse biased.

REVERSE ACTIVE REGION or INVERSE ACTIVE REGION

◼ Like active mode, the current is proportional to the base current, but it flows in
reverse. Current flows from emitter to collector (not exactly the purpose
transistors were designed for).

TWO TYPES OF TRANSISTORS

Based on structure, transistors are classified into BJT and FET.
1. Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
✓ Has 2 versions: NPN and PNP (depending on structure)
✓ Has 3 terminals: emitter, base, and collector
✓ Current-controlled devices--> If small amount of current flows through the base
of a BJT transistor then it causes to flow large current from emitter to collector
✓ Has low input impedance and it causes to flow large current through the
transistor.
✓ The only transistor which is turned ON by the input current which is given to
the base.
✓ Can be operated in three regions: Cut-off, active and saturation.

2. Field Effect Transistor (FET)

✓ Has 2 versions: Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET) and Metal Oxide
Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET)
✓ Has three terminals: Gate (G), Drain (D), and Source (S). For the connections in
the circuit, we also consider fourth terminal called base or substrate.
✓ Has control on the size and shape of a channel between source and drain which
is created by applied voltage.
✓ Is a unipolar transistor because it performs single channel operation where as
BJT are bipolar junction transistors.
✓ Has higher current gain than BJT
JFET- classified into N-channel JFET and P-channel JFET defending on the function.
MOSFET- classified into Depletion Mode and Enhancement mode

20
 What’s More

Activity 3.2 How does a Transistor Works: The Water Analogy

Part I.
Directions. The water analogy is commonly used to describe the relationship
between current, voltage and resistance. Luckily, it can be extended with how
transistor works. Study the diagrams below, make an assumption what will
happen with the water and extend this to transistors.

States Water Valve State What happens to What happens in

the water? the transistor?
1. On -- Short The valve is
Circuit completely opened.

2. Off- Open The water valve is

Circuit completely closed.

3. Linear Flow The water valve is

Control adjusted to some
point between fully
open and closed.

In this analogy, the width of a pipe is like the resistance in a circuit. If a valve can
finely adjust the width of a pipe, then a transistor can finely adjust the resistance
between collector and emitter. So, in a way, a transistor is like a variable,
adjustable resistor.

Guide Questions
1. Suppose a slight turn of a valve, you could control the flow of rate of the San Roque
Dam. What will happen to the water flow with a slight turn of the valve?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
2. Relate this phenomenon to a transistor operating as an amplifier.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

21
Part II. To better understand the mode of operation for transistors, fill in the
table with necessary information.

Mode of Condition of Condition of Condition of Condition of Function of

operation the transistor current in the current in the current in the the transistor
to achieve this base (IB) emitter (IE) collector (IC)
Active
Region
Saturation
Region
Cutoff
Region
Reverse
Active
Region

Lesson

4 Logic Gates
Digital electronics involves circuits that operate using only 2 voltage levels for
all input and output signals. The 2 levels most used in digital circuits are 0 V and
+5 V. Regardless of the voltage levels used, all input and output signals encountered
in digital circuits will be at one of the two distinctly different voltage levels. This two-
state design allows us to use the binary number system when working with digital
circuits. The binary number system uses only two digits, which are 0 and 1. In most
digital circuits, 0 is used to represent 0V and 1 is used to represent +5V.
Modern calculators and computers that process binary numbers use decision-
making elements called logic gates. There are several different types: Inverters; OR
Gates; AND Gates; NOR Gates; NAND Gates; XOR Gates and XNOR Gates. Logic
gates can have many input signals, but they have only one output signal.
Digital logic circuits are often classified into two broad categories:
combinational logic circuits and sequential logic circuits. Generally, a circuit is
considered a combinational logic circuit if its output goes either LOW or HIGH with
a specified combination of input signals. The order or sequence in which the inputs
are applied is not important. What is important, though, is that the correct
combination of inputs exists for the desired output. Sequential logic circuits, on the
other hand, must have a definite order or sequence for its inputs before the desired
output is obtained. The basic building block used in combinational logic circuits is
the logic gate; the basic building block of the sequential logic circuit is the flip-flop.
A logic gate is a circuit that has one or more input signals but only one output signal.
All logic gates can be analyzed by constructing a truth table. Truth tables list all
input possibilities and the corresponding output for each input.

