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Welcome
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CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Marketing Research
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Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 17-3
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
➢ Define marketing research

➢ Uses of marketing research
➢ Describe MIS
➢ The marketing industry structure
Expectation
• Independent learners
• Proactive
• Read
• Do
• Focus
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17-8
Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
What is Marketing Research?

Marketing research is
the process of
designing, gathering,
analyzing, and reporting
information that may be
used to solve a specific
marketing problem.
AMA Definition
Marketing research: the function that links the consumer,

customer, and public to the marketer through information –
information used to identify and define marketing
opportunities and problems; generate, refine, and evaluate
marketing actions; monitor marketing performance; and
improve the understanding of marketing as a process
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Marketing or Market Research?
• Marketing research: a
process used by businesses
to collect, analyze, and
interpret information used to
make sound business
decisions and successfully
manage the business
• Market research: a process

used to define the size,
location, and/or makeup of
the market for a product or
service
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VW’s CNG Touran

• VW management must choose between two decision
alternatives: Introduce a CNG vehicle in the U.S. vs. Do
Not introduce a CNG vehicle in the U.S.
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Uses of Marketing Research
• Identify marketing opportunities and problems

• Generate, refine, and evaluate potential marketing actions
• Monitor marketing performance
Identifying Market Opportunities and
Problems
Some marketing research studies are designed to find out

what consumers’ problems are and to assess the suitability
of different proposed methods of resolving those problems.
Generate, Refine and Evaluate
Potential Marketing Actions
• Selecting target markets

• Product research
• Pricing research
• Promotion research
• Distribution research
Monitor Marketing Performance
• Tracking data collected at point-of-sale terminals as

consumer packages goods are scanned in grocery stores,
mass-merchandisers, and convenience stores
• Tracking social media
The Marketing Information System
A MIS is a structure consisting of people, equipment, and
procedures to gather, sort, analyze, evaluate, and distribute
needed, timely, and accurate information to marketing
decision makers.
Components of an MIS:
• Internal Reports System
• Marketing Intelligence System
• Marketing Decision Support System (DSS)
• Marketing Research System
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as
Prentice Hall
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Marketing Research System

• It gathers information
for a specific situation -
- not gathered by the
other MIS component
subsystems.
• Marketing research
projects are not
continuous -- they
have a beginning and
an end.
CHAPTER 2
The Marketing Research Industry
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Who Conducts Marketing Research?
Client-side research: organizations that supply their own

marketing research information.
• Internal suppliers: Formal departments or individuals
conduct research internally.
• DIY research: facilitated by Internet, firms have access
to secondary data, online survey platforms and better
knowledge of data analysis software such as SPSS.
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Who Conducts Marketing Research?
Supply-side research: External suppliers hired to fulfill a

company’s marketing research needs.
• Supplier or agency: firm specializing in marketing
research that offers its services to buyers needing
information to make more informed decisions.
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Industry Structure
Firms in the marketing research industry differ by:

• Size
• Type and specialty
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Industry Structure
Types of firms and their specialties

• Full-service supplier firms: have the capability to
conduct the entire marketing research project for buyer
firms.
• Limited-service supplier firms: specialize in one or, at
most, a few marketing research activities.
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Industry Performance:
Industry Revenues and Profits
• ESOMAR estimates worldwide revenues for the

marketing research industry at $43 billion.
• Top 50 firms generated more than $28 billion, led by
Nielsen Inc.
• The largest marketing research companies are truly
international.
• Revenues vary around the world.
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Challenges Facing Marketing Research
Three major challenges are:

• New and evolving sources of data and methodologies
• Need for the effective communication of results
• Need for talented and skilled employees
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Industry Initiatives
Industry initiatives to address these challenges include:

• Establishing “best practices”
• Maintaining public credibility of research
• Monitoring industry trends
• Improving ethical conduct
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Marketing Research Codes of Conduct
Codes of conduct involve:

• Fair Dealings with Respondents
• Fair Dealings with Clients and Subcontractors
• Maintaining Research Integrity
• Concern for Society
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CHAPTER 3
The Marketing Research Process and
Defining the Problem and Research
Objectives
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The Marketing Research Process
The “Step-by-Step Process”

• Not always presented as an 11-step process
• Not all studies use all 11 steps
• Few studies follow the steps in order
Step 1: Establish the Need for Marketing
Research
• Is there a real need for marketing research?

• Research takes time and costs money
• Cost of information may outweigh value of information
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Step 2: Define the Problem

• The need to make a
decision requires decision
alternatives. If there are no
alternatives, no decision is
necessary.
Examples of poor research problem definition
• “Which of the two proposed ads should we choose?”
• Coca–Cola and new Coke formula
• RJ Reynolds and Real cigarettes
• McDonald’s Arch Deluxe
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Be careful to avoid confusing symptoms
with problems.
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Step 3: Establish Objectives

• Research objectives state
what the researchers must
do.
• Research objectives, when
achieved, provide the
information necessary to
solve the problem
identified in step 2.
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Step 4: Determine Research Design

• Exploratory Research:
collecting information in
an unstructured and
informal manner.
• Descriptive research:
research that describes
the phenomena of
interest.
• Causal studies: attempt
to uncover what factor or
factors cause some
event.
Step 5: Identify Information Types and
Sources
• Primary information: information collected specifically

for the problem at hand
• Secondary information: information already collected
Step 6: Determine Methods of Accessing
Data
• Secondary data is relatively easy to access

• Primary data is more complex
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Step 7: Design Data Collection Forms

• The questionnaire must
be worded objectively,
clearly, and without bias
in order to communicate
with respondents.
• If a focus group is used, a focus group

guide must be developed.
• If we observe respondents, the form is

called an observation form.
Step 8: Determine Sample
Plan and Size
• A sample is drawn from an entire group or population.

The sample plan describes how each sample element, or
unit, is to be drawn from the total population. Gives you
representativeness!
• Sample size refers to determining how many elements of
the population should be included in the sample. Gives
you accuracy!
Step 9: Collect Data
• Nonsampling errors in data collection will occur, so

researchers must know the sources of these errors and
implement controls to minimize them.
• Researchers aim to minimize this possibility by
undertaking a control referred to as validation.
Step 10: Analyze Data
• Data analysis involves entering data into computer files,
inspecting data for errors, and running tabulations and various
statistical tests.
Example: A 2016 study references these variables as the factors that

affect fast food restaurant customer satisfaction:
• Order accuracy
• Drive-thru performance
• Price and value
• Service
• Friendliness
• Speed
• Cleanliness
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Step 11: Prepare and Present the Final
Research Report
• Reporting, the last step, is one of the most important

phases of marketing research.
• Its importance cannot be overstated because it is the
report, or its presentation, that properly communicates the
results to the client.
The Market Research Proposal
• The marketing research proposal serves as the basis of

a contract as it documents what the marketing researcher
proposes to deliver to the client for some consideration,
typically a fee.
• When a client first contacts a marketing research supplier
to conduct research, the client will generally request a
proposal prior to agreeing to work with the firm in a
process called an invitation to bid (ITB) or request for
proposal (RFP) .
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The Market Research Proposal
Elements include:
• Statement of the problem
• The research objectives
• The research method
• Statement of deliverables
• Costs
• Timetable/ timeline
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The Role of Symptoms in

Problem Recognition
• “We have a problem … we are losing money.”

• No! This is NOT a problem..it is a
symptom.
• Managers must be careful to
avoid confusing symptoms
with problems.
Isolate and identify the problems, not the
symptoms
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9 dot challenge
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Identification of Causes
• Once symptoms have been validated, it is important to

identify ALL POSSIBLE causes for the symptoms.
• The researcher and the manager should reduce ALL
possible causes to PROBABLE causes.
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The Research Objective
• Research objectives are specific and tell the researcher

exactly what information must be collected to solve the
problem by facilitating selection of an alternative.
The Research Objective
• Specify from whom information is to be gathered

• Specify what information is needed
• Specify the unit of measurement used to gather
information
• Word questions used to gather information using the
respondents’ frame of reference
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Hypotheses and Constructs
• Hypotheses are statements that are taken as true for the

purposes of argument or investigation.
• A construct is an abstract idea or concept composed of a
set of attitudes or behaviors that are thought to be related.
• What is the unit of measurement?
• What is the proper frame of reference?
The Importance of Properly Defining the
Problem
• When you define a problem incorrectly, there is nothing

you can do in the research process to overcome this
error.
• This makes defining the problem and research objectives
the most important step in the marketing research
process.
Action Standards
• An action standard is a predesignation of some quantity

of a measured attribute or characteristic that must be
achieved for a research objective for a predetermined
action to take place.
Exercises
• You have been hired by the Autism Association

organisation to learn how they can increase the number of
fathers who volunteer to help with therapy for autistic
children. Define your research objectives.
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Exercises
The following objectives should be identified:
a. To determine fathers’ awareness of the Autism
Association organisation
b. To determine fathers’ awareness of the
organisation’s need for volunteers
c. To determine fathers’ attitudes toward the
organisation and its achievements
d. To determine fathers’ willingness to volunteer to
help with therapy for autistic children
e. To identify precise explanations why individuals
have not or would not volunteer
f. To determine a demographic profile of those most
likely to volunteer.
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Exercises
• Sony is contemplating expanding its line of 3-inch and 6-
inch portable televisions. It thinks there are three situations
in which this line would be purchased: (1) as a gift, (2) as a
set to be used by children in their own rooms, and (3) for
use at sporting events. How might the research
questions/objectives be stated if Sony wished to know what
consumers’ preferences are with respect to these three
possible uses?
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Exercises
• The local Lexus dealer thinks that the four-door sedan
with a list price in excess of $50,000 should appeal to
Cadillac Seville owners who are thinking about buying a
new automobile. He is considering a direct-mail campaign
with personalized packages to be sent to owners whose
Cadillac Sevilles are over two years old. Each package
would contain a professional video of all the Lexus
sedan’s features and end with an invitation to visit the
Lexus dealership. This tactic has never been tried in this
market. State the marketing problem and indicate what
research objectives would help the Lexus dealer
understand the possible reactions of Cadillac Seville
owners to this campaign.
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CHAPTER 4
Research Design
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Research Design
• Research design is a set of advance decisions that make

up the master plan specifying the methods and
procedures for collecting and analyzing the needed
information.
Why Is Research Design Important?
• Good research design is the “first rule of good research”.

