CHCCCS041 Learner Guide - High Res V1 - 1 (ID 202251)

Learner Guide
CHCCCS041
Recognise
healthy body
systems
AGEING SUPPORT AND

DISABILITY SUPPORT
Edition 1.1 first published 2022 by Eduworks Resources
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About this Learner Guide.
About this
Learner Guide
This Learner Guide covers the following unit of competency:
CHCCCS041 Recognise healthy body systems
CHCCCS041 Recognise healthy body systems 1

.
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2 CHCCCS041 Recognise healthy body systems

Contents.
Contents
1. Body Systems 4 3. The Effects of Aging and Disability

on Body Systems 80
1.1 Cells and Tissues 5
1.2 Organs and Organ Systems 8 3.1 Ageing and Disability 81
1.3 The Musculoskeletal System 17 3.2 Common Conditions 85
1.4 The Endocrine System 19 3.3 Ageing Cells and Tissues 87
1.5 The Digestive System 21 3.4 The Impacts of Ageing and
Disability on Body Systems 88
1.6 The Renal System 23
3.5 Monitoring for Pain 102
1.7 The Reproductive Systems 25
Chapter 3 Review Questions 105
1.8 The Integumentary System 27
1.9 The Lymphatic System 29 Bibliography 106
1.10 The Immune System 31
1.11 Sensory Systems 33
1.12 Using Information About the Body 37
2. Homeostasis and Regulation of the Body 42

2.1 Maintenance of Temperature 43
2.2 Maintaining Fluids and Electrolytes 46
2.3 Elimination of Waste 53
2.4 Maintenance of Blood Pressure 58
2.5 Protection From Infection 61
2.6 Nutrition 64
2.7 Reporting Physical Condition Changes 68
2.8 Physical Activity 70
2.9 Social Connection 77

1. Body Systems
Chapter 1
Body Systems
You will likely come across information that includes references to the
anatomy and physiology of clients and residents. These terms refer to
the way that the body is structured or put together (anatomy), and the
way that it works (physiology).
This chapter introduces you to the 11 body systems and how they work
together to keep the body healthy. It will help you to understand and use
basic medical terms that describe body systems.
By the end of this chapter,

you will understand:
3 the basic structure and functions of cells,
tissues and organs
3 the body systems and how they work

together
3 terminology that describes the normal

structure, function and location of the major
body systems.

1. Body Systems
1.1 Cells and Tissues

Smooth endoplasmatic
Cells are the building blocks of the body. Every part of reticulum
the body is made of cells. Golgi
Cells in your body do many different things. They can: Apparatus
Mitochondrion
• send messages between your brain and organs
(nerve cells) Golgi
Vesicles
• move body parts (muscle cells)
• protect your body (skin cells) Vacuole
• carry oxygen and nutrients (blood cells)
Pinocytotic Nucleus
• store nutrients (bone cells). Vesicle
Nucleolus
Cells come in different shapes and sizes so that they
can help an organ to do what it is supposed to do, but
Centrioles
they have most of their basic structures in common.
There are hundreds of different types of cells in the body. Ribosomes
The nucleus is like the brain of the cell. It controls what
Lysosome
the cell does. It contains chromosomes, which are
Microtubules
like a blueprint. Chromosomes contain instructions
that are passed on to new cells in cell division and cell Cytoplasm
replication.
Cells need food, water and oxygen to perform their Cell membrane
functions. These pass through the cell wall. Most cells Rough Endoplasmatic
can repair themselves if they are damaged. Reticulum
Example
A chicken’s egg is a cell, and it is a good way to understand how body cells look.
• It has an outer membrane (the shell).
• It is filled with fluid that contains proteins and other nutrients (the whites).
• It has a nucleus (the yolk).

1. Body Systems
Tissues
Tissues are simply groups of cells of the same type.
Epithelial Connective Muscle
Joins different types of tissue

Covers and lines the surfaces of
together, such as tendons or Provides movement and structure
the body
ligaments
Nervous Adipose Cartilage and bone
Tissue made up of nerve cells

Tissue made of fat cells to protect Cartilage and bone provide
that sends messages around the
and warm structure to the skeleton
body

1. Body Systems
Activity 1A
Cells and Tissues
If you have no religious or ethical concerns about meat, look at a raw piece of beef and find three examples of
cells and tissues that you might be able to see.
(If you have ethical or religious concerns, you might also see cells in the stalk of a plant. A magnifying glass
can help)
Look for:
• bones
• muscle tissue
• adipose tissue
• connective tissue.
What types of tissue can you see?
What are the functions of these types of tissues?
If you are looking at plant cells, what structures can you see?
What functions do each of these structures have?

1. Body Systems
1.2 Organs and Organ Systems

An organ is made up of tissues to perform a particular function. Our body has hundreds of organs. They are
connected to other organs through networks of blood vessels and nerves. The heart, kidneys and liver are all
examples of organs.
This section will look at some of the major organs and the systems they belong to.
Describing Organs
Organs can be described in relation to their structure and their function.
Function
This refers to what the organ or

system does, what its purpose
is and what job it performs. For
example, the heart's function
is to pump blood into the main
blood vessels so that it can travel
around the body and deliver
oxygen to the cells.
Structure
This refers to how the organ or

system looks, what it is made
of and what form it takes. For
example, the heart is made of
muscle cells and consists of four
chambers connected to our major
blood vessels.

1. Body Systems
The Body Systems

We group organs together depending on their overall functions. A group of organs that work together for a common
function is called a system. We have 11 systems in the body.
Integumentary
system
Nervous Digestive
system system
Musculoskeletal Lymphatic
System system
Cardiovascular Urinary system Special senses

system
Endocrine Immune
system system
Reproductive
system
Each system is made up of a group of organs that work together for a common purpose.
Watch
Watch this video for an overview of the body systems:
‘Human Body 101 | National Geographic’ from National Geographic
https://scnv.io/yDXD

1. Body Systems
The Body Cavities

Many of our systems and organs sit inside cavities. Here is a list of the cavities in the body:
Cranial cavity
Inside the head, holding the brain.
Pleural cavity
The spaces that surround both lungs,
filled with fluid.
Thoracic cavity
The large cavity in the chest that
holds the heart and lungs.
Vertebral canal Pericardial cavity

The space inside the vertebrae. The fluid-filled space that surrounds
Contains the spinal cord. the heart.
Abdominal cavity Pelvic cavity
The cavity in the abdomen that The cavity in the pelvic area that
contains the liver, stomach, spleen, contains the bladder, some of the
small intestine and most of the large large intestine and the internal
intestine. reproductive organs.

1. Body Systems
The Nervous System
Structure Function Location
The nervous system is made up It passes messages to and from • The brain is located in the skull,
of the brain, the spinal cord and the brain to other parts of the inside the cranial cavity.
nerves. body.
• The spinal cord runs through
the vertebral column of the
spine.
• The nerves travel to every part
of our body.
The brain is the body’s control centre. We use our brain

to create both conscious and unconscious actions in the Watch
rest of the body. Watch this video to learn about the
The brain sends messages through the nerves to all nervous system:
parts of the body via the spinal cord.
‘A Journey Through Your Nervous
The nerves are like an electrical cord. The messages System’ from BRIGHT SIDE
travel along chains of nerve cells where they act on the
body part in the way the brain directs. https://scnv.io/WCQ4
Example
Conscious actions include muscle
movement. For example, when we
want to pick up a pen, our brain
sends a message to our arm and
fingers telling the muscle how, when and where to
move.
Unconscious actions are the body functions that
we do not consciously control. For example, the
brain sends a message to the diaphragm which
moves up and down, allowing us to breathe.