22
 What’s New

Activity 4.1 Basic Terminologies

Part I. Create a concept map for the following terms. Give 5 words in each
term only.
A. Digital Electronics
B. Binary System
C. Digital Logic Circuit

Part II. Identify what is asked in each item.

________________ 1. In digital electronics 0 means ______(1) and 1 means ______(2).
________________ 2.
________________ 3. Computers and modern calculators use this number system to
process data.
________________ 4. These are decision making elements which process data
through the concept of binary numbers.
________________ 5. Two types of digital logic circuits
________________ 6.
________________ 7. Logic circuits which are combined to generate either low or high
output signals such that the combination of input signals is considered more than
the order/ sequence of these input signals.
________________ 8. Logic circuits which are combined to produce an output in
consideration to how the input signals are arranged or sequence.
________________ 9. The basic building elements of combinational logic circuits.
________________ 10. The basic building elements of sequential logic circuits.

What is It

Logic Gates: Inverter and OR Gates

1. INVERTERS
The inverter is the simplest of all logic gates. It has only
one input (A) and one output (X), where the output is the
opposite of the input. The schematic symbol for a logic
inverter is shown below.
(Note: Input Voltage will be denoted as A and Output
Voltage will be denoted as X.)
The small bubble on the inverter diagram represents inversion. Notice that
the bubble can be shown on either the input or the output side without affecting the
way the inverter operates. The reason why the bubble is shown on one or the other
side for logic diagrams will be discussed later on.
A binary 0 represents 0 V, and a binary 1 represents +5 V. It is common to
refer to a binary 0 as a LOW input or output, and a binary 1 as a HIGH input or
OUTPUT. The logic inverter works like this: When the input A is low, or at 0V, the

23
output X is high, or at +5 V. Also, when the input A is high, or at +5V, the output X
is LOW, or at 0V.
The number of input possibilities for the truth table below is 21 or 2, because
inverters shown above have only one input. Input can be either 0 or 1. In truth table
is 2N, where N is the number of inputs to the logic gates.

2. OR GATE
An OR gate has two or more inputs but only one output. The logic symbol for
a 2-input OR gate and its truth table is shown below.
Truth Table for OR Gate
For any OR gate, the output X is
low when all inputs are LOW.
A B X
However, the output X of any OR
0 0 0
gate is HIGH if any or all inputs
0 1 1
are HIGH.
1 0 1
1 1 1

What’s More

Activity 4.2 Inverter and OR Gate Challenge

Direction. Answer the given questions.
1. Is it possible to create a TRUTH TABLE with 3 inputs for an inverter? Why or
why not?
2. Complete the TRUTH TABLE below for OR gate having three inputs.
A B C X
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1

3. Create a TRUTH TABLE for an OR gate having 4 inputs.

What is It

Logic Gate: AND Gate

The AND gate is another logic gate. An AND gate has two or more inputs but
only one output. The logic symbol for a 2-input AND gate and its TRUTH Table are
shown at the left side.

24
 For any AND gate, the output X Truth Table for AND
is high when all inputs are Gate
A B X
HIGH. However, the output X of 0 0 0
any AND gate is LOW if any or 0 1 0
all inputs are LOW. For the 2- 1 0 0
input AND gate at the left, the 1 1 1
output X is HIGH only when
both inputs A and B are high.

What’s More

Activity 4.3 AND Gate Challenge

Direction. Answer the given questions.

1. Complete the TRUTH TABLE below for an AND gate having three inputs.
A B C X
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1

2. Create a TRUTH TABLE for an AND gate having 4 inputs.

What is It

Logic Gate: NOR Gate

The NOR gate is another logic gate. The NOR gate has two or more inputs but
only one output. The logic symbol for a 2-input NOR gate and its TRUTH Table are
shown at the left side.
Truth Table for NOR Gate
For any AND gate, the output X
is high when all inputs are A B X
HIGH. However, the output X of 0 0 1
any AND gate is LOW if any or 0 1 0
all inputs are LOW. For the 2- 1 0 0
input AND gate at the left, the 1 1 0
output X is HIGH only when
both inputs A and B are high.