• Knowledge of the needed research design allows
advance planning so that the project may be conducted
in less time and typically at a cost savings due to
efficiencies gained in preplanning.
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To gain background
information and to develop
Objectives hypotheses
of
Research To measure the state of a
Design variable of interest
To test hypotheses that specify

the relationships between two
or more variables
Research Design: A Caution
• In many cases research is an iterative process.

• By conducting one research project, we learn that we may
need additional research, which may result in using
multiple research designs.
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Exploratory Research
• Exploratory research is usually conducted at the outset of research

projects.
• It is usually conducted when the researcher does not know much
about the problems.
• Emphasize on gaining ideas and insights
Uses of Exploratory Research
• Gain background information

• Define terms, clarify concepts
• Clarify problems for more precise investigation
• Develop hypothesis
• Establish research priorities for further research
Exploratory Research Methods
• Secondary Data Analysis: the process of searching for

interpreting existing information relevant to the research
topic
• Identify key search terms and the best data sources is
crucial
• Experience Surveys: refers to gathering information from

those knowledgeable on the issues relevant to the
research problem
• Key-informant technique: gathering information from
those thought to be knowledgeable on the issues
relevant to the problem
• Lead-user survey: used to acquire information from
lead users of a new technology
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• Case Analysis: a review of available information about a

former situation(s) that has some similarities to the current
research problem
• Focus Groups: small groups brought together and
guided by a moderator through an unstructured,
spontaneous discussion for the purpose of gaining
information relevant to the research problem
• Descriptive research is
undertaken to describe
answers to questions of
who, what, where, when,
and how.
• It is desirable when we
wish to project a study’s
findings to a larger
population, if the study’s
sample is
representative.
Descriptive Research Classifications
Cross-sectional studies: measure units from a sample of

the population at only one point in time (or “snapshot”).
• Sample surveys are cross-sectional studies whose
samples are drawn in such a way as to be
representative of a specific population.
• Longitudinal studies: repeatedly measure the same

sample units of a population over time.
• Since they involve multiple measurements over time, they
are often described as “movies” of the population.
Discontinuous Panels
• Discontinuous panels are demographically matched to

some larger entity, implying representativeness.
• Discontinuous panels represent sources of information
that may be quickly accessed for a wide variety of
purposes.
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Descriptive Research Studies
• Continuous panels ask panel members the same

questions on each panel measurement.
• Discontinuous panels vary questions from one panel
measurement to the next.
• These are sometimes referred to as omnibus panels
(omnibus meaning “including or covering many things or
classes”).
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Continuous Panels
• Brand-switching studies: studies examining how many

consumers switched brands.
• Market-tracking studies are those that measure some
variable(s) of interest — such as market share or unit
sales — over time.
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Causal Research
• Causality may be thought of as understanding a

phenomenon in terms of conditional statements of the
form “If x, then y.”
• Causal relationships are often determined by the use of
experiments.
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Definitions
• Scientific language is a language
• To understand science we must understand the definitions

of the terms and concepts that are used
• There are two types of definitions:
• Conceptual
• Operational
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Definitions
• Conceptual definition: the process of attaching meaning to

concepts
• Operational definition: the set of procedures used to
observe or measure concepts
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Constructs
• Concepts are abstractions that are defined using other

abstract ideas/concepts
• The most abstract ideas are called constructs
• Constructs are concepts especially created for studying
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Variables
• An item of data
• Examples:
• gender
• test scores
• weight
• Value varies from one observation to another
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Independent Variable
• Independent variables are those variables which the

researcher has control over and wishes to manipulate…
the 4 P’s.
• For example: level of ad expenditure; type of ad appeal;
display location; method of compensating salespersons;
price; type of product.
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Experiments
• An experiment is defined as manipulating an

independent variable to see how it affects a dependent
variable, while also controlling the effects of additional
extraneous variables.
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Extraneous Variables
• Extraneous variables are those variables that may have

some effect on a dependent variable yet are not
independent variables.
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Dependent Variables
• Dependent variables are those variables that are

measured in response to changes in independent
variable.
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Experimental Design
• Experimental design is a procedure for devising an

experimental setting such that a change in a dependent
variable may be attributed solely to the change in an
independent variable.
Pretest and Posttest
• Pretest refers to the measurement of the dependent

variable taken prior to changing the independent variable.
• Posttest refers to measuring the dependent variable after
changing the independent variable.
Experimental Design
• Control group: control of extraneous variables is typically

achieved by the use of a second group of subjects
• Experimental group: the group that has been exposed to
a change in the independent variable
How Valid Are Experiments?
An experiment is valid if:

• The observed change in the dependent variable is due to
the independent variable;
• The results of the experiment apply to the “real world”
outside the experimental setting.
How Valid Are Experiments?
Two forms of validity are used to assess the validity of an

experiment:
• Internal validity is concerned with the extent to which the
change in the dependent variable is actually due to the
change in the independent variable.
• External validity refers to the extent that the relationship
observed between the independent and dependent
variables during the experiment is generalizable to the
“real world.”
Types of Experiments
• Laboratory experiments are those in which the

independent variable is manipulated and measures of the
dependent variable are taken in a contrived, artificial
setting for the purpose of controlling the many possible
extraneous variables that may affect the dependent
variable.
Types of Experiments
• Field experiments are those in which the independent

variables are manipulated and the measurements of the
dependent variable are made on test units in their natural
setting.
Test Marketing
• Test marketing is the phrase commonly used to indicate
an experiment, study, or test that is conducted in a field
setting.
• Main uses of test markets:
• To test sales potential for a new product or service
• To test variations in the marketing mix for a product or
service
Marketing Research Insight 4.3 (p.108)

Types of Test Markets
• The standard test market is one in which the firm tests

the product or marketing mix variables through the
company’s normal distribution channels.
• Controlled test markets are conducted by outside
research firms that guarantee distribution of the product
through prespecified types and numbers of distributors.
Types of Test Markets
• Electronic test markets are those in which a panel of

consumers has agreed to carry identification cards that
each consumer presents when buying goods and
services.
• Simulated test markets (STMs) are those in which a
limited amount of data on consumer response to a new
product is fed into a model containing certain assumptions
regarding planned marketing programs, which generates
likely product sales volume.
Selecting Test-Market Cities
Three main criteria:

• Representativeness
• Degree of isolation
• Ability to control distribution and promotion
Pros and Cons of Test Marketing
Advantages:
• Test marketing allows for the most accurate method of
forecasting future sales, and it allows firms the opportunity
to pretest marketing-mix variables.
Pros and Cons of Test Marketing
Disadvantages:
• Test markets do not yield infallible results
• Competitors may intentionally try to sabotage test markets
• Test markets bring about exposure of the product to the
competition
• Test markets may create ethical problems
CHAPTER 5
Secondary Data and Packaged Information - 2
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Social Media Data
• Social media data, also termed user-generated content

(UGC), is any information that is created by users of
online systems and intended to be shared with others
• Examples:
• Reviews
• Tips
• New uses
• Competitors
Social Media Data
Advantages Disadvantages
• Currency • Audience may not be
• Inexpensive representative
• Unprompted • Consumers not
• Can track trends
identifiable
• Review websites subject
to manipulation
• Shallow content
Social Media Analysis
• Buzzsumo
• Fanpage Karma
Other tools
Google
trends
Google
analytics
CHAPTER 5
Secondary Data and Packaged Information
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What is “Big Data”?

• Big data can be defined
simply as large amounts
of data from multiple
sources.
• The term has been
popularized in recent
years in response to the
numerous types and
huge amounts of data to
which companies now
have access in real time.
Primary Versus Secondary Data
• Primary data: information that is developed or gathered

by the researcher specifically for the research project at
hand.
• Secondary data: information that has previously been
gathered by someone other than the researcher and/or for
some other purpose than the research project at hand.
Classification of Secondary Data
• Internal secondary data are data that have been
collected within the firm, such as sales records, purchase
requisitions, and invoices.
• Internal secondary data is used for database marketing.
• Database marketing is the process of building,
maintaining customer (internal) databases and other
(internal) databases for the purpose of contacting,
transacting, and building relationships. Example: data
mining.
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Uses of Secondary Data

• Secondary data has many uses
in marketing research and
sometimes the entire research
project may depend on the use
of secondary data.
• Applications include economic-
trend forecasting, corporate
intelligence, international data,
public opinion, and historical
data.
Internal Databases
• Internal databases consist of information gathered by a

company, typically during the normal course of business
transactions.
• Companies use their internal databases for purposes of
direct marketing and to strengthen relationships with
customers, which is referred to as customer relationship
management (CRM).
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Internal Databases
• Data mining is the name for

software that helps
managers make sense out
of seemingly senseless
masses of information
contained in databases.
• Micromarketing refers to
using a differentiated
marketing mix for specific
customer segments,
sometimes fine-tuned for the
individual shopper.
Ways Companies Use Databases
• To identify prospects
• To decide which customers should receive a particular
offer
• To deepen customer loyalty
• To reactivate customer purchases
• To avoid serious customer mistakes
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External Secondary Data

External databases
are databases supplied
by organizations outside
the firm:
• Published sources
• Official data
• Data aggregators
Advantages of Secondary Data
• Are obtained quickly

• Are inexpensive
• Are readilly available
• Enhance existing primary data
• May achieve research objective
Disadvantages of Secondary Data
• Reporting units may be incompatible

• Measurement units do not match
• Class definitions are not usable
• May be outdated (accuracy to be questioned)
• May not be credible
Evaluating Secondary Data
• What was the purpose of the study?