1. Body Systems
The Nervous System
Brain
Cerebellum
Brachial Plexus
Spinal cord
Musculocutaneous
Nerve
Intercostal nerve
Radial Nerve
Lumbar plexus
Subcostal Nerve
Sacral plexus
Median Nerve
Femoral Nerve
Iliohypogastric Nerve
Pudendal Nerve
Ulnar Nerve
Sciatic Nerve
Common Peroneal Nerve
Saphenous Nerve
Deep Peroneal Nerve
Superficial Peroneal Nerve Tibial Nerve

1. Body Systems
The Cardiovascular System
Structure
Consists of the heart and a network of blood

vessels that spread to all parts of the body.
Function
Pumps blood around the body to provide oxygen,

hormones and nutrients to the cells.
Location
The heart is in our thoracic cavity, while the blood

vessels and capilliaries travel around the entire
body.
Watch
Watch this video about how the
heart does its work:
‘Heart 101 | National Geographic’

from National Geographic
https://scnv.io/eJKR

1. Body Systems
The cardiovascular system is sometimes called the circulatory system.

The cardiovascular system consists of:
Heart Arteries Veins
A muscular organ that Carry oxygenated blood Carry blood back to the lungs
pumps blood around away from the heart to the to refuel with oxygen before
the body. rest of the body. retruning it to the heart.
Capillaries Blood
Tiny vessels that lead Contains blood cells that carry
from the viens to the oxygen and other components
tissues and cells. around the body.

1. Body Systems
The Respiratory System
Nasal Cavity
Nostril
Oral Cavity
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Alveoli
Bronchi
Diaphragm
• Includes air passages, the • Allows us to breathe in air, The organs of the respiratory
lungs and breathing muscles. providing oxygen to the body system are contained in our
tissues. thoracic cavity.
• Our lungs and bronchi look a
bit like an upside down tree. • Removes waste such as
carbon dioxide.

1. Body Systems
All of our body cells and tissues need oxygen. The Exhalation
respiratory system helps us to take oxygen from the air Carbon dioxide enters the lungs from the blood stream
so that it can be used by our cells. and is passed out of the lungs via the trachea when the
Here is the simple process that allows us to breathe in diaphragm muscle moves up. This is called exhalation.
and out:
Inhalation
When the diaphragm muscle moves down, air enters our
respiratory system via the mouth and nose. This is called Mouth and nose
Trachea
We breathe out
inhalation. Our respiratory system is lined with tiny hairs the waste
Air travels back
up the windpipe.
that trap dust and other particles to help purify the air. products.
Air passes through the pharynx and into the bronchi.

These branch into bronchioles, where the air enters the
lungs. The lungs consist of tiny air sacs called alveoli. Lungs
Air is pushed
These are lined with capillaries. The oxygen passes into out of the
these capillaries and enters the blood stream. The air lungs.
is now deoxygenated; this means that the oxygen has
been removed.
Diaphram
The diahragm
moves up.
Mouth and nose

Air enters our
Trachea
body here.
Air travels down
this tube towards
the lungs.
Example
Some systems have higher demand
Lungs for oxygen than others. Our brain
Oxygen
passes from needs a great deal of oxygen to
the air into perform its functions.
the blood
stream.
Watch
Diaphram
This muscle moves Watch this video about how the
down and expands lungs exchange oxygen with the
our lungs.
blood cells:
‘Lungs 101 | National Geographic’
from National Geographic
https://scnv.io/BNea

1. Body Systems
1.3 The Musculoskeletal System

Structure
The musculoskeletal system is made up of the muscles
and bones (skeleton).
The Skeleton
Structure The skeleton is made up of 206 bones. These give our
body its shape and help us to stand and sit upright.
• Made up of bones and muscles connected by Some bones, such as the ribs, protect our organs. Other
tendons and ligaments. bones, such as the bones in our arms, legs and neck,
• These are connected by tendons, ligaments, help us to move.
cartlilage and joints. Bones have other important functions that you may not
know about. Our larger bones, such as our leg bones,
make blood cells inside the bone marrow. The bones
also store important minerals such as calcium.
Function
• Helps us to stay upright.

• Helps us to move.
• Helps organs to do their work.
Location
• Every area of our body contains muscles and

bones.

1. Body Systems
Muscles
The muscles allow movement. They also help us to stay upright and produce heat. There are three types of muscles:
Smooth muscle Cardiac muscle Skeletal muscle
Many organs, such as our intestines, This type of muscle is only found in This type of muscle is attached to our
need smooth muscle to perform the heart. It has its own electrical bones.
their function. We have no control impulses, like a battery, and will We have conscious control over
over our smooth muscle. still keep moving even if it has lost skeletal muscle. In other words, we
connection with the brain. can move it ourselves.
Watch
Watch this video about how the muscular system works:
‘Muscle Tissue’ from Dr Matt & Dr Mike
https://scnv.io/dson

1. Body Systems
1.4 The Endocrine System
• Made up of glands that secrete • Send chemical messages • Glands are located in many
hormones. around the body. different parts of the body,
including the brain.
• These messages have many
different functions.
Adrenal
glands
Thymus Hypothalamus
Thyroid gland
and Parathyroid glands
Pineal Pituitary gland

gland
Testes
Pancreas
Ovaries
Hormones send chemical messages to the body’s organs to tell them to do something. We have hormones that send
messages to control reproduction, growth, digestion and many other functions.
Example
The pancreas secretes a hormone called insulin. This hormone tells our body to decrease the
levels of glucose (sugar) in our blood when they become too high. Diabetes happens when there
is a problem with the manufacturing of this hormone.

1. Body Systems
Glands are the organs that produce and release hormones.
Here are the main glands of the body and the actions they control:
Name of gland Where it is What it does
Controls sleep, appetite, weight, thirst,

Hypothalamus At the base of the brain. blood pressure, sex drive, memory and
mood.
Controls blood pressure, blood sugar levels,

Pituitary gland In the base of the brain. stress responses, menstruation, sperm
production, bone and muscle growth.
Produces melatonin, which controls our

Pineal gland Near the centre of the brain.
sleep cycle.
Controls our metabolism, energy levels,

Thyroid gland In the front of the neck. body. temperature, heart rate and blood
flow.
In the neck behind the thyroid

Parathyroid glands Controls calcium levels in the blood.
gland.
Produces adrenaline, cortisol and

Above the kidneys on each side testosterone.
Adrenal glands
of the body. Controls stress responses, blood pressure,
energy, sex organs and heart rate.
Behind the stomach, under the Releases insulin to control blood sugar
Pancreas
liver. levels.
Releases oestrogen, progesterone

On each side of the uterus in
Ovaries and testosterone. Controls female
the pelvis.
characteristics, releasing eggs.
In the scrotum, behind the Produces testosterone, controls male

Testes
penis. characteristics and sperm production.
Watch
Watch the following for an overview of the endocrine system:
‘Overview of the Endocrine System’ by Dr Matt & Dr Mike:
https://scnv.io/pHjN

1. Body Systems
1.5 The Digestive System
Nose Hard Palate

Mouth Tongue
Genioglossus Muscle Hyoid Bone
Thyroid Cartilage
Trachea
Esophagus
Liver Stomach
Duodenum Gall Bladder
Pancreas Spleen
Ascending Colon
Transverse Colon
Small Intestine
Large Intestine
Appendix Rectum
Anus
• A long tract that includes the • Breaks down food into smaller, • Leads from the mouth to the
mouth, oesophagus, stomach, liquid nutrients. anus. The intestines are located
liver and intestines. in the abdominal cavity.
• Allows nutrients and water
to be used by the cells in the
body.