25
 What’s More

Activity 4.4 NOR Gate Challenge

Direction. Answer the given questions.

1. Complete the TRUTH TABLE below for a NOR gate having three inputs.
A B C X
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1
2. Create a TRUTH TABLE for a NOR gate having 4 inputs.

What is It

Logic Gate: NAND Gate

In Digital Electronics, a NAND gate (negative-AND) is a logic gate which
produces an output which is false only if all inputs are true; thus, its output is
complement to that of the AND Gate. NAND is like the reverse of the AND gate where
it inverts the output of AND.

A B X
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

What’s More

Activity 4.5 NAND Gate Challenge

Direction. Answer the given questions.

1. Sketch the schematic diagram for a NAND gate.

2. Complete the TRUTH TABLE below for a NAND gate having three inputs.

26
 A B C X
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1

3. Create a TRUTH TABLE for a NAND gate having 4 inputs.

TRUE or FALSE: A NAND Gate is a combination of the digital logic AND gate
followed by an inverter. Defend your answer.

What is It

Logic Gate: XOR and XNOR Gate

XOR (Exclusive OR) and XNOR (Exclusive NOR) are useful logic functions. Both
have two or more inputs.
NOTE: A XOR B = 1 if and only if A is not equal to B
A XNOR B= 1 if and only if A is equal to B
If there are more than 2 inputs, the XOR output is 1 for an odd number of inputs of
1 and the XNOR output is 1 for even number inputs of 1.
Truth Table for XOR and XNOR
A B Gates
A XOR B A XNOR B
0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1

XOR Gate XNOR Gate

What’s More

Activity 4.6 XOR and XNOR Gate Challenge

Direction. Answer the given questions.

1. Sketch the schematic diagram for XOR and XNOR gate.

27
 2. Complete the TRUTH TABLE below for XOR and XNOR gates having three
inputs.
A B C XOR XNOR
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1

3. Create a TRUTH TABLE for a XOR and XNOR gates having 4 inputs.
4. TRUE or FALSE: A NAND Gate is a combination of the digital logic AND gate
followed by an inverter. Defend your answer.

What is It

Boolean Algebra for Logic Gates

Boolean Algebra derived its name from the mathematician George Boole in 1854
in his book “An Investigation of the Laws of Taught.” It is a mathematical system for
the manipulation of variables that can have one of two values. In formal logic, these
values are “true” and “false”. In digital systems, these values are “on” and “off”, 1 or
0, or “high” and “low”. Boolean expressions are created by performing operations on
Boolean variables. Common Boolean operators include AND, OR, and NOT.

PLEASE DRAW THE SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS OF THE LOGIC GATES IN THE

BOX!

SYMBOL/SCHEMATIC LOGIC BOOLEAN EXPRESSION

DIAGRAM GATE
Inverter X=Ā
The overbar or “not sign” above the input
variable represents inversion or
complementing.

OR Gate X=A+B
Read as X equals A OR B
The + sign indicates a logical addition.
AND Gate X = A.B
Read as X equals A ANDed B
The dot symbol indicates a logical
multiplication.
NOR Gate
X=A+B
Read as X equals not A OR B

28
 Perform an OR function first then invert
the OR sum.
NAND Gate X = A.B
Read as X equals not A ANDed B
Perform the AND function first then invert
the AND output.
XOR Gate
Read as X equals A XOR B

XNOR
Read as X equals not A XOR B

What’s More

Activity 4.7 Boolean Algebra Challenge

Direction. Complete the given table.