• Who collected the information?
• What information was collected?
• How was the information attained?
• How consistent is the information with other information?
What is Packaged Information?
• Packaged information is a type of secondary data in
which the data collected and/or the process of collecting
the data are prepackaged for all users.
• There are two broad classes of packaged information:
• Syndicated data: a form of external, secondary data
that are supplied from a common database to
subscribers for a service fee
• Packaged services: a prepackaged marketing
research process that is used to generate information
for a particular user
Packaged Services
• Packaged services refers to a prepackaged marketing

research process that is used to generate information for
a particular user
Advantages of Syndicated Data
• Shared costs
• Quality of the data collected is typically very high
• Speed
Disadvantages of Syndicated Data
• Buyers have little control over what information is

collected
• Firms often must commit to long-term contracts when
buying syndicated data
• No strategic information advantage in purchasing
syndicated data
Advantages of Packaged Services
• Advantage of the experience of the research firm offering

the service
• Reduced cost of the research
• Speed of the research service
• Ability to obtain benchmarks for comparison
Disadvantages of Packaged Services
• Inability to customize aspects of a project when using a

packaged service.
• The company providing the packaged service may not
know the idiosyncrasies of a particular industry.
Marketing Applications of Packaged
Information
• Measuring consumer attitudes and opinions

• Market segmentation (often using geo-demographics)
• Monitoring media usage and promotion effectiveness
• Market tracking studies
Social Media Data
• Social media data, also termed user-generated content

(UGC), is any information that is created by users of
online systems and intended to be shared with others
• Examples:
• Reviews
• Tips
• New uses
• Competitors
Social Media Data
Advantages Disadvantages
• Currency • Audience may not be
• Inexpensive representative
• Unprompted • Consumers not
• Can track trends
identifiable
• Review websites subject
to manipulation
• Shallow content
The Internet of Things
• The Internet of Things (IoT) is defined as the network of

physical objects that are embedded with software or
sensors that allow them to gather and distribute data.
• Passive data are information that is collected without
overt consumer activity.
• Wearables, or wearable technology, are clothing or
accessories (Apple Watch, Google Glass, Fitbit,
PoloTech) that are equipped with computer technology or
sensors that allow the collection and sharing of data.
Key Sources of Secondary
Sources for Marketers
• Census of the Population: considered the “granddaddy” of

all market information
• Conducted every ten years
• Go to www.census.gov
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CHAPTER 6
Qualitative Research Techniques
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Categories of Research
• Quantitative
research: research
involving the use of
structured questions in
which response
options have been
predetermined and a
large number of
respondents involved
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Categories of Research
• Qualitative research:
research involving
collecting, analyzing,
and interpreting data
by observing what
people do and say
(find insight – research
to answer for qs why
Observation Techniques
• Observation methods: techniques in which the

researcher relies on his or her powers of observation
rather than communicating with a person in order to
obtain information
Types of observation:
• Direct versus indirect
• Overt versus covert
• Structured versus unstructured
• In situ versus invented
• Direct observation: observing behavior as it occurs

• Indirect observation: observing the effects or results of
the behavior rather than the behavior itself
• Archives: secondary sources, such as historical
records, that can be applied to the present problem
• Physical traces: tangible evidence of some past event
• Covert observation: subject is unaware that he or she is

being observed, mystery shopping, as an example
• Overt observation: respondent is aware of observation,
Nielsen’s People Meters to monitor media to which a
consumer is exposed, as an example
• Structured – researcher identifies beforehand which
behaviors are to be observed and recorded. Often there
is a checklist.
• Unstructured – all behavior is observed and the observer
determines what is to be recorded.
• In situ observation: the researcher observes the

behavior exactly as it happens
• Invented observation: the researcher creates the
situation
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hatmm84sqm0
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xSsszDVuGcs
Appropriate conditions for use of observation:

• Short time interval …event must begin and end in a
reasonably short time. You cannot “observe” a process
of purchasing that lasts months.
• Public behavior …cannot observe private behaviors.
• Faulty recall conditions …behaviors are so “automatic”
that consumer cannot recall them.
Advantages of observational data

• Insight into actual, not reported, behaviors
• No chance for recall error
• Better accuracy
• Less cost
Limitations of observational data

• Small number of subjects
• Subjective interpretations
• Inability to pry beneath the behavior observed
• Motivations, attitudes, and other internal conditions are
unobserved
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Focus group example
https://www.youtube.com
/watch?v=xjHZsEcSqwo
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Focus Groups
• Focus groups are small groups of people brought

together and guided by a moderator through an
unstructured, spontaneous discussion for the purpose of
gaining information relevant to the research problem.
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Types of Focus Groups

• Traditional focus
group: Select 6 to 8
persons and meet in a
dedicated room with
one-way mirror for
client viewing.
How a Focus Group Works
• Moderator: responsible for creating the correct

atmosphere in the group and guiding discussion
• Focus group report: summarizes the information
provided by the focus group participants relative to the
research questions
Online Focus Groups
Advantages:
• No physical setup is necessary

• Transcripts are captured on file in real time
• Participants can be in widely separated geographical
areas
• Participants are comfortable in their home or office
environments
• The moderator can exchange private messages with
individual participants
Online Focus Groups
Disadvantages:
• Observation of participants’ body language is not

possible
• Participants cannot physically inspect products or taste
food items
• Participants can lose interest or become distracted
Advantages of Focus Groups
• Can generate fresh ideas

• Allow clients to observe their participants
• May be directed at understanding a wide variety of issues
• Allow fairly easy access to special respondent groups
Disadvantages of Focus Groups
• Representativeness of participants
• Dependence on the moderator
• Interpretation sometimes difficult
When Should Focus Groups Be Used?
• Focus groups should be used when the research

objective is to describe rather than predict.
• How do consumers describe a better package?
• How would they describe their satisfaction with our
service?
• How could they describe their ideas for an ad
campaign?
When Should Focus Groups Not Be
Used?
• Focus groups should not be used when the research

questions require a prediction or when a major decision
affecting the company’s livelihood rests on the research
results.
Some Objectives of Focus Groups
• To generate ideas
• To understand consumer vocabulary
• To reveal consumer goods, motives, perceptions, and
attitudes about products or services
• To understand findings from quantitative studies
Operational Aspects of Traditional Focus
Groups
• How many focus groups should be conducted?

• How many people should be in a focus group?
• Who should be in the focus group?
• How should focus group participants be recruited and
selected?
Operational Aspects of Traditional Focus
Groups
• Where should a focus group meet?

• When should the moderator become involved in the
research project?
• How are focus group results reported and used?
• What other benefits do focus groups offer?
Marketing Research Online Communities
• Marketing research online communities (MROCs) are

groups of people that are brought together online to
interact, provide ideas and opinions, and complete tasks.
Ethnographic Research
• Ethnographic research is a term borrowed from

anthropology to describe a detailed, descriptive study of a
group and its behavior, characteristics, culture, and so on.
Other Qualitative Techniques
• In-depth interview (IDI) is a set of probing questions

posed one-on-one to a subject by a trained interviewer so
as to gain an idea of what the subject thinks about
something or why he or she behaves a certain way.
• Laddering attempts to discover how product attributes
are associated with consumer values.
Examples
• Shopalongs are a types of research in which a

researcher accompanies a shopper (with permission) on a
shopping trip and observes and records the shopper’s
activities
• Mobile ethnography is a type of marketing research in
which respondents document their own experiences
through their own mobile phones
• Netnography is the name for the ethnographic study of
online activities.
• Protocol analysis involves placing a person in a

decision-making situation and asking him or her to
verbalize everything he or she considers when making a
decision.
• Projective techniques involve situations in which

participants are placed in (projected into) simulated
activities in the hopes that they will divulge things about
themselves that they might not reveal under direct
questioning
Five Common Projective Techniques
• Word-association test,
• Sentence completion test,
• Picture test,
• Cartoon or balloon test
• Role-playing activity
Common Projective Techniques
• Word association test: involves reading words to a

respondent who then answers with the first word that
comes to his or her mind
• Sentence completion: respondents are given incomplete
sentences and asked to complete them in their own words
-38
Sentence Completion Example
INSTRUCTIONS. Write in words to complete each of the sentences
below.
For college students, credit cards are…
College students use credit cards to…
When a college freshman gets a new credit card application,

he/she…
When a college student reaches the limit of his/her credit card,

he/she…
When a college senior gets a new credit card application, he/she…
If parents of college students learned about their children’s credit

card situations, they would…
8-39
-39
Projective Techniques
-40
Neuromarketing
• Neuromarketing is the study of an individual’s involuntary

responses to marketing stimuli, including eye movement,
heart rate, skin conductance, breathing, and brain activity
Example of Neuromarketing
• Neuroimaging, or viewing brain activity, may aid

marketing researchers to better understand consumers’
unconscious emotions.
• Electroencephalography (EEG), or the measure of
electrical activity in brains, is also used to measures
consumers’ responses to products and advertising.
• Eye tracking is a technique for measuring eye positions
and eye movement.
• Facial coding is a system that is used to measure
universal expressions of emotions, such as happiness,
sadness, fear, and surprise, by their appearance on faces.
Physiological Measurements
• Physiological measurements: involves monitoring a

respondent’s involuntary responses to marketing stimuli
via the use of electrodes and other equipment
• Pupilometer -- determines interest by measuring
amount of dilation of the pupil of the eye.
• Galvanometer -- determines level of excitement by
measuring electrical activity on respondents' skin.
Interviewing
MARKETING RESEARCH
Interviews as a
Data Collection Tool
Interviewing is a form of questioning characterized by the fact that it
employs verbal questioning as its principal technique of data
collection.
Interviews are employed by people in everyday life, but as a scientific
tool of social research, or better as a method of data collection,
interviewing is different with regard to its preparation, construction,
and execution in that it is prepared and executed in a systematic way.
Interviews basically consist of asking questions, listening to
individuals and recording their responses.
Interviews allow participants to provide rich, contextual descriptions
of events. Interviews are a systematic way of talking and listening to
respondents and are another way to collect data from individuals
through conversations.
Kvale (1996) regarded interviews as “an interchange of views
between two or more people on a topic of mutual interest, sees the
centrality of human interaction for knowledge production, and
emphasizes the social situatedness of research data.”
2
Why Interview?
The most obvious way of finding the information is to ask