1. Body Systems
We take food into our mouth. Our tongue and teeth

help us to move the food and break it down into smaller
pieces so that it is ready for swallowing.
We swallow the food and it passes into our pharynx at
the back of the throat. A small flap of muscle covers
over the trachea (windpipe) to prevent food from passing
down into our lungs. Instead, it passes to another tube
called the oesophagus. This is a muscular tube that
pushes the food down towards the stomach. In the
stomach, the food is churned and mixed to become a
liquid. The stomach releases acids, which help to break
the food down further.
The gallbladder releases bile into the stomach. Bile acts
like a detergent; it helps to break down fats and oils.
Once the food is liquified, it then moves into the small
intestine (small bowel). This is where the nutrients in
the food leave the digestive system. They pass through
the walls into the capillaries and blood stream where
they travel to the cells. The small intestine is very long.
This is important because the nutrients move out slowly
as the food passes through. If the small intestine was
shorter, we would not be able to take all of the important
nutrients that we need from our food.
The large intestine is a larger, shorter tube that helps us
to remove water from the remains of the food. Water
travels through the wall of the large intestine (large
bowel) and into the blood stream. At the beginning of
the large bowel the food (now faeces) is watery and
liquid. By the time it enters the lower part of the bowel, it
is solid faeces. The faeces now contain all of the waste
that the body does not want or need. These must be
removed from the body.
The solid faeces sit in the rectum where they are stored
until we are ready to go to the toilet. Nerves in the
rectum are stimulated by the presence of faeces, and
we feel the urge to push. Muscles help us to push the
faeces out of the body.
Watch
Watch this video about how the digestive system works:
‘How your digestive system works - Emma Bryce’ from TED-Ed
https://scnv.io/lefa

1. Body Systems
1.6 The Renal System
Kidney
Ureter
Bladder
Prostate gland Urethra
• Consists of kidneys, ureters, • Filters the blood to remove • The kidneys are located
urethra and bladder. excess water and waste towards the back (posterior)
products, which are then and the bladder and urethra
stored in the bladder and are contained in the abdominal
excreted as urine. cavity.

1. Body Systems
The urinary system, also called the renal system or

urinary tract, functions by blood passing through the Note
kidneys. These are two bean shaped organs that The male and female renal systems
filter the blood, drawing out water, minerals and other are very similar. One of the only
substances that the body does not need. This takes the differences is the length of the
form of urine. urethra. In males, the urethra is
longer because it passes through the penis.
The urine passes down through two long tubes called
Females are more prone to urinary tract infections
ureters to the bladder. The bladder is a little like a
because germs do not have to travel far through
storage container; urine is stored there until we are ready
the shorter urethra to make it to the bladder.
to go to the toilet or until it is too full to hold more.
When the bladder is full, a message is sent to our brain
to tell us that we need to pass urine. When we are ready,
the brain sends a message to a sphincter, a muscle
Watch
that sits at the bottom of the urethra. The sphincter Watch this video about the urinary
relaxes and the urine passes through the urethra and (renal) system:
out of the body. ‘Renal Function’ from
Dr Matt & Dr Mike
https://scnv.io/p42h

1. Body Systems
1.7 The Reproductive Systems
• Males and females have

different reproductive systems.
• The female reproductive
system is made up of the
• Both systems contribute to • The reproductive organs are
uterus, ovaries, fallopian tubes
reproduction and birth. located in the pelvic cavity.
and vagina.
• The male reproductive system
is made up of the penis, testes,
epididymus and vas deferens.

1. Body Systems
The Female Reproductive System

The female reproductive system contains the organs
Female Reproductive System
required to conceive and have children. Females
are born with many egg cells. At puberty the ovaries
develop and produce eggs, ready to be fertilised by Fallopian Tube
the male sperm. Menopause, the end of this process,
usually occurs between the ages of 45 and 55. Many
older women experience changes after menopause
because of the reduction in hormones in their body.
This can lead to physical changes such as loss of bone
density and mood changes.
Watch Uterus
Watch this video about the female
Cervix
reproductive system:
‘Female Reproductive Ovary Vagina
System’ from Dr Matt
& Dr Mike
https://scnv.io/gGTO
The Male Reproductive System Male Reproductive System

The male reproductive system is focused around the Ureter
production of sperm and delivering sperm to the female
during sex. Sperm is produced in the testes.
Vas
The prostate gland produces fluids that feed and protect Deferens
sperm cells. As men age, this gland can commonly Seminal
Vesicle
enlarge and cause problems, including urinary problems
and cancer. Prostate
Bulbourethral
Erectile
Gland
Watch Tissue
Watch this video about the male
reproductive system:
‘Male Reproductive Testicle
System’ from Dr Matt
& Dr Mike Urethra
https://scnv.io/nlpy Epididymis Penis Head

1. Body Systems
1.8 The Integumentary System
• Consists of skin, nails and hair. • Provides a protective covering • The skin covers the entire
for the body. body.
• Helps to regulate body
temperature.
The skin is the body’s largest organ. It contains blood vessels, sweat glands and very dense nerve endings. Skin
consists of two distinct layers.
The epidermis
• The epidermis is the outer

layer of skin.
• It contains epithelial calls.
These supply a waterproof
layer to the body.
• The cells continuously divide,
die and shed.
• The dermis is the layer under the skin.

• It is made of connective tissue and collagen fibers.
The dermis • The dermis contains blood vessels and nerve
endings so that our skin can feel touch, pressure,
heat, cold and pain.
• The dermis also contains hair follicles, sweat glands
and sebaceous glands.

1. Body Systems
Hair Shaft
Epidermis
Pore of sweat gland

Epidermal ridge
Dermal Papilla
Dermis
Sensory receptors
Arrector pili muscle
Sebaceous (oil) gland
Sweat gland duct
Hair follicle
Hypodermis
Eccrine sweat gland
Nerve
Vein
Artery
Sebaceous glands produce sebum, an oil that helps to waterproof and moisturise the skin and hair. Sebum also
controls the growth of disease-causing microorganisms on the skin.
Sweat glands produce sweat, which contains water and salts.
Hair helps to insulate and protect the body. As we age, our hair tends to thin, increasing our susceptibility to cold.
Clients who have little hair on their head, such as balding men, might need extra head coverings in cold weather.
Eyelashes and eyebrows protect eyes from water, dirt and infections.
Watch Note
Watch this video to learn more Melanocytes are cells that produce
about skin: melanin and protect us from UV
rays.
‘What is Skin? | National
Geographic’ from People with whiter complexions are at more risk
National Geographic of sunburn than people with darker complexions,
because they have less melanin.
https://scnv.io/8OvB
People with darker complexions need more time
in the sun to absorb adequate vitamin D. They are
more at risk of vitamin D deficiency than people
with lighter skin.