Type of INPUTS SCHEMATIC BOOELAN OUTPUT

Gate DIAGRAM EXPRESSION AND
(Include the inputs) SOLUTION

A B

Inverter 1

OR Gate 1 0

AND Gate 1 1

NOR Gate 0 1

NAND 0 0
Gate

XOR Gate 0 0

XNOR 1 0
Gate

29
 What I Have Learned

1. Semiconductors can be classified as intrinsic semiconductor and extrinsic

semiconductors. Intrinsic or pure semiconductors are those without
impurities. Extrinsic semiconductors are doped with impurities creating an
either P-type semiconductor or N-type semiconductor.
2. A P-type semiconductor has a hole (positive) charge as a major charge carrier.
3. An N-type semiconductor has an electron as a major charge carrier.
4. A PN junction is a diode. A diode serves as a rectifier, it allows the flow of
current in one direction.
5. In a forward-biased diode, the p-type side (anode) is connected to the positive
terminal of the voltage source and the n-type side (cathode) is connected to
the negative terminal of the voltage source. If the connection is reversed, the
diode is said to be reversed-biased. No current will flow in the diode but once
the electric field becomes high, the diode breaks down.
6. A transistor is a combination of three intrinsic semiconductors, either 2 N-
type and 1 P-type (NPN transistor) or 2 P-type and 1 N-type (PNP transistor)
7. In an NPN transistor, the flowing current runs from the collector terminal to
the emitter terminal, whereas in a PNP, the flow of current runs from the
emitter terminal to the collector terminal.
8. A transistor can be a switch or an amplifier.
9. Logic gates are the basic building blocks of any digital system. It is an
electronic circuit having one or more than one input and only one output.
10. The different logic gate types are inverter, OR gate, AND gate, NOR gate, NAND
Gate, XOR gate, and XNOR gate.

Assessment

Direction. Write the letter of your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

1. What are the materials that require doping o acquire free electrons may flow thus
producing current?
A. conductors B. dopants C. insulators D. semiconductors

2. What are the two types of doped semiconductors?

A. wafer and dopant semiconductors C. extrinsic and intrinsic semiconductors
B. N-type and P-type semiconductors D. pure and intrinsic semiconductors

3. Silicon wafers can become good conductors of electricity when these are injected
with other materials. This procedure is termed as____________________.
A. doping B. soldering C. welding D. A, B, and C

4. How many valence electrons a dopant should have to create an N-type

semiconductor?
A. 3 B. 4 C. 5 D. 5

30
5. The other half of a germanium wafer was doped to form an n-type semiconductor
and the other half is doped to form a p-type semiconductor. This new material can
be called a ___________________.
A. depletion region C. potential barrier
B. PN junction D. reversed-biased point

6. What do you call the boundary between a joint p-type and n-type semiconductor?
A. depletion region C. potential barrier
B. PN junction D. reversed-biased point

7. Which diagram represents a diode?

A. C.
p n p n p

B. D.
p n p n
n

8. What diode is primarily used in the design of high-speed logic gates?

A. Schottky diode B. Tunnel diode C. Varactor diode D. Zener diode

9. Which diagram represents a transistor?

A. C.
p n p p n

B. D.
p n p n
n

10. Which transistor is current-controlled?

A. metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor
B. junction field-effect transistor
C. bipolar junction transistor
D. None among the given choices

11. Which pair of terms is MISMATCHED?

A. P-type: holes C. P-type: 7 electrons
B. N-type: electrons D. N-type: 8 electrons

12. Which of the following correctly shows the flow of a forward current in a diode?
A. C.

Anode + - Cathode Cathode + - Anode

Forward current Forward current

B. D.

Anode + - Cathode Cathode + - Anode

Forward current Forward current

31
13. What is the difference of a light emitting diode (LED) to other types of diodes?
A. A LED requires 0.7 V so that forward biasing may take place while other types
require 1 V.
B. Unlike other types of diode, a LED emits light when current flows through it.
C. LEDs operate when a current flow in a reverse-biased direction.
D. In a LED, current flows either from the cathode or the anode.

14. What diode is used in high-frequency oscillators to cancel out resistance in

passive components?
A. Schottky diode B. Tunnel diode C. Varactor diode D. Zener diode

15. The base, emitter and the collector are the terminals in a transistor. In what
terminal will the middle region of a transistor be soldered?
A. base B. collector C. emitter D. None among the three

16. A given transistor is said to be a voltage-controlled transistor. Which of the

following correctly describes this transistor?
A. The voltage source is connected to the emitter and base of this transistor.
B. The current that this transistor allows to flow is dependent on the current flowing
into the base.
C. This transistor allows a current to flow which is dependent on the voltage that is
flowing into the base.
D. The operation of this transistor starts when a potential voltage of 0.7V pass
through the depletion regions.