someone who may be able to help. Interviews also have a large
number of potential advantages for a qualitative researcher.
Specifically, in an information setting some of the advantages
are especially significant. There are many reasons to use
interviews for collecting data and using it as a research
instrument. Gray (2004) provided the following reasons
• There is a need to attain highly personalized data.
• There are opportunities required for probing.
• A good return rate is important (speed).
• When respondents are not fluent in the native language of the
country, or where they have difficulties with written language.
• Immediacy
3
Types & Styles of Interviews
• Interviewing as a research method typically

involves you, as researcher, asking
questions and, hopefully, receiving answers
from the people you are interviewing. It is
very widely used in social research and there
are many different types.
• A commonly used typology distinguishes
among structured, semistructured and
unstructured interviews. The different types
can link to some extent to the 'depth' of
response sought (Robson 2002, 269).
4
Interview Types
• Fully structured interview: Has predetermined questions

with fixed wording, usually in a pre-set order. The use of
mainly open-response questions is the only essential
difference from an interview-based survey questionnaire.
• Semi-structured interview: Has predetermined
questions, but the order can be modified based upon the
interviewer's perception of what seems most appropriate.
Question wording can be changed and explanations
given; particular questions which seem inappropriate with
a particular interviewee can be omitted, or additional ones
included.
• Unstructured interviews: The interviewer has a general
area of interest and concern, but lets the conversation
develop within this area. It can be completely informal.
5
Interviewing Tips
Your task as interviewer is to try to get interviewees to talk

freely and openly. Your own behavior has a major
influence on their willingness to do this. To this end you
should:
 Listen more than you speak Most interviewers talk too much.
The interview is not a platform for the interviewer's personal
experiences and opinions.
 Put questions in a straightforward, clear and non-threatening
way If people are confused or defensive, you will not get the
information you seek.
 Eliminate cues which lead interviewees to respond in a particular
way Many interviewees will seek to please the interviewer by
giving 'correct' responses ('Are you against sin?').
 Enjoy it (or at least look as though you do) Don't give the
message that you are bored or scared. Vary your voice and facial
expression.
It is also essential that you take a full record of the interview.
This can be from notes made at the time and/or from a
recording of the interview.
6
More Interviewing Tips
 Try to be interactive and sensitive to the language and

concepts used by the interviewee
 Try to keep the agenda flexible
 Aim to go below the surface of the topic being discussed
 Explore what people say in detail
 Check you have understood respondents' meanings
 Try to discover the interviewee's own framework of meanings
 Avoid imposing own structures and assumptions
 Need to consider how perceived by interviewees and the
effects of characteristics such as class, race, sex, and social
distance on the interview
7
Interview Guides
A guide is not a rigidly structured set of

questions to be asked verbatim as written,
accompanied by an associated range of pre-
worded likely answers. Rather, it is a list of
items to be sure to ask about when talking to
the person being interviewed. You want
interviewees to speak freely in their own
terms about a set of concerns you bring to
the interaction, plus whatever else they
might introduce.
8
Steps to Develop the Guide
WHO (the World Health Organization) suggested six steps

to devise an interview guide. These include
 Identify appropriate topics and questions
 Decide on the level of detail
 Draft the questions
 Order the questions.
 List any probes or prompts and
 Pilot the questions. Have the informant identify the
problems during the pilot.
9
Preparing for Interviews
It is necessary for the researcher to prepare before the actual

interview. The interview prep should start well before the interview
actually begins. Once the interview is conducted the researcher needs
to make sure that the respondents have:
 A clear idea of why they have been approached
 Basic information about the purpose of the interview and the
research project of which it is a part
 Some idea of the probable length of the interview and that you
would like to record it (explaining why and getting permission)
 A clear idea of precisely where and when the interview will take
place
(Gillham, 2000).
10
Questions to Avoid In Interviews
 Long questions The interviewee may remember only part of the question, and respond to that part.
 Double-barrelled (or multiple-barrelled) questions, e.g. 'What do you feel about current video game
content compared with that of five years ago?' The solution is to break it down into simpler questions
('What do you feel about current video games?'; 'Can you recall any video games from five years
ago?'; 'How do you feel they compare?').
 Questions involving jargon Generally you should avoid questions containing words likely to be
unfamiliar to the target audience. Keep things simple to avoid disturbing interviewees; it is in your own
interest as well.
 Leading questions, e.g. 'Why do you like the concept of welfare reform?' It is usually better to modify
such questions, to make them less leading and more objective.
 Biased questions Provided you are alert to the possibility of bias, it is not difficult to write unbiased
questions. What is more difficult, however, is not (perhaps unwittingly) to lead the interviewee by the
manner in which the question is asked, or the way in which you receive the response. Neutrality is
called for, and in seeking to be welcoming and reinforcing to the interviewee, you should try to avoid
appearing to share or welcome their vIews. (Robson 2002, 275)
11
Introduction Strategies
 Explain purpose and nature of the study to the respondent,
telling how, or through, whom she or he came to be selected.
 Give assurance that the respondent will remain anonymous in
any written reports growing out of the study, and that his or her
responses will be treated in strictest confidence.
 Indicate that s/he may find some of the questions far-fetched,
silly or difficult to answer, for the reason that questions that are
appropriate for one person are not always appropriate for
another. Since there are no right or wrong answers, s/he is not
to worry about these but to do as best he can with them. We are
only interested in his/her opinions and personal experiences.
 S/He is to feel perfectly free to interrupt, ask clarification of the
interviewer, criticize a line of questioning, etc.
 Interviewer will tell respondent something about herself or
himself – his/her background, training, and interest in the area
of enquiry.
 Interviewer is to ask permission to tape-record the interview,
explaining why s/he wishes to do this.
(From Davis, 1960; see also Lofland and Lofland, 1995, pp. 84-5, cited in Robson 2002, 281).)
12
Types of Questions to Ask
There is an almost unlimited range of items that can be

addressed during an interview. These can include
content related to the respondent’s:
Behavior and experiences
Opinions and beliefs
Feelings
Knowledge
Sensory and non-verbal descriptions
Background and demographic information
13
Maintaining Control of the Interview
 Know what it is you want to find out

 Ask the right questions to get the
information you need
 Give appropriate verbal and non-verbal
feedback
 Good feedback vs. bad feedback
 Avoid bias whenever possible
14
Controlling Your Biases
 List ways in which your characteristics

might bias you in your efforts at research
interviewing.
 Then write how you might counteract these
biases.
 And then write how these efforts to
counteract your biases might themselves
lead to other biases.
15
Comment on These Images:
16
CHAPTER 8
Understanding Measurement, Developing
Questions, and Designing the Questionnaire
x
Basic Concepts in Measurement
Properties: specific features or characteristics of an object

that can be used to distinguish it from another object
• Objective properties are physically verifiable such as age, gender
or number of bottles purchased.
• Subjective properties are mental constructs, cannot be directly
observed, such as a person’s attitudes, opinions, or intentions.
• For subjective properties, researchers must translate mental
constructs onto an intensity continuum.
4
How Measurement Works

Types of Measures
• Nominal measures: those that use only labels

• Ordinal measures : those with which the researcher can
rank-order the respondents or responses
• Scale measures: those in which the distance between
each level is known
• Interval scales: rating scale for subjective properties in
which the distance between each descriptor is one
scale unit
• Ratio scales: ones in which a true zero exists
7
8
9
What type of measurement is this?

Interval Scales Commonly Used
in Marketing Research
• Likert Scale
• Life-Style Inventory
• Semantic Differential Scale
• Stapel Scale
Likert Scale
• An interval scale commonly used by marketing

researchers is the Likert scale, in which respondents are
asked to indicate their degree of agreement or
disagreement on a symmetric agree–disagree scale for
each of a series of statements. The Likert scale format
measures intensity of agreement or disagreement.
Lifestyle Inventory
• A special application of the Likert scale question form

called the lifestyle inventory takes into account the
values and personality traits of people as reflected in their
unique activities, interests, and opinions (AIOs) toward
their work, leisure time, and purchases. It measures a
person’s activities, interests, and opinions with a Likert
scale.
Life – style Inventory
-14
Semantic Differential
• A semantic differential scale contains a series of bipolar

adjectives for the various properties of the object under
study, and respondents indicate their impressions of each
property by indicating locations along its continuum. It is a
good way to measure a brand, company, or store image.
• One concern with this type of scale is the halo effect, in
which a general overall feeling about a brand or store
could bias responses on its specific properties.
Semantic Differential Scale
-16
Semantic Differential Scale
-17
Stapel Scale
• The Stapel scale relies on positive and negative

numbers, typically ranging from +5 to –5. The scale may
or may not have a neutral zero.
Two Issues with Interval Scales Used in
Marketing Research
• Should the scale include a middle or neutral point?

• Should the scale be symmetric or nonsymmetric?
Interval Scales Used in
Marketing Research
• A symmetric interval scale is “balanced,” as it has equal

amounts of positive and negative positions, and typically it
has “no opinion” or “neutral” separating the negative and
positive sides.
• A nonsymmetric interval scale has mainly degrees of
positive positions, would be more appropriate because
most people do not think in degrees of negative
importance.
Reliability and Validity of Measurement
• Reliability: respondent responds in the same or a similar

manner to an identical or nearly identical measure
• Validity: accuracy or exactness of the measurement
Prentice Hall
17-24
Designing A Questionnaire
• A questionnaire is the
vehicle used to present
the questions the
researcher desires
respondents to
answer.
Key Functions of A Questionnaire
• Translates the research objectives into specific questions asked of
respondents
• Standardizes those questions and the response categories so every
participant responds to identical stimuli
• Serves as an enduring record of the research
• Depending on the data collection mode used, such as online, a
questionnaire can speed up the process of data analysis
• Contains the information on which reliability and validity assessments
may be made
Prentice Hall
17-26
Questionnaire
Design Process
The researcher should
strive to minimize
question bias.
Question bias is the
ability of a question’s
wording or format to
influence respondents’
answers.
Questionnaire Design Process
• Questionnaire design is a systematic process in which

the researcher contemplates various question formats,
considers a number of factors characterizing the survey at
hand, ultimately words the various questions carefully,
and organizes the questionnaire’s layout.
Developing Questions
• Questionnaire development is the practice of selecting

appropriate response formats and wording questions that
are understandable, unambiguous, and unbiased.
• Marketing researchers take great care in developing
research questions that measure:
• Attitudes
• Beliefs
• Behaviors
• Demographics
Four “Dos” of Question Wording
Question evaluation is scrutinizing the wording of a
question to ensure that question bias is minimized and
that the question is worded so that respondents
understand it and can respond to it with relative ease.
• The question should be focused on a single issue or topic.