1. Body Systems
1.9 The Lymphatic System
• Consists of lymph nodes, the • Filters bacteria from the • Lymph nodes are located at
lymph vessels and lymph fluid. tissues. major body junctions, such as
armpits and the groin. Lymph
• The spleen and thymus are • Drains excess fluid from the
vessels run alongside the blood
also part of the lymphatic tissues and returns it to the
vessels all over the body.
system. veins.
The lymphatic system is a network of tiny vessels that

travel through the body to help drain fluid from our Example
tissues and contributes to fighting infections. When lymph nodes and lymph
vessels are damaged, the body
Lymph is a clear fluid that contains white blood cells.
parts nearby can become swollen
The white blood cells fight infections in all of our body’s
with fluid that is not able to be
tissues and organs.
drained away. For example, during breast cancer
Lymph vessels are vessels that carry the lymph fluid to surgery, the surgeon may need to remove lymph
the organs and tissues. They also drain away extra fluid nodes and vessels in the thoracic area and neck.
that the capillaries cannot reach. This fluid is drained This can mean that the person is more prone
from the lymph vessels into the surrounding capillaries to swelling in the arm on that side of their body,
and veins. because the lymph fluid is not able to be drained
Lymph nodes are also called lymph glands. The lymph back to the blood vessels effectively.
vessels travel through them at key points where they
trap disease-causing bacteria and microbes.
The spleen filters old and damaged blood cells and
removes and destroys infections.
The thymus filters the blood to keep it clean and also
produces lymphocytes.
Watch
Watch this video for an overview of
the lymphatic system:
‘The Lymphatic System
Overview, Animation’
from Alila Medical Media
https://scnv.io/2zmp

1. Body Systems
The Lymphatic System
Cervical lymph nodes
Palatine tonsil
Thymus
Axillary lymph nodes
Right lymphatic duct

Spleen
Thoracic duct
Cisterna chyli
Inguinal lymph nodes

1. Body Systems
1.10 The Immune System
• The immune system is made • Fights infections such as • White blood cells and
up of: viruses and bacteria. antibodies travel in the blood.
• The lymph vessels • The lymphatic system extends
over the whole body alongside
• The spleen and the thymus
the veins and arteries.
• White blood cells, bone
• The spleen is in the left upper
marrow and antibodies.
abdomen. The thymus is
located behind the breastbone
(sternum).
Tonsils and adenoids
Lymph nodes
Thymus
Spleen
Peyer’s
Appendix Patches
Bone marrow

1. Body Systems
The immune system helps our body fight infections. Bone marrow is found inside your large bones. It
produces red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.
White blood cells are made in the bone marrow and
work with antibodies to attack foreign bodies. White The immune system works with many other parts of the
blood cells include lymphocytes known as memory body too, to help protect it from infection.
cells. Memory cells recognise and destroy certain
Here are some examples:
disease-causing organisms more quickly when it
recognises them before they can multiply. This is why • The lymphatic system, as described above.
it is uncommon to develop some infections, such as • The skin, saliva and tears secrete enzymes that kill
chicken pox or measles, more than once. bacteria.
When a person has a blood test that shows high white • Mucous and tiny hairs in the respiratory system trap
blood cell levels, this can mean that there is an infection foreign particles such as infections, allowing us to
present that the body is trying to fight. High leukocyte remove them via coughing.
levels in a urinalysis test, (which you will learn more • The digestive system contains antibodies and the
about in Chapter 2) can also show that there is infection acid in the stomach kills most bacteria.
present that the body is trying to fight. • When a person develops an infection, a fever
The flu and the common cold, however, have many develops. This means that the person’s body
different strains of the same type of virus, so the temperature rises, killing infections that prefer normal
lymphocytes do not recognise the new strains. body temperatures.
Note
Vaccines trick the body into producing antibodies to fight a specific virus. If the vaccinated person
is later exposed to the actual virus, they will not get sick because their body will recognise it and
attack it.
People who work in residential aged care must be vaccinated against the flu and COVID-19, and there are similar
rules for people working in other community service workplaces.

1. Body Systems
1.11 Sensory Systems

Our sensory systems are made up of the special senses.
These senses include the following:
Taste Smell Equilibrium
Hearing Sight
The organs responsible for helping us to use our senses are highly specialised. This section outlines some of these
structures.

1. Body Systems
The Eye
The eye lets an image pass through and focuses it on the back of the eye, called the retina. The retina is covered with
cells called rods and cones. These cells are light sensitive; they pick up colour, shapes and light, and send the image
to the brain via the optic nerve. The right and left eye see a slightly different view. The brain combines the two views
and produces a three-dimensional image.
Lateral rectus muscle

Choroid
Suspensory ligament
Retina
Pupil
Iris Macula lutea

Fovea centralis
Anterior chamber
Cornea Optic nerve
Lens
Optic disc
Sclera (blind spot)
Vitreous body
Medial rectus muscle
Here are some of the important parts of the eye:

• The iris is a muscle that contracts and dilates the Note
pupil to control the amount of light entering the eye. As we age, the muscles that
In dark light the pupil widens to let in more light. In control focus and vision begin to
bright light it constricts. deteriorate.
• The conjunctiva is the thin clear membrane that This can lead to short-sightedness or long-
covers the eye. sightedness.
• The sclera is the medical term for the whites of the
Cataracts happen when the lens becomes cloudy.
eye.
Other common eye conditions include glaucoma
• The cornea is a clear lens that helps us to focus. and macular degeneration. These conditions
• The lens sits behind the iris and provides short become more common as we age.
focus.
• Tear ducts lubricate the eye to stop it from drying
out, and flush away dust and bacteria.
Watch
Watch this video about what your
eyes say about your health:
Note
Your eyes take three times as ‘Eyes: The Windows to Your Health |
long to adjust to the dark in your National Geographic’ from National
seventies as they do in your Geographic
twenties. https://scnv.io/Mzf0

1. Body Systems
The Ear
The ear provides hearing and balance. It is made up of three different parts.
Hammer Anvil
Stapes
Vestubular nerve
Cochlear
Auricle nerve
Cochlea
Tympanic
Membrane
Tympanic
External auditory canal Cavity
Eustachian Tube
Outer Ear Middle Ear Inner Ear
The outer ear The middle ear The inner ear
• This part of the ear collects • This part of the ear contains the • Here the sound waves are
sound waves. ear drum and three small bones. passed over thousands of tiny
• It is coated with wax, which • The eardrum vibrates and hairs and converted to electrical
lubricates, fights infection and causes the tiny bones to move. impulses and sent to the brain.
clears dead skin. • Sound is carried through these • The brain interprets the sound.
bones to the cochlea in the inner • The vestibular system of the
ear. inner ear also controls balance.