17. In cut off region, a transistor acts as an open switch. Which of the following
DOES NOT support the given statement?
A. Both the junctions are reversed biased.
B. The transistor has practically zero current.
C. The emitter emits charge carriers to the base.
D. There is negligibility current due to minority carriers.

18. In saturation region, a transistor acts as a closed switch. Which statement

CORRECTLY explains this state?
A. Both the junctions are reversed biased.
B. Their transistor has practically zero current.
C. The collector current is dependent of the base current.
D. The negative terminal of the battery is connected to the emitter.

19. Why is it necessary for a transistor to conduct biasing if it is to function as an

amplifier? Through biasing, the transistor
A. is able to establish suitable D.C. working conditions.
B. can fix the value of current amplification.
C. will be in saturation region.
D. is cutoff.

20. What does it mean to say that an output signal is amplified?

A. The “noise” in the input signal is removed producing a refined output signal.
B. The input signal is rectified, removing pulses in the signal.
C. The output signal is greater than the input signal.
D. The voltage of the output signal is increased.

32
II. Supply the correct information to complete the given table.
LOGIC GATE INPUT INPUT SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OUTPUT
A B
Inverter 0 21. 26.

XOR Gate 1 0 22. 27.

OR Gate 0 1 23. 28.

NAND gate 1 1 24. 29.

AND gate 0 0 25. 30.

33
 Answer Key

What I Know Activity 1.1 Activity 1.3

1. A. 1. Semiconductor 1. 4, 5, 9, N-type
2. A. 2. Lattice 2. 4, 5, 9, N-type
3. C. 3. Silicon 3. 4, 5, 9, N-type
4. A. 4. Germanium 4. 4, 3, 7, P-type
5. B. 5. Doping 5. 4, 3, 7, P-type
6. D 6. 4, 3, 7, P-type
7. A Activity 1.2
8. B. Concept Map A Activity 2.1
9. D. Types: Intrinsic and Extrinsic 1. Semiconductor: Germanium
10. A. Semiconductors # of v.e.: 4
11. C. Intrinsic Semiconductor Pure Semiconductor/ Intrinsic
12. A. Description: Pure; no impurities; atoms Semiconductor
13. B. have valence electrons of 4 (Refer to 2. Semiconductor: Germanium
14. C. module for further descriptions.) Dopant: Aluminum
15. C. Example: Silicon and Germanium # of v.e.: 7
16. D. Extrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductors specifically P-
17. B. Description: impure; doped with other type
18. B. elements termed as dopant; can either There are holes that serve as the
19. B. have holes or electrons as major charge majority charges.
20. C. carriers 3. Semiconductor: Germanium
21. -25. refer Example: N-type and P-type Dopant: Phosphorus
to the Semiconductors # of v.e.: 9
Diagrams in Extrinsic Semiconductors specifically N-
the module Concept Map B type
26. 0 Types: N-type and P-type Semiconductors There are excess electrons that serve as
27. 0 N-type Semiconductor the majority charges.
28. 1 Description: semiconductor doped with an
29. 1 impurity having 5 valence electrons 4. PN Junction: Combination of P-type
30. 0 Structure: See module and N-type
Majority Charges: Electrons Diffusion:Holes in P-type migrate to N-
Minority Charges: hole type and electrons in N-type migrate to
P-type Semiconductor P-type
Description: semiconductor doped with an Depletion Region: An area in the middle
impurity having 3 valence electrons section of PN Junction in which charge
Structure: See module carriers are arranged in their oppositely
Majority Charges: Hole (holes in N-type and electrons in P-type.)
Minority Charges: electrons
Activity 2.2 Activity 2.3 Activity 2.3 Part II

Arrangement: Anode + - Cathode 1. Forward-biased Diode

O-type connected to positive terminal of
2, 4, 5, 3, 1 Forward current voltage source and N-type connected to
negative terminal of voltage source