• The question should be brief.
• The question should be grammatically simple.
• The question should be crystal clear.
1. The question should be focused on a single issue or
topic.
E.g. “What type of hotel do you stay in on a trip?”
Pleasure or business trip? En route or final destination?
2. The question should be brief.

E.g. “What are the considerations that would come to
your mind while you are confronted with the decision to
have some type of repair done on the automatic ice
maker in our refrigerator assuming that you noticed it
was not making ice cubes as well as it did when you first
bought it?”
-30
11-31
3. The question should be grammatically simple, if

possible.
• E.g. “If you needed to find your child’s best friend’s
house that was over 10 miles from your house for your
child to attend a birthday party, would you rely on your
automobile GPS system to get you there?”
4.The question should be crystal clear.
E.g. “Is your automobile GPS system useful?”
How useful is your automobile GPS system for each of

the following occasions? (Occasions are listed)
E.g. “How many children do you have?”
E.g. “When do you typically go to work?”
-31
Four “Dont’s” of Question Wording
3. Do not use a “double-barreled” question
• A double-barreled question is really two different questions
posed in one question.
E.g.: a. “Were you satisfied with the restaurant’s food and
service?”
b. ___ Full-time employment
___ Full-time student
___ Part-time student
___ Unemployed
___ Retired
4. Do not use words that overstate the case
• An overstated question places undue emphasis on some
aspect of the topic.
• E.g. “Would you buy sunglasses that protect your eyes from
harmful ultraviolent rays that cause blindness?”
Four “Dont’s” of Question Wording
1. Do not “lead” the respondent to a particular answer

• A leading question gives a strong cue or expectation as what
answer to provide.
E.g.1 “Don’t you see any problem with using credit cards for online
purchases?”
2. Do not use “loaded” wording or phrasing
• A loaded question has buried in its wording elements a
sneaky presupposition, or it might make reference to
universal beliefs or rules of behavior.
E.g. “If GPS systems were shown to help us decrease our
depletion of world oil reserves, would you purchase one?”
 “How much do you think an automobile GPS system might
save you on gasoline?”
11-34
Individual Question Wording

• “Do’s” for all questions
• Keep it focused on a single topic
Please
How dorate
youeach aspectSears?
feel about of Sears…
• Keep it brief
If
If the
youSears repair
did not use service schedule
Sears repair was not
service, convenient
would you use for you,
another
would
repairyou consider or not consider calling a competing repair
service?
organization to fix the problem you have?
• Keep it grammatically simple
Whensome
When you need it, do
gasoline oryou call Sears repair
electric-powered service?
product in your house
breaks, do you call the Sears repair service?
• Keep it crystal clear
How
Howmuch
muchdo
doyou
youthink
thinkyou would
Sears have for
charges to pay to have
a repair Sears fix
service
something
call? that needs to be repaired?
-34
11-36
Individual Question Wording

• “Do not’s” for all questions
• Don’t ask leading questions
Shouldn’t concerned
Do you think parents
infant car seatsuse
arecar seats?
useful?
• Don’t ask loaded questions
Do you car
Should think carbe
seats seats
usedare
foruseful for family
our loved ones? members?
• Don’t ask double-barreled questions
Do
Do good parents
you think and responsible
parents who use carcitizens use responsible?
seats are car seats?
• Don’t use overstated questions
Doyou
Do youbelieve
think children’s car seats
infant car seats can are useful?
protect riders from being maimed?
-36
Questionnaire Organization
Questionnaire organization pertains to the sequence of

statements and questions that make up a questionnaire.
• Well-organized questionnaires motivate respondents to
be conscientious and complete.
• Poorly organized questionnaires discourage and
frustrate respondents and may even cause them to stop
answering questions in the middle of the survey.
Computer-Assisted Questionnaire Design
• Computer-assisted questionnaire design refers to

software that allows users to use computer technology to
develop and disseminate questionnaires and to retrieve
and analyze data gathered by the questionnaire.
• Computer-assisted questionnaire design is easy, fast,

friendly, and flexible.
Skip and Display Logic
• Skip logic lets the questionnaire designer direct the

online survey to ask questions based on previous
answers.
• Display logic is similar to skip logic. The survey displays
or asks questions that are appropriate based on the
respondent’s prior answers.
Coding The Questionnaire
• Codes are numbers associated with question responses

to facilitate data entry and analysis.
• The codes for an “all that apply” question are set up as
though each possible response was answered with “yes”
or “no.”
Pretesting The Questionnaire
• A pretest is a dry run of a questionnaire to find and repair

difficulties that respondents encounter while taking the
survey.
CHAPTER 9
Selecting the Sample
x
13-2
Basic Concepts in Sampling
-3
17-4
Basic Concepts in Sampling

• Sample: a subset of the population that
should represent the entire group
• Sample unit: the basic le
• tigation
• A sample frame: a master source of

sample units in the population
• Sampling frame error: the degree to
which the sample frame fails to account
for all of the population
• Sampling error: any error in a survey
that occurs because a sample is used
Reasons for Taking a Sample
• Practical considerations such as cost and population size
• Inability to analyze huge amounts of data generated by a
census
Basic Sampling Methods

• Probability samples: ones in which members of the
population have a known chance (probability) of being
selected into the sample
• Non-probability samples: instances in which the
chances (probability) of selecting members from the
population into the sample are unknown
-5
Probability Sampling Methods
• Simple random sampling

• Systematic sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Stratified sampling
-6
Probability Sampling:
• Simple random sampling: the probability of being

selected into the sample is “known” and equal for all
members of the population
• The random device method involves using a procedure
or apparatus that assures that every member of the
population has the same chance of being included in the
sample.
-7
Probability Sampling
• Systematic sampling: way to select a random sample

from a directory or list that is much more efficient than
simple random sampling
• Cluster sampling: method in which the population is
divided into subgroups, called “clusters,” each of which
could represent the entire population
• Area sampling is a form of cluster sampling – the
geographic area is divided into clusters.
-8
17-10
Probability Sampling
• Stratified Sampling: separates the
population into different subgroups
and then samples all of these
subgroups
Nonprobability Sampling
With nonprobability sampling methods selection is not

based on fairness, equity, or equal chance.
• Convenience sampling
• Purposive sampling
• Chain referral sampling
• Quota sampling
-11
• Convenience samples: samples drawn at the

convenience of the interviewer
• Purposive samples: requires a judgment or an
“educated guess” as to who should represent the
population
-12
• Chain referral samples: require respondents to provide

the names of prospective respondents
• Quota samples: specified percentages of the total sample
for various types of individuals to be interviewed
-13
13-14
Online Sampling Techniques
• Online panels: large numbers of individuals who have
agreed to participate in online surveys
• River samples: created via the use of banners, pop-ups,

or other online devices that invite website visitors to take
part in the survey
• E-mail list samples: purchased or otherwise procured

from someone or some company that has compiled email
addresses of opt-in members of the population of interest
-15
13-16
CHAPTER 11
Dealing with Field Work
x
Dealing with Field Work
• There are two main types of errors in survey

research:
• Sampling error
• Non-sampling error
• Non-sampling error includes all errors in a survey
except those due to the sampling plan or sample
size.
Nonsampling Error
Nonsampling error includes:

• All types of nonresponse error
• Data gathering errors
• Data handling errors
• Data analysis errors
• Interpretation errors
Data Collection
• Data collection is the phase of the marketing research

process during which respondents provide their answers
or information to inquiries posed to them by the
researcher.
Possible Errors in
Field Data Collection
• Fieldworker error: errors committed by the persons who

administer the questionnaires
• Respondent error: errors committed on the part of the
respondent
• Errors may be either intentional or unintentional.
Intentional Fieldworker Errors
• Intentional fieldworker error: errors committed when a

data collection person willfully violates the data collection
requirements set forth by the researcher
Intentional Fieldworker Errors
• Interviewer cheating occurs when the interviewer

intentionally misrepresents respondents
• Leading respondents occurs when the interviewer
influences respondent’s answers through wording, voice
inflection, or body language
Unintentional Fieldworker Error
• Unintentional fieldworker error: errors committed when

an interviewer believes he or she is performing correctly
Unintentional Fieldworker Error
• Interviewer personal characteristics occurs because of the

interviewer’s personal characteristics such as accent, sex,
and demeanor.
• Interviewer misunderstanding occurs when the interviewer
believes he or she knows how to administer a survey but
instead does it incorrectly.
• Fatigue-related mistakes occur when interviewer
becomes tired.
Intentional Respondent Error
• Intentional respondent error: errors committed when

there are respondents that willfully misrepresent
themselves in surveys
14-
Intentional Respondent Error
• Falsehoods occur when respondents fail to tell the

truth in surveys.
• Nonresponse occurs when the prospective respondent
fails to take part in a survey or to answer specific
questions on the survey.
Unintentional Respondent Error
• Unintentional respondent error: errors committed when

a respondent gives a response that is not valid but that he
or she believes is the truth
• Respondent misunderstanding occurs when a

respondent gives an answer without comprehending the
question and/or the accompanying instructions.
• Guessing occurs when a respondent gives an answer
when he or she is uncertain of its accuracy.
• Attention loss occurs when a respondent’s interest in the

survey wanes
• Distractions (such as interruptions) may occur while
questionnaire administration takes place
• Fatigue occurs when a respondent becomes tired of
participating in a survey
Field Data Collection Quality Controls
Control of intentional fieldworker error

• Supervision uses administrators to oversee the work of field data
collection workers.
• Validation verifies that the interviewer did the work.
Control of unintentional fieldworker error

• Orientation sessions are meetings in which the supervisor
introduces the survey and questionnaire administration.
• Role-playing sessions, which are dry runs or dress rehearsals of
the questionnaire with the supervisor or some other interviewer
playing the respondent’s role.
Control of intentional respondent error

• Anonymity occurs when the respondent is assured that his or her
name will not be associated with his or her answers.
• Confidentiality occurs when the respondent is given assurances
that his or her answers will remain private. Both assurances are
believed to be helpful in forestalling falsehoods.