Note
As we get older, the fine bones of the ear can become stiffer, and this leads to degrees of
deafness.
Dizziness can be caused by damage to the inner ear.
Activity 1B
Drawing the Body
Your facilitator will provide you with coloured pens and butchers paper if you are in the classroom. You might
prefer to work in small groups or on your own.
If you are learning online, you can complete this task with your own paper and pens.
Choose one human body system and draw a diagram that shows the main organs and functions of the system.
For example, if you are drawing the renal/urinary system, show the main organs and use arrows and labels to
describe how and where blood is filtered and where urine is produced, stored and excreted.
These sites might help you to complete this task:
‘The Human Body’ from Healthline
https://scnv.io/q5Ih
‘Explore Human Anatomy and Physiology’ from Innerbody Research

https://scnv.io/sL0N

1. Body Systems
1.12 Using Information About the Body

When you are working with older people and people
with disabilities, you will often read and hear information Example
that relates to parts of the body. Sometimes you will A person with a spinal cord injury
need to share this information with other workers and might talk about symptoms
the client or resident. involving the nerves of their body.
When you understand the basic
Disabilities and medical conditions often involve parts
parts of the nervous system, you will know more
of the body that are described by the affected organs or
about the person’s needs for support. You will also
systems.
understand the importance of reporting problems
You might see or hear information about the body: with the functioning of this system.
• When the client or resident talks to you about
their condition, or about symptoms they are
currently experiencing, such as abdominal pain and
• When a medical or allied health professional writes
constipation.
notes or instructions to you and other staff, such as
• In charts used to collect information, such as bowel the position of a muscle that needs to be exercised.
charts, temperature charts and fluid balance charts.
• When you are sharing information about healthy
Chapter 2 of this Learner Guide will describe the use
lifestyle changes, such as a healthier diet or support
of some of these charts and your role in using them.
to quit smoking.
• When you are given a handover about the person,
• When you are reading file notes written by other staff,
such as when you are told that the person has a
such as about the condition of the person’s skin.
brain injury.

The Interrelationships of Organs
The language of anatomy and physiology is very specific. In many cases, it can be easy to learn the main parts of
the medical language. Here are some examples of terms used to describe where organs and systems are placed in
relation to each other.
Term Meaning Example

The anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) is a ligament at the
Anterior At the front of
front of your knee joint.
The posterior tibial tendon is a tendon behind the lower
Posterior At the back of part of the tibia, the bone that joins the ankle to the lower
leg.
Lateral To the side of the body The heart is in the left lateral side of the chest.
Medial Near the middle of the body The spinal cord is in a medial position in the body.
Superior Above another organ The lungs are superior to the diaphragm.
Inferior Below another organ The intestines are inferior to the stomach.
Close to the surface of the
Superficial The sweat glands are superficial organs.
body (near the skin)
Away from the surface of
Deep The bones are deep structures.
the body
Close to another organ or
Proximal The heart is proximal to the lungs.
structure
Further away from
Distal The metatarsals (foot bones) are distal to the ankle.
particular point in the body

1. Body Systems
How Organs and Systems Work Together

Our organs and body systems do not work in isolation from each other. Every organ and system is dependent on
other organs to complete its work.
Here are some examples.
The urinary system relies on the nervous system to send

The lungs depend on the heart and blood vessels messages to the bladder.
to transfer oxygen into the blood stream.
The digestive system relies on the smooth muscles The bones need minerals that can only be supplied by
of the intestine to push and expel faeces towards the the digestive system.
rectum.
When a person develops an illness or dysfunction in one part of the body, this can have an effect on the functioning of
other organs.

1. Body Systems
Example
Diabetes is a disorder of the Activity 1C
pancreas. It happens when the
pancreas is unable to produce Using Information About the
adequate amounts of insulin.
Diabetes causes the person’s blood sugar levels
Body
to rise too high for healthy functioning because Read the information about aerobics for older
the insulin is not available to help control the sugar Australians at the following link and then answer
levels. the questions that follow.
Because there is too much sugar in the blood ‘Aerobics - preventing injury’ from the
stream, most other systems and organs are BetterHealth Channel
affected.
https://scnv.io/bGtF
Cardiovascular system:
• Glucose can block the capillaries of the toes.
This can reduce the blood flow, leading to 1. What information about the human body is
problems with circulation. It can also cause helpful to understand when you are reading
gangrene, which is the death of the tissues. this information?
Sensory system:
• Glucose builds up in the tiny capillaries of
the eyes. This can lead to these capillaries
becoming blocked and damage to the eyesight
can result.
2. What body systems are directly and indirectly
Nervous system: affected in a positive way by this type of
• Glucose can block the small vessels in the exercise?
brain. This can cause damage to the nervous
tissue leading to stroke.
• Glucose can block the nerves. This means that
the person may lose feeling or sensation in the
nerves of their toes, feet and other parts of the 3. How do these body systems work together
body. This is called peripheral neuropathy. during an aerobics exercise?
• When the person cannot feel sensation in their

feet, they may have trouble walking safely
because they are more likely to trip. This can
lead to a higher risk of falling and broken bones.

1. Body Systems
Chapter 1
Review
Questions
Use the following questions to check your knowledge.
Q1. Give three examples of body cavities.
Q2. Describe the structure of the renal/urinary system.
Q3. Explain the functions of the respiratory system.
Q4. Describe the position of the rectum using medical terms.
Q5. Explain the difference between an organ and an organ system.

2. Homeostasis and Regulation of the Body
Chapter 2
Homeostasis and
Regulation of the Body
Homeostasis means regulation. The body has many clever and complex
ways to make sure that the systems are working in the most ideal
environment possible. This means that it must adapt to changes in the
external environment, such as hot or cold weather, and to changes
inside the body, such as low blood sugar levels. In caring for older
people and people with disabilities, it is important to respond promptly
to signs of problems related to homeostasis.

3 how the body achieves homeostasis
3 the support that you can give to the person

to keep these functions and processes
healthy
3 indicators of body systems issues
3 impacts of ageing and disability
3 how and when to report issues relating to

body systems and homeostasis.

Example
Homeostasis must be maintained in many different functions and conditions. These include
keeping the body stable in relation to:
• Temperature • Fluids and electrolytes • Wastes and toxins • Disease causing organisms
• Delivery of oxygen to the cells • Heart rate • Fat deposits
2.1 Maintenance of Temperature

People, like other organisms, need to have a consistent body temperature for their systems to function properly. If
body temperature becomes too high or too low, organs, cells and tissues cannot function effectively. If extremes of
body temperature continue, the result to the body can be fatal.
The processes that keep body temperature within a normal range are called thermoregulation. When we are exposed
to heat and cold, thermoregulation keeps our internal body (core) temperature constant.
Hypothermia Hyperthermia
A core temperature that is A core temperature that is
too low. This can lead to brain too high. It can lead to brain
damage, heart attack and damage and death.
eventually, death. Factors that can raise body
Factors that can lower body temperature include:
temperature include: • hot weather
• cold weather • fever
• drug and alcohol use • excercise.
• underfunctioning thyroid
gland.
Note
A normal temperature range is between 37°C and 37.8°C.