Activity 2.3 Part II Activity 3.1 Activity 3.3

Description and Mechanism of 1. Bipolar Junction Transistor Active Region

Work:
- Depletion region decreases in
size (narrows)
-Charges will flow from N-type
to P-type while holes will flow
from P-type to N-type
-Current will flow in 1 direction
only (Diode act as a rectifier)
(BJT)and Field Effect
Transistor (FET)
2. Switch and amplifier
3. Emitter, base, and collector
4. Middle line (base)
Line connected to arrow line
(emitter) and the other line is
the collector
-Emitter junction is forward
biased while the collector
junction is reversed biased.
-IB ~ IE~ IC (~ means
proportional)
-Amplifier
Saturation Region

34
2. Reverse Biased Diode Note: Arrow line is away from -Emitter and collector junctions
P-type connected to negative the base, therefore this is an are both forward biased.
terminal and N-type to positive NPN bipolar transistor -IB is maximum
terminal - IE is maximum
Description and Mechanism of Activity 3.2 - IC is maximum
Work: 1. The water is freely flowing. -Closed Switch
- Depletion region widens The transistor allows current
-Charges and holes will not to freely flow; it acts as a close Cutoff Region
flow switch). (Saturation region) -Emitter and collector junctions
- No current flow, unless 2. The water is blocked, hence are both reversed- biased.
voltage will be increased from will not flow. The transistor -IB is zero
0.7 V but the diode will acts as an open switch. (Cut- - IE is zero
abruptly created avalanche off Region) - IC is zero
current and then breaks down. 3. Water is controlled; the flow -Open Switch
can be adjusted to slow rate of
Activity 2.4 flowing or fast rate of flowing Reverse Active Region
-Answer may vary, refer to depending on the adjustment -Same conditions with Active
links provided of the valve. The transistor Region; the direction is just
controls the flow of current; reversed.
eventually it acts as an
amplifier. (Active region)
Activity 4.1 Activity 4.3 Activity 4.7
1. 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1 1. X= A
1. False; True 2. Answers may vary X=1
0 V; 5 V X=0
Off, On Activity 4.4 2. X = A + B
2. Binary Number System 1. 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 X=1+0
3. Logic Gates 2. Answers may vary X=1
4. Combinational Logic Circuit 3. X = A . B
5. Sequential Logic Circuit Activity 4.5 X=1.1
6. Combinational Logic Circuit 1. 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1 X=1
7. Sequential Logic Circuit 2l Answers nay vary. 4. X = A + B
8. Logic Gate X=0+1
9. Flip-flop Activity 4.6 X=1
1. See picture in the module. X=0
Activity 4.2 2. XOR: 0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1 5. X = A . B
1. No. An inverter has only 1 XNOR: 1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1 0 X=0.0
input. 3. Answers may vary. X= 0
2. 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1 4. True. NAND gate is the X=1
3. Answers may vary negation of an AND gate
Activity 4.7 Continuation Assessment
1. D 11. D 21-25. See module
6. X = A + B 2. B 12.A 26. 1
X=0+0 3. A 13. B 27. 1
4. C 14. B 28. 1
X=1
5. B 15. A 29. 0
6. A 16. D 30. 0
7. X = A + B 7. A 17. C
X=1+0 8. B 18. C
X=0 9. D 19. C
X=1 10. C 20. C

35
References
Printed Resources
Grob, Bernard (1992). Grob Basic Electronics Seventh Edition. USA: McGraw-Hill,
Inc.
Electronic Resources
Winkler, Fabian. Basic of Electricity/Electronics Workshop-
http://www.cla.purdue.edu/vpa/etb/
https://www.instructables.com/id/3-EASY-TRANSISTOR-PROJECTS-FOR-
BEGINNERS/
http://www.learningaboutelectronics.com
http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/diode/diode_2.html
http://futureelectronics.com
https://www.testandmeasurementtips.com/why-silicon-and-germanium-are-
semiconductors/
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr-gsu.edu/hbase/Solids/sili.html
https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/transistors/all
http://www.technologystudent.com/elec1/transis1.html

For inquiries or feedback, please write or call:

Melissa B. Gagujas
Juan G. Macaraeg National High School
Mobile#: +639957035334
email address: melissa.gagujas@deped.gov.ph

36