• One tactic for reducing falsehoods and nonresponse error is the
use of incentives, which are cash payments, gifts, or something of
value promised to respondents in return for their participation.

• Another approach for reducing falsehoods is the use of validation
checks, in which information provided by a respondent is
confirmed during the interview.
• A third-person technique can be used in a question, in which
instead of directly quizzing the respondent, the question is couched
in terms of a third person who is similar to the respondent.
Control of Unintentional Respondent Error
• Well-drafted questionnaire instructions and examples

are commonly used as a way of avoiding respondent
confusion.
Control of Unintentional Respondent Error
• The researcher can switch the positions of a few items on

a scale, called reversals of scale endpoints, instead of
putting all of the negative adjectives on one side and all
the positive ones on the other side.
• Prompters are used to keep respondents on task and
alert.
Data Collection Errors with
Online Surveys
• Multiple submissions by the same respondent

• Bogus respondents and/or responses
• Misrepresentation of the population
Nonresponse Error
• Nonresponse: failure on the part of a prospective

respondent to take part in a survey or to answer specific
questions on the survey
Refusals to Participate
• A refusal occurs when a potential respondent declines to

take part in the survey. Refusal rates differ by area of the
country as well as by demographic differences.
Break-Offs During the Interview
• A break-off occurs when a respondent reaches a certain

point and then decides not to answer any more questions
in the survey.
Refusals to Answer Specific
Questions
• Item omission is the phrase sometimes used to identify

the percentage of the sample that did not answer a
particular question.
What Is a Completed Interview?
• The marketing researcher must define what is a

“completed” interview.
• A completed interview is often defined as one in which all
the primary questions have been answered.
Measuring Nonresponse Error
• The marketing research industry has an accepted way to

calculate a survey’s response rate.
Response Rate
Nonresponse Error
Dataset, Coding Data and the Data Code
Book
• A dataset is an arrangement of numbers (mainly) in rows

and columns.
• The dataset is created by an operation called data
coding, defined as the identification of code values that
are associated with the possible responses for each
question on the questionnaire.
Dataset, Coding Data and the Data Code
Book
In large-scale projects, and especially in cases in which the

data entry is performed by a subcontractor, researchers
use a data code book which identifies:
• The questions on the questionnaire
• The variable name or label that is associated with each question or
question part
• The code numbers associated with each possible response to each
question
Data Quality Issues
What to look for in raw data inspection:

• Incomplete response: an incomplete response is a
break-off where the respondent stops answering in the
middle of the questionnaire.
• Nonresponses to specific questions (item omissions)
Data Quality Issues
What to look for in raw data inspection:

• Yea-saying or nay-saying:
• A yea-saying pattern may be evident in the form of all
“yes” or “strongly agree” answers.
• The negative counterpart to the yea-saying is nay-
saying, identifiable as persistent responses in the
negative, or all “1” codes.
• Middle-of-the-road patterns: The middle-of-the-road
pattern is seen as a preponderance of “no opinion”
responses or “3” codes.
CHAPTER 12
Using Descriptive Analysis, Performing
Population Estimates and Testing Hypotheses
x
Prentice Hall
17-2
Types of Statistical Analyses in Marketing Research
• Descriptive analysis
• Inferential analysis
• Differences analysis
• Associative analysis
• Predictive analysis
Descriptive Analysis
• Used by marketing researchers to describe the sample
dataset in such a way as to portray the “typical” respondent
and to reveal the general pattern of responses.
Inference Analysis
• Used when marketing researchers use statistical
procedures to generalize the results of the sample to
the target population it represents.
Difference Analysis
• Used to determine the degree to which real and
generalizable differences exist in the population to
help the manager make an enlightened decision on which
advertising theme to use.
Association Analysis
• Investigates if and how two variables are related
Relationship Analysis
• Statistical procedures and models to help allow insight
into multiple relationships among variables
Two sets of measures are used extensively to describe the

information obtained in a sample.
• Measures of central tendency or measures that
describe the “typical” respondent or response
• Measures of variability or measures that describe how
similar (dissimilar) respondents or responses are to
(from) “typical” respondents or responses
Summarizing the “Typical”
Respondent
Measures of central tendency:

• Mode: a descriptive analysis measure defined as that value in a
string of numbers that occurs most often.
• Median: expresses that value whose occurrence lies in the middle
of an ordered set of values.
• Mean (or average):
Measures of Variability: Visualizing the Diversity
of Respondents
• All measures of variability are concerned with depicting

the “typical” difference between the values in a set of
values.
• There are three measures of variability:
• Frequency distribution
• Range
• Standard deviation
Measures of Variability: Visualizing the
Diversity of Respondents
• A frequency distribution is a tabulation of the number of

times that each different value appears in a particular set
of values.
• The frequency for each value divided by the total number
of observations for all values, resulting in a percent, called
a percentage distribution.
Measures of Variability: Visualizing the
Diversity of Respondents
• Range: identifies the distance between lowest value

(minimum) and the highest value (maximum) in an
ordered set of values.
• Standard deviation: indicates the degree of variation or
diversity in the values in such a way as to be translatable
into a normal or bell-shaped curve distribution.
17
Reporting Scale Data
Example Scale Variables Table
Reporting Nominal or Categorical data
Sample Nominal or
Categorical Variable Table
22
Statistical Inference
• Statistics are sample values

• Parameters are corresponding population values
• Statistical inference is the set of procedures used in
which sample statistics are used to estimate population
parameters
Two Types of Statistical Inference
• A parameter estimate is used to approximate a

parameter using confidence intervals
• Hypothesis testing is used to compare sample statistics
to hypothesized parameter values.
Parameter Estimation: Estimating the
Population Percent or Mean
• Parameter estimation is the process of using sample

information to compute an interval that describes the
range of a parameter such as the population mean or the
population percentage.
• It involves the use of three values:
• The sample statistic
• The standard error of the statistic
• The desired level of confidence
Statistical Inference: Sample
Statistics and Population Parameters
• A sample statistic is usually a mean or percentage.

• Standard error is the measure of variability in the
sampling distribution.
• A confidence interval is the degree of accuracy desired
by the researcher stated in the form of a range with an
upper and lower boundary.
29
Hypothesis Tests
• Tests of an hypothesized population parameter

value:
• Test of an hypothesis about a percent
• Test of an hypothesis about a mean
• The crux of statistical hypothesis testing is the sampling
distribution concept.
34
CHAPTER 13
Implementing Basic Differences Tests
x
Why Differences are Important
• Market segmentation is based on differences between

groups of consumers.
• One commonly used basis for market segmentation is the
discovery of differences that are the following:
• Statistically significant
• Meaningful
• Stable
• Actionable differences
Why Differences Are Important
Market Segmentation
• Differences must be statistically significant: the

differences found in the sample(s) truly exist in the
population(s) from which the random samples are drawn.
Market Segmentation
• Differences must be meaningful: one that the marketing

manager can potentially use as a basis for marketing
decisions.
Market Segmentation
• Differences should be stable: one that will be in place for

the foreseeable future.
Market Segmentation
• Differences must be actionable: the marketer can focus

various marketing strategies and tactics, such as product
design or advertising, on the market segments to
accentuate the differences between segments.
Testing for Significant Differences
Between Two Groups
• Statistical tests are used when researcher wants to

compare the means or percentages of two different
groups or samples.
The Use of a t Test or a z Test
• t Test: statistical inference test to be used with small

sample sizes (n ≤ 30)
• z Test: statistical inference test to be used when the
sample size is 30 or greater
• Note: Most computer statistical programs report only the t
value because it is identical to the z value with large
samples.
Small Sample Sizes and SPSS
• With small sample sizes, SPSS eliminates the need to

determine the appropriate statistical test, since it is
programmed to select the correct statistic.
Differences Between Percentages with
Two Groups (Independent Samples)
• Independent samples are treated as representing two

potentially different populations.
• Null hypothesis: the hypothesis that the difference in the

population parameters is equal to zero
• With a differences test, the null hypothesis states that

there is no difference between the percentages (or
means) being compared.
• Significance of differences between two percentages:

alternative to the null hypothesis is that there is a true
difference between the population parameters.
How Do You Know When the Results Are
Significant?
• If the null hypothesis is true, we would expect there to be
no differences between the two percentages.
• Yet we know that, in any given study, differences may be

expected due to sampling error.
Significant?
• If the null hypothesis were true, we would expect 95% of
the z scores computed from 100 samples to fall between
+1.96 and −1.96 standard errors.
Significant?
• If the computed z value is greater than +1.96 or −1.96, it
is not likely that the null hypothesis of no difference is
true. Rather, it is likely that there is a real statistical
difference between the two percentages.
An Example: Testing the Difference
Between Two Percentages
• Last year a Harris Poll showed 40% of surveyed
companies were coming to college campuses to hire
seniors (n = 300 companies surveyed).
• This year, the Harris Poll reported the percentage is 65%
(n = 100 companies surveyed).
• Is this a significant difference?
Between Two Percentages
• Applying the formula: P1 = 65 and P2 = 40, n1 = 100, n2 =
300
• z = 4.51
• Since the z value is greater than +1.96, the difference
between the two percentages is significant.
Using SPSS for Differences Between
Percentages of Two Groups
• SPSS does not perform tests of significance of the

difference between the percentages of two groups, but
you can use SPSS to generate the relevant information
and perform a hand calculation.
• Use the SPSS command FREQUENCIES to produce the

percentages you need.
Testing the Difference Between Means
• Differences between two means from independent

samples
• Differences between three or more means from
independent samples
• Differences between paired means
Differences Between Means with Two
Groups (Independent Samples)
• The procedure for testing the significance of difference

between two means from two different groups is identical
to the procedure for testing two percentages.
• Equations differ due to the use of a metric (interval or

ratio) scale.
Between Two Means
• Do male teens and female teens drink different amounts

of sports drinks?
Between Two Means
Between Two Means
• The difference between males (9 bottles) and females