Thermoregulation is controlled in the hypothalamus, which is a gland of the brain. When the core temperature of the
body becomes too high or too low, the hypothalamus sends messages to organs such as muscles, glands, skin and
blood vessels, and to the nervous system.
Together these organs and systems work together to return the core temperature to normal.
These processes include:
Sweating Shivering
The sweat glands in the skin release sweat which cools The muscles shiver when we are cold. This produces heat,
the skin and capilliaries inside the skin as it evaporates. which warms us up.
Vasodilation Vasoconstriction
When we are hot, the blood vessels near the skin's When we are cold, the blood vessels near the skin surface
surface dilate or widen. This sends more warm blood to constrict or narrow. This keeps warm blood from
the skin where heat is released. travelling to the skin where it would become colder.
Metabolism
The thyroid gland can release hormones to increase our
metabolism. When our processes such as digestion
speed up, more energy and heat is created.

Maintaining Body Temperature

Older people can have more trouble regulating their body temperature than younger people.
Sensible clothing and bedding helps the person to retain heat in cold weather. Remember that people who have less
hair, such as from baldness, can experience heat loss through the head, so help the person to wear a warm beanie or
other head coverings to prevent this.
When the temperature is over 30°C, you can support the person to regulate temperature using some or all of the
following:
• Encourage them to stay indoors and out of direct sun.
• Help the person to drink plenty of fluids.
• Reduce tea, coffee and alcohol intake in hot weather so that the person does not lose too much fluid through the
diuretic action of these fluids.
• Report any signs of dehydration, such as headaches and dark coloured urine.
• Suggest a visit to an air-conditioned place such as a shopping centre. This can help in extreme heat if the person
lives in their own home but does not have air conditioning.
Activity 2A
Extreme Heat
Watch this video about extreme heat and older people from the Victorian Government's Department of Health
and Human Services.
‘Extreme heat – English’ from the Better Health Channel

https://scnv.io/0Fup
1. What information could you give to a person when extreme heat is forecast if they live in their own home,
without air-conditioning or fans?
2. What could you do to prevent heatstroke for people who live in an aged care facility?
3. Identify at least two signs that an older person or a person with a disability may be experiencing problems
with maintaining normal body temperature?

2.2 Maintaining Fluids and Electrolytes

We need fluids and electrolytes to function and stay alive and well. Adults are made up of around 60 percent water. If
this level drops, we can become seriously unwell.
Electrolytes take on a positive or negative electrical charge when they are in bodily fluid such as blood. We need
these charges to help send messages and create vital chemical reactions such as growth and movement. We take
electrolytes in through our diet. Here are some examples.
Maintaining Fluids
Fluid is contained inside our cells (about 40%) and outside our cells (about 60%). We need to have the correct
percentages on both sides of the cell walls, in our blood cells and in the blood, in our tissues and in our lymphatics,
and in our muscle cells and in the spaces around them.

Fluid Balance Charts

A fluid balance chart helps to measure the amount of fluid that is taken in and excreted out of the body over a 24-hour
period. The amount of fluid taken in and excreted out in one day should be roughly the same. Measuring the persons
fluid intake (what they drink) and comparing it to their urine or other liquid output (urine, diarrhoea or vomit) can help
medical staff to identify problems.
Here is a sample fluid balance chart.
Fluid Balance Chart

Name: Fred Williams Date: Monday 26/5
INTAKE OUTPUT
Time Oral Other Subtotal Urine Vomit Other Subtotal
0100
0200
0300
0400
0500
0600 400 400
0700 250 250
0800 400 650 200 600
0900
1000
1100
1200 200 850
1300 600 1200
1400 250 1100
1500
1600
1700
1800 500 1600
1900 400 1600
2000
2100 200 1800
2200
2300 300 1900
2400
TOTAL: 1800ml 1700 200 1900ml
24/24
+100ml
Balance:

This person’s fluid balance over 24 hours is roughly equal. If there were major differences in this balance, however, it
might alert nurses and doctors to problems such as the following:
1. The person might be dehydrated.
2. The person’s medications might be causing them to produce too much urine and may require a review.
3. They might have a problem with emptying their bladder fully.
4. They might have a problem with producing urine in the kidneys (kidney failure).
5. They might have a condition causing them to retain too much fluid, such as a heart condition.
6. They might be at risk of breathing problems, high blood pressure, and a condition called oedema from not being
able to remove enough fluid.
Electrolytes
Electrolytes help to keep fluids balanced. If our electrolyte balance is too high or too low, fluid moves between the
cells and the spaces around it, changing the balance and creating serious problems like dehydration or high blood
pressure.
Here are the major electrolytes needed by our bodies.
Na K Mg Ca Cl
Sodium (salt) Potassium Magnesium Calcium Chloride
• Maintains blood • Regulates the • Helps nerve and • Helps strengthen • Balances
pressure. heart and blood muscle function. bones and teeth electrolytes.
pressure.
• Controls fluids. • Helps maintain • Helps nerve • Maintains a
• Helps transmit heart rhythm. impulses healthy pH level.
nerve impulses. and muscle
• Helps regulate • Essential to
movement.
• Helps muscle blood glucose digestion.
contraction. levels. • Contributes to
blood clotting.
• Supports the
immune system.

Electrolyte Imbalance
Electrolyte imbalance can be caused by:
• exercise and excessive sweating
• vomiting and diarrhoea
• dehydration
• eating disorders and malnutrition
• some medications
• excessive alcohol intake
• heart or kidney disease
• diabetes
• severe burns.
You can help to prevent electrolyte imbalance by providing the following support:
• Help clients to eat a well-balanced diet with plenty of fluids, fruits and vegetables.
• Encourage clients to drink more fluid in hot weather.
• Report nausea and vomiting and encourage the person to drink small sips of fluid.
• Carefully follow fluid restrictions that have been ordered by the resident’s or client’s doctor.
Dehydration
Older people are at higher risk of dehydration, particularly in hot weather. People can also become dehydrated if they
have been vomiting or have diarrhoea, or if they are frail and unable to help themselves to fluids.
It is important to encourage residents and clients to drink fluids throughout the day.
Symptoms of dehydration include:
The body is trying to tell the The body is trying to keep fluid The body is trying to keep
person to drink in the blood vessels fluid onboard
• Feeling thirsty • Dry mouth • Dark coloured urine with a strong

• Feeling dizzy or tired • Dry lips smell
• Sunken eyes • Passing small amounts of urine

• Not passing urine very often

Here are some tips to help people at risk of dehydration to drink more fluid:
• Offer small sips frequently, rather than a large drink every now and then.
• Fluid does not have to be in liquid form. Frozen or thick deserts such as ice cream, icy-poles, custard, milkshakes,
jelly, soft lollies such as Jubes, sauces and pureed food all contribute to fluid intake.
• Offer drinks the person prefers. If they do not like water, try milk or cordials. Tea and coffee contribute to fluid
intake but they should not be the only source of fluid.
Dehydration can be especially dangerous in frail older people and small children. Report any signs of dehydration as
soon as you see them.

pH Balance
pH balance is also called acid-base balance. It refers to the acid content of your blood. The body functions best with
a blood pH level of around 7.4.
The lungs and kidneys help to maintain this balance.
The cells in the body create

carbon dioxide (CO2) as a
waste product of using
oxygen. CO2 is slightly acidic.
NH3
The cells release the CO2 and
NH4
other acids into the blood.
CO2
Some CO2 is taken to the lungs, where Some acids are taken to the kidneys,
it is removed from the body when you where they are removed from the body
breathe out. in the urine.
If the lungs or kidneys are not working correctly, the pH level can become too high (acidosis) or too low (alkalosis).
These are dangerous conditions.
Respiratory acidosis occurs when a disease or condition in the lungs or respiratory system means that the lungs
cannot remove enough carbon dioxide.
Metabolic acidosis occurs when the kidneys cannot control the acid levels. This can be the result of kidney disease,
severe vomiting or diarrhoea, diabetes, alcoholism or an overdose of certain medications.

Maintaining pH Balance
Older people and people with certain diseases such as Note
diabetes can be more prone to pH imbalance. This can How Do We Check pH in the
be dangerous. Person’s Urine?
Some ways that you can help the person maintain a A urinalysis (sometimes called a
healthy pH balance include: ‘dipstick’ or urine test) uses a simple strip dipped
into the person’s urine. Wear gloves and dip a
• Help them to maintain a healthy weight.
clean strip into the urine while it is fresh from a
• Encourage them to reduce smoking and alcohol
container such as a bottle or pan.
intake.
The side of the bottle shows you a comparison to
• Take all care to avoid medication errors if you assist
allow you to measure and record different readings
with medications.
such as pH, ketones, glucose and nitrites. If you
• Check the person’s urine pH level regularly when
see abnormal results, document them on the
ordered, especially if they have diabetes, and report
person’s chart and report it to your supervisor.
any changes in urine pH.
• Help the person to eat a healthy diet and have
adequate fluids.
• Report changes in the person’s condition, especially
nausea and vomiting.
• Follow instructions from the person’s doctor if they
are diabetic, and report immediately if they have
skipped a meal.
• Give the person extra fluid in hot weather or when
they have been vomiting or have diarrhoea.
Activity 2B
Urinalysis Test
Obtain a urine test kit from your trainer.
Use the test kit to measure the pH and other readings in liquids such as tea, coffee, cordial or water.
Compare and document the results.
Which readings would you report to your supervisor if this was a urine test?

2.3 Elimination of Waste

As we learned in Chapter 1, waste is removed mainly by our digestive system as faeces, and by our renal/urinary
system as urine. People who are older are especially at risk of having difficulties with their bowel and bladder function.
Other people, such as those with spinal cord injuries, might also need support to maintain healthy bowel and bladder
habits.
Renal System Health

Our kidneys must excrete at least 30ml’s of fluid per hour to stay healthy. Most people empty their bladder four to
eight times every day (every three to four hours). As we age, the muscles that help us to control our bladder become
weaker. This can lead to incontinence, or loss of control of the flow of urine. It can also lead to incomplete emptying,
which in turn increases the chance of infection.
Keeping the renal system healthy helps it to stay efficient at excreting waste.
Some ways that you can support the client to do this include:
• Help them to drink at least six to eight glasses of water or other fluid a day.
• Teach them and encourage them to exercise their pelvic floor muscles.
• Maintain exceptional hygiene when attending to personal care to help avoid urinary tract infections.
• Report any signs of infection, such as odour or burning pain when urinating.
• Report highly concentrated urine that is dark in colour.
• If the person has an indwelling catheter, report to a supervisor immediately if their urine output is less than 30ml’s
per hour.
• If the person does not have a catheter, report an unusually low urine output over 24 hours.

Fluid Retention
Some conditions, including ageing, can cause the body to become less effective at eliminating excess water and
other wastes via the urine. If the kidneys are not functioning well, the person might have too much fluid and other
waste products in their body. This might lead to what is called fluid overload or fluid retention.
Here are some signs to look for:
The fluid becomes trapped The fluid is heavy The capillaries are full of fluid
• Pitting oedema (the skin stays

• Swollen feet, ankles, legs and hands • Quick weight gain indented for a few seconds if you
press it)
Some people who have fluid overload will be placed on a fluid restriction by their doctor. This means that the person
should drink no more than their maximum fluid allowance every 24 hours.
Example
You might see a sign on the person’s file that says:
Fluid restriction 1500ml
This means that the person should not drink more than this amount of fluid in a day.
Remember that some foods such as jelly or custard can also count towards this amount.

Eliminating Waste From the Digestive System

A healthy bowel produces soft, well-formed bowel actions (faeces) on a regular basis, such as every day.
Constipation The Signs of Constipation

As people become older, the smooth muscles that A person with constipation might show the following
push the faeces through the bowel without conscious signs:
control become slower and weaker. This makes the
• not opening their bowels very often
person more prone to constipation because the faeces
• passing hard, small faeces
stay in the bowel for a longer time while water is being
absorbed as they travel down the intestine. • straining to pass faeces
• abdominal pain
Other conditions, such as spinal injuries and multiple
sclerosis, can also make it more difficult for the person’s • bloating in the abdomen
body to move faeces through the bowel. • abdominal cramps.
Constipation results in hard stools that have spent Preventing Constipation
too much time in the bowel. They cause the person to
Fibre is important to help reduce constipation, which can
strain, which can lead to problems like haemorrhoids
be a major problem for many older people and people
and this can also make the person very unwell. Severe
with physical disabilities. Vegetables, grains and fruits
constipation can lead to serious problems like bowel
are all excellent sources of fibre. Prunes, liquorice and
blockages.
fibre supplements stirred into a drink are great ways to
boost fibre.
You can support good bowel health and prevent constipation by encouraging the person to:
Adequate fluids Exercise A healthy diet
Drink six-eight glasses of water a day Regular exercise encourages bowel Eat high fibre foods such as grains,
muscle movement fruits and vegetables

Recording Bowel Motions

Most aged care facilities require staff to document daily bowel motions on a chart. This helps nursing staff remain alert
for signs that the person might be constipated or at risk of infection and dehydration due to diarrhoea.
The bowel actions are usually charted using standard Roman symbols like this.
Wednesday Thursday
Date Monday 1/3 Tuesday 2/3 Friday 5/3 Saturday 6/3 Sunday 7/3
3/3 4/3
Bowel iii (Loose,
i ō ii i ō ō
motions watery)
If the person has not used their bowels for two or more days, as on Saturday and Sunday above, report this to your
supervisor or nurse.
If the person has several bowel actions in one day, particularly if they are loose or watery, such as on Tuesday above,
report this to your supervisor.