(7.5 bottles) is significant; z =6.43.
Analysis of Variance
• Analysis of variance (ANOVA): used when comparing

the means of three or more groups
• ANOVA is an investigation of the differences between the

group means to ascertain whether sampling errors or true
population differences explain their failure to be equal.
Basics of Analysis of Variance
• ANOVA will “flag” when at least one pair of means has a

statistically significant difference, but it does not tell which
pair.
• Green flag procedure: If at least one pair of means has a

statistically significant difference, ANOVA will signal this
by indicating significance
ANOVA Advantages
ANOVA has two distinct advantages over performing

multiple t tests of the significance of the difference between
means.
• Immediately notifies researcher if there is any
significant difference
• Arranges the means so the significant differences can
be located and interpreted easily
Post Hoc Tests: Detect Statistically Significant
Differences Among Group Means
Post hoc tests: options that are available to determine

where the pair(s) of statistically significant differences
between the means exist(s)
• Duncan’s multiple range test: provides output that is
mostly a “picture” of what means are significantly
different
• The Duncan multiple range test’s output is much less
statistical than most other post hoc tests and is easy to
interpret.
Differences Between Two Means Within
the Same Sample (Paired Sample)
 You can test the significance of the difference between

two means for two different questions answered by the
same respondents using the same scale.
 Paired samples test for the differences between two
means: a test to determine if two means of two different
questions using the same scale format and answered by
the same respondents in the sample are significantly
different.
Reporting Group Differences Tests to
Clients
• Differences may not be obvious to the client, especially if

the researcher does not take care to highlight them.
• Group comparison table: summarizes the significant

differences in an efficient manner
• Reporting of findings has a significant ethical burden for

marketing researchers, as they cannot choose to report
only “good news” to clients.
CHAPTER 14
Making Use of Associations Tests
x
Associative Analyses
• Associative analyses: determine where stable

relationships exist between two variables
Relationships Between Two Variables
Relationship: a consistent, systematic linkage between the

levels or labels for two variables
• “Levels” refers to the characteristics of description for

interval or ratio scales.
• “Labels” refers to the characteristics of description for
nominal or ordinal scales.
Linear relationship: “straight-line association” between two

variables
Monotonic relationship: the general direction of a

relationship between two variables is known
• Increasing relationship
• Decreasing relationship
• Nonmonotonic relationship: two variables are

associated, but only in a very general sense. The
presence (or absence) of one variable is associated with
the presence (or absence) of another.
Characterizing Relationships
Between Variables
• Presence: whether any systematic (statistical)

relationship exists between two variables
• Direction: whether the relationship is positive or negative
• Strength of association: whether the relationship is
consistent
Correlation and Covariation
• The correlation coefficient: is an index number,

constrained to fall between the range of −1.0 and +1.0.
• The correlation coefficient communicates both the
strength and the direction of the linear relationship
between two metric variables.
• Covariation: the amount of change in one variable
systematically associated with a change in another
variable.
Correlation and Covariation
• The amount of linear relationship between two variables is

communicated by the absolute size of the correlation
coefficient.
• The direction of the association is communicated by the
sign (+, -) of the correlation coefficient.
• Regardless of its absolute value, the correlation
coefficient must be tested for statistical significance.
Correlation Coefficient (r)
• A correlation coefficient’s size indicates the strength of

association between two variables.
• The sign (+ or -) indicates the direction of the association.
Reporting Example
Cross-Tabulations
• Cross-tabulation: rows and columns defined by the

categories classifying each variable
• Cross-tabulation cell: the intersection of a row and a
column
Cross-Tabulations
Cross-tabulation table: four types of numbers in each cell

• Frequency
• Raw percentage
• Column percentage
• Row percentage
Cross-Tabulations
• Frequencies are the raw numbers in the cell.

• Raw percentages are cell frequencies divided by the
grand total.
• Row percentages are the row cell frequencies divided by
its row total.
• Column percentages are the column cell frequencies
divided by its column total.
Chi-Square Analysis
Chi-square analysis: is the examination of frequencies for

two nominal-scaled variables in a cross-tabulation table to
determine whether the variables have a significant
relationship.
Chi-Square Analysis
Chi-Square Analysis assesses nonmonotonic association

in a cross-tabulation table based upon differences between
observed and expected frequencies
• The null hypothesis is that the two variables are not
related.
• Observed frequencies are the actual cell counts in the
cross-tabulation table.
• Observed frequencies are compared to expected
frequencies.
Observed and Expected Frequencies
Expected frequencies are the theoretical frequencies in

each cell that are derived from the hypothesis of no
association between the two variables
Chi-Square Analysis
Computed Chi-Square values:

The Computed Chi-square Value
• The computed Chi-square value compares observed to

expected frequencies.
• The Chi-square statistic summarizes “how far away” from
the expected frequencies the observed cell frequencies
are found to be.
Degrees of Freedom
The Chi-square Distribution
• The Chi-square distribution is skewed to the right, and the

rejection region is always at the right-hand tail of the
distribution.
• The shape of the distribution is dependent on degrees of
freedom.
How to Interpret a Chi-square Result
• The calculated (computed) value of Chi-square is

compared to the table value to determine significance.
• SPSS and other statistical analysis programs compare
calculated to table values and show the probability for
support of the null hypothesis.
• A significant Chi-square means the researcher should
look at the crosstabulation row and column percentages
to “see” the association pattern.
How to Interpret Chi-Square Analysis
• The Chi-square analysis yields the likelihood or probability

that the researcher would find evidence in support of the
null hypothesis.
• If the p value is ≤ to 0.05, this means there is little support
for the null hypothesis of no association.
• Therefore, we have a significant association and have the
PRESENCE of a systematic relationship between the two
variables.
Chi-Square Analysis
Chi-Square Tests
Asymp. Sig. Exact Sig. Exact Sig.

Value df (2-sided) (2-sided) (1-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 39.382 b 1 .000
Continuity Correctiona 35.865 1 .000
Likelihood Ratio 34.970 1 .000
Fisher's Exact Test .000 .000
N of Valid Cases 100
a. Computed only for a 2x2 table
b. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is
5.06.
• The computed Chi-Square value is 39.382 with 1 d.f.

• Read the p value (Asymp. Sig.) across from Pearson Chi-Square.
• Since the p value is <0.05, we have a SIGNIFICANT association.
Reporting Findings
• Whether to report row or column percentages depends on

research objectives
CHAPTER 15
Understanding Regression Analysis Basics
x
Bivariate Linear Regression Analysis
• Regression analysis is a predictive analysis technique in

which one or more variables are used to predict the level
of another by use of the straight-line formula.
• Bivariate regression means only two variables are being
analyzed, and researchers sometimes refer to this case
as “simple regression”.
• With bivariate analysis, one variable is used to predict

another variable.
• The straight-line equation is the basis of regression
analysis.
Basic Regression Analysis Concepts
• Independent variable: used to predict the independent

variable (x in the regression straight-line equation)
• Dependent variable: that which is predicted (y in the
regression straight-line equation)
Improving Regression Analysis
• Identify any outlier -- a data point that is substantially

outside the normal range of the data points being
analyzed.
Computing the Slope and the Intercept
• Least squares criterion: used in regression analysis;

guarantees that the “best” straight-line slope and intercept
will be calculated
Multiple Regression Analysis
• Multiple regression analysis uses the same concepts as

bivariate regression analysis, but uses more than one
independent variable.
• A general conceptual model identifies independent and
dependent variables and shows their basic relationships
to one another.
Multiple Regression Analysis:
A Conceptual Model
Multiple Regression Analysis Described
• Multiple regression means that you have more than one

independent variable to predict a single dependent
variable.
• With multiple regression, the regression plane is the
shape of the dependent variables.
Basic Assumptions in Multiple Regression
Example of Multiple Regression
• We wish to predict customers’ intentions to purchase a

Lexus automobile.
• We performed a survey that included an attitude-toward-
Lexus variable, a word-of-mouth variable and an income
variable.
• The resultant equation:

This multiple regression equation means that we can

predict a consumer’s intention to buy a Lexus level if you
know three variables:
• Attitude toward Lexus

• Friends’ negative comments about Lexus
• Income level using a scale with 10 income levels.
• Calculation of one buyer’s Lexus purchase intention

using the multiple regression equation:
Multiple regression is a powerful tool because it tells us:

• Which factors predict the dependent variable
• Which way (the sign) each factor influences the
dependent variable
• How much (the size of bi) each factor influences it
Multiple R
• Multiple R: also called the coefficient of determination,

is a measure of the strength of the overall linear
relationship in multiple regression.
• It indicates how well the independent variables can
predict the dependent variable.
Multiple R
• Multiple R ranges from 0 to +1 and represents the amount

of the dependent variable that is “explained,” or
accounted for, by the combined independent variables.
Multiple R
• Researchers convert the Multiple R into a percentage:

Multiple R of .75 means that the regression findings will
explain 75% of the dependent variable.
Basic Assumptions of Multiple Regression
• Independence assumption: the independent variables

must be statistically independent and uncorrelated with
one another (the presence of strong correlations among
independent variables is called multicollinearity)
Basic Assumptions of Multiple Regression
Variance inflation factor (VIF): can be used to assess and

eliminate multicollinearity
• VIF is a statistical value that identifies what independent
variable(s) contribute to multicollinearity and should be
removed
• Any variable with VIF of greater than 10 should be
removed
Basic Assumptions in Multiple Regression
• The inclusion of each independent variable preserves the

straight-line assumptions of multiple regression analysis.
This is sometimes known as additivity because each
new independent variable is added to the regression
equation.
25
“Trimming” the Regression
• A trimmed regression means that you eliminate the

nonsignificant independent variables and, then, rerun the
regression.
• Run trimmed regressions iteratively until all betas are
significant.
• The resultant regression model expresses the salient
independent variables.
Special Uses of Multiple Regression
• Dummy independent variable: scales with a nominal 0-

versus-1 coding scheme
• Using standardized betas to compare independent
variables: allows direct comparison of each independent
value
• Using multiple regression as a screening device: identify
variables to exclude
Stepwise Multiple Regression
• Stepwise regression is useful when there are many

independent variables, and a researcher wants to narrow
the set down to a smaller number of statistically significant
variables.
Stepwise Multiple Regression
• The one independent variable that is statistically

significant and explains the most variance is entered first
into the multiple regression equation.
• Then, each statistically significant independent variable is
added in order of variance explained.
• All insignificant independent variables are excluded.
Three Warnings Regarding Multiple
Regression Analysis
• Regression is a statistical tool, not a cause-and-effect

statement.
• Regression analysis should not be applied outside the
boundaries of data used to develop the regression model.
• Chapter 15 is simplified…regression analysis is complex
and requires additional study.
Reporting Findings to Clients
Most important when used as a screening devise:

• Dependent variable
• Statistically significant independent variables
• Signs of beta coefficients
• Standardized bets coefficients for significant variables
Example
CHAPTER 16
The Research Report
&
REVISION
x
Marketing Research Report
• The marketing research report: a written and/or oral

report that transmits research results, vital
recommendations, conclusions, and other important
information to the client, who in turn bases his or her
decision making on the contents of the report.
The Importance of the Report
• The marketing research report is the product that

represents the efforts of the marketing research team, and
it may be the only part of the project the client will see.
Know Your Audience
• What message do you want to communicate?
• What is your purpose?
• Who is the audience?
• What does your audience know?
• What does your audience need to know?
• Are there cultural differences you need to consider?
• What biases or preconceived notions of the audience
might serve as barriers to your message?
• What strategies can you use to overcome these negative
attitudes?
Plagiarism
• Plagiarism refers to representing the work of others as

your own.
• Properly citing the work of others avoids this problem and
also adds credibility to the report.
Elements of the Report --
Front Matter
• The front matter consists all pages that precede the first
page of the report: the title page, letter of authorization
(optional), letter/ memo of transmittal, table of contents,
list of illustrations, and abstract/ executive summary
Front Matter
Title Page: contains four major items of information:

• The title of the document
• The organization/person(s) for whom the report was
prepared
• The organization/person(s) who prepared the report
• The date of submission
Front Matter
• Letter of Authorization: the marketing research firm’s

certification to do the project.
• Letter/Memo of Transmittal: the letter of transmittal is
used to release or deliver the document to an
organization for which you are mot a regular employee.
The memo of transmittal is used to deliver the document
within your organization.
Front Matter
• Table of Contents: helps the reader locate information in

the research report.
• List of Illustrations: if the report contains tables and/or
figures, include in the table of contents a list of
illustrations with page numbers on which they appear.
• Tables: words and/or numbers arranged in rows and
columns
• Figures: graphs, charts, maps, pictures, and so on.
Front Matter
• Abstract/Executive Summary: is a “skeleton” of your

report and serves as a summary for the busy executive or
a preview for the in-depth reader.
Body
• The body is the bulk of the report. It contains an

introduction to the report, an explanation of your method,
a discussion of your results, a statement of limitations,
and a list of conclusions and recommendations.
Body
• Introduction: orients the reader to its contents. It may

contain a statement of the background situation leading to
the problem, the statement of the problem, and a
summary description of how the research process was
initiated.
• Research objectives may be listed either as a separate
section or within the introduction section.
Body
• Method: describes, in as much detail as necessary, how

you conducted the research, who (or what) your subjects
were, and what tools or methods were used to achieve
your objectives.
Body
Use of Word Method or Methodology
• Method refers to the tools of scientific investigation (and

the tools used in a marketing research project are
described in detail in the method section of the report).
• Methodology refers to the principles that determine how
such tools are deployed and interpreted.
Body
• Results: the most important portion of your report. This

section should logically present the findings of your
research and may be organized around the research
objectives for the study.
• Limitations: typical limitations in research reports often
focus on but are not limited to factors such as constraints
of time, money, size of sample, and personnel.
Body
Conclusions and Recommendations:
• Conclusions are the outcomes and decisions you have

reached based on your research results.
• Recommendations are suggestions for how to proceed
based on the conclusions.
End Matter
The end matter comprises the appendices, which contain

additional information to which the reader may refer for
further reading but that is not essential to reporting the
data; references list; and endnotes.
• A reference list contains all of the sources from which
information was collected for the report.
• Endnotes are notes at the end of a document that
provide supplementary information or comments on ideas
provided in the body of the report.
Form and Format
Form and format concerns include:

• Headings indicate the topic of each section.
• Subheadings should divide the information into
segments.
• Visuals are tables, figures, charts, diagrams, graphs, and
other graphic aids.
Style
• A good paragraph has one main idea, and a topic

sentence should state that main idea.
• The body of the paragraph provides the main idea of the
topic sentence by giving more information, analysis, or
examples.
• The transitional sentence tells readers where they are
headed.
• Controlling for the length of paragraphs should encourage
good communication. As a rule, paragraphs should be
short.
Using Visuals: Tables and Figures
• Tables, which identify exact values

• Graphs and charts, which illustrate relationships among
items
• Pie charts, which compare a specific part of the whole
to the whole
• Bar charts and line graphs, which compare items over
time or show correlations among items
Using Visuals: Tables and Figures
Common visuals include the following:

• Flow diagrams, which introduce a set of topics and
illustrate their relationships
• Maps, which define geographical locations
• Photographs, which present an aura of legitimacy
because they are not “created” in the sense that other
visuals are created
• Drawings, which focus on visual details
Tables
• Tables allow the reader to compare numerical data.

• Effective table guidelines:
• Do not allow computer analysis to imply a level of accuracy that is
not achieved. Limit your use of decimal places (12% or 12.2%
instead of 12.223%).
• Place items you want the reader to compare in the same column,
not the same row.
Tables
• Effective table guidelines:

• If you have many rows, darken alternating entries or
double-space after every few (five) entries to assist the
reader in accurately lining up items.
• Total columns and rows when relevant.
• Top-two box scores: in practice, researchers commonly
report the first two scores (or the bottom two scores) in a
table.
Pie Charts
• When you want to illustrate the relative sizes or

proportions of one component versus others, pie charts
are useful.
• The pie chart is a circle divided into sections. Each
section represents a percentage of the total area of the
circle associated with one component.
Bar Charts
• Bar charts are used often in reporting survey data

because they are easy to interpret. They are useful to
report the magnitude of response or to show magnitude or
response comparisons between groups. They are also
useful for illustrating change over time.
Line Graphs
• Line graphs are easy to interpret if they are designed

properly. Line graphs may be drawn in SPSS using the
graphs option.
• Flow diagrams introduce a set of topics and illustrate their
relationships.
Producing an Appropriate Visual
• An ethical visual is totally objective in terms of how

information is presented in the research report.
• Double- and triple-check all labels, numbers, and visual
shapes. A faulty or misleading visual discredits your report
and work.
• Make sure all parts of the scales are presented.
Truncated graphs (having breaks in the scaled values on
either axis) are acceptable only if the audience is familiar
with the data.
Presenting Your Research Orally
• Identify and analyze your audience.
• Find out the expectations your audience has for your
presentation.
• Determine the key points your audience needs to hear.
• Outline the key points.
• Present your points succinctly and clearly.
• Make sure your visuals graphically and ethically portray
your key points.
Presenting Your Research Orally
• Practice your presentation.
• Check out the room and media equipment prior to the
presentation.
• Arrive early.
• Be positive and confident.
• Speak loudly enough for all in the room to hear, enunciate
clearly, maintain eye contact and good posture and dress
appropriately.
Alternative Ways to Present Findings
• Videos: Many marketing research firms and advertising

agencies supplement their written and oral research
reports with videos
• Infographics: Infographics are visual reports designed to
make key research results understood quickly and easily
Disseminating Results Throughout an
Organization
• Dashboards: provide digital interfaces that allow users to

quickly and easily see information that is presented in a
simplified manner.
• Online reporting software: electronically distributes
marketing research reports to selected managers in an
interactive format that allows each user to conduct his or
her own analyses.

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Welcome

➢ Define marketing research

What is Marketing Research?

Marketing research: the function that links the consumer,

Marketing or Market Research?

• Market research: a process

VW’s CNG Touran

• Identify marketing opportunities and problems

Some marketing research studies are designed to find out

• Selecting target markets

• Tracking data collected at point-of-sale terminals as

Marketing Research System

Client-side research: organizations that supply their own

Supply-side research: External suppliers hired to fulfill a

Firms in the marketing research industry differ by:

Types of firms and their specialties

• ESOMAR estimates worldwide revenues for the

Three major challenges are:

Industry initiatives to address these challenges include:

Codes of conduct involve:

The “Step-by-Step Process”

• Is there a real need for marketing research?

Step 2: Define the Problem

• McDonald’s Arch Deluxe

Step 3: Establish Objectives

Step 4: Determine Research Design

• Primary information: information collected specifically

• Secondary data is relatively easy to access

Step 7: Design Data Collection Forms

• If a focus group is used, a focus group

• If we observe respondents, the form is

• A sample is drawn from an entire group or population.

• Nonsampling errors in data collection will occur, so

Example: A 2016 study references these variables as the factors that

• Reporting, the last step, is one of the most important

• The marketing research proposal serves as the basis of

The Role of Symptoms in

• “We have a problem … we are losing money.”

• Once symptoms have been validated, it is important to

• Research objectives are specific and tell the researcher

• Specify from whom information is to be gathered

Hypotheses and Constructs

• Hypotheses are statements that are taken as true for the

• When you define a problem incorrectly, there is nothing

• An action standard is a predesignation of some quantity

• You have been hired by the Autism Association

• Research design is a set of advance decisions that make

• Good research design is the “first rule of good research”.

To test hypotheses that specify

• In many cases research is an iterative process.

• Exploratory research is usually conducted at the outset of research

• Gain background information

• Secondary Data Analysis: the process of searching for

• Experience Surveys: refers to gathering information from

• Case Analysis: a review of available information about a

Cross-sectional studies: measure units from a sample of

• Longitudinal studies: repeatedly measure the same

• Discontinuous panels are demographically matched to