The Bristol Stool Chart

The Bristol Stool Chart is a commonly used chart to help you document the consistency of the person’s stools
(faeces). You might be asked to use the chart to help you document the person’s bowel motions.
Type 7 Type 1
Liquid consistency Separate hard lumps
with no solid pieces (Very constipated)
(Inflammation)
Type 2
Type 6
Mushy consistency
Bristol Lumpy and sausage like
(Slightly constipated)
with ragged edges
(Inflammation)
Stool Chart
Type 5 Type 3
Soft blobs with A sausage shape with
clear-cut edges Type 4 cracks in the surface
(Lacking fibre) Like a smooth, soft (Normal)
sausage or snake
(Normal)
Activity 2C
Pelvic Floor Exercises
Read the information on the Continence Foundation of Australia website here:
‘Pelvic floor muscles’ from the Continence Foundation of Australia
https://scnv.io/qZ8z
1. Practice the exercises for yourself.

2. Teach another person in your family how and why to do these exercises. What information best helped them
to understand?

2.4 Maintenance of Blood Pressure

Blood pressure is the measure of force that the blood exerts on the walls of the arteries as it is pumped
around the body.
Measuring Blood Pressure

Blood pressure readings are taken with an instrument called a sphygmomanometer or blood pressure machine.
A blood pressure reading produces two measurements.
A normal systolic
Systolic reading is the highest reading
pressure is usually
between 110 and
130mmHg
The diastolic reading is the lower reading
A normal diastolic
pressure is usually
between 70 and
80mmHg.
The final reading is represented with the systolic reading written over the diastolic number. You might be asked to
record blood pressure readings on a chart, like this:
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday

Date
1/3 2/3 3/3 4/3 5/3 6/3 7/3
Blood 120 125 160 122 180 170 120
Pressure
70 65 91 80 96 83 60
This person’s blood pressure readings are not regular. The high readings on Wednesday, Friday and Saturday should
be reported to your supervisor.
Watch
Watch the following video to see how to take a manual blood pressure reading:
‘Blood Pressure Measurement: How to Check Blood Pressure Manually’ from
RegisteredNurseRN
https://scnv.io/8S3Q

High Blood Pressure Low Blood Pressure

High blood pressure is called hypertension. It means Low blood pressure is called hypotension. It means
that there is too much force from the blood on the that there is not enough force on the arteries. This can
arteries. High blood pressure can be caused by: be caused by dehydration, heart problems and certain
medications. Postural hypotension happens when
• arteries that are clogged with fatty deposits or
a person’s blood pressure drops quickly when they
cholesterol (atherosclerosis)
stand or sit up after lying down, such as first thing in
• smoking
the morning. This causes the person to feel dizzy and
• ageing could cause them to faint or fall. This is more common
• stress in older people and people with spinal cord injuries.
• heart disease Help to reduce the effects of postural hypotension by
encouraging the person to sit on the side of the bed for
• kidney disease or fluid retention
a few minutes before standing.
• too much salt and fat in the diet
• obesity Maintaining a Healthy Blood Pressure
• certain medications. There are many ways to help residents and clients
Most people have a raised blood pressure shortly lower their blood pressure. Their GP might order
after exercise, or when they are in pain or stressed. A them medications to keep their blood pressure and
continuously high blood pressure, however, can have cholesterol levels down.
serious effects such as stroke and heart attack.
Encourage a
low fat diet.
Support them to
Exercise stop smoking (if
regulalry. they are ready).
Your role can

include:
Support them to Support the person

reduce alcohol to keep a healthy
intake. weight.
Reduce salt
intake.

Watch
Watch this video about how to Activity 2E
support a healthy blood pressure:
‘Keep your blood pressure down’ Heart Health
from the Heart
Complete the quiz at the Australian Heart
Foundation
Foundation’s website:
https://scnv.io/6928
‘Heart Age Calculator’ from the
Heart Foundation
https://scnv.io/jT8q
• How healthy is your heart according to the
Activity 2D calculator?
Blood Pressure Readings

Practice taking blood pressure readings with a
blood pressure monitor supplied by your trainer. If
you are learning online, go to your local pharmacy
and ask to have your blood pressure taken. This • What could you do to improve your own heart
is usually a free service. Watch carefully how the health?
blood pressure reading was performed.
• What is your blood pressure?
• Is this reading considered within normal range?
• What could you do in your own lifestyle to help
support a healthy blood pressure?

2.5 Protection From Infection

Some infections can be especially common, and dangerous, in residential settings where a number of people live
and work together. They can be easily spread through performing close tasks like personal care. Older people and
people with disabilities, especially those with chronic health conditions, can have lower immunity and can catch some
infections more easily. Some infections can be more dangerous in these people.
Common infections include:
• gastroenteritis
• colds and flu
• conjunctivitis
• scabies
• MRSA.
Practicing Good Hygiene

Standard precautions include three things that you must do every time you provide close support or personal care to
a client or resident, no matter who they are or what you know about them. They are the three most important things
you can do to protect yourself and others from many different types of infection including hepatitis, staph infections,
conjunctivitis and fungal infections.
Here are the three standard precautions:
1. Wash your hands before 2. Wear gloves when you are 3. Dispose of body fluids
and after close contact potentially in contact with in the correct waste
with the person. the person's body fluids. receptacle.
Clean hands are particularly important because we use our hands in most tasks for supporting clients with physical
and personal care activities.
Additional Precautions
Additional precautions are used when there is a known infectious or contagious condition that cannot be contained by
standard precautions alone. For example, when a client or resident has gastroenteritis, scabies or the flu.
Additional precautions do not replace standard precautions. They are used as well as standard precautions. They can
include wearing gloves more frequently, wearing a mask, gown, shoe and hair protection, and isolating the person
from others.

Example
Keep surfaces of equipment such as shower chairs and hoists clean by wiping them with
disinfectant after each use. This is especially important if the equipment is shared between
residents.
Supporting Hygiene Routines

Bacteria and moisture left on the skin for long periods can lead to infections, disease and pressure sores. Supporting
the person’s personal care needs and hygiene are important in helping protect the person from infection.
Good hygiene includes:
• reminding the person to wash their hands before eating, after toileting and before entering public areas of a facility
• showering, bathing or washing to remove dirt, bacteria, urine, faeces and sweat from the person’s skin
• helping the person to care for their mouth and teeth, to remove food and bacteria, and prevent ulcers, gum disease
and tooth loss
• supporting the person with continence aids if they are required.

Oral Health
Dental diseases and infections are almost entirely
preventable with good daily oral care.
Good oral care includes:
• helping the person to clean their teeth and dentures
after each meal
• checks of the person’s mouth and gums regularly for
signs of cuts, pain or infection
• caring for the tongue, lips and gums
• supporting the person to have regular check-ups
with a dentist
• keeping the mouth and lips moist by making sure
they have a good fluid intake
• reporting pain or ulcers.
The pain of dental infections can seriously limit a
person’s desire and ability to eat, which is especially
problematic in the elderly as they often have reduced Example
appetite for a number of reasons (loss of taste and Nutrients that support healthy teeth
smell, loss of interest in cooking or dislike of the foods and gums include vitamin C and
being served to them, reduced stomach acid). This can calcium. Dairy foods are the best
in turn, result in malnutrition and weight loss. Poor oral source of calcium.
care can also affect a person's wellbeing. Dental disease
can impair a person's appearance and speech, eroding
their self-esteem, which in turn can lead to restricted
Example
participation in many situations and social settings.
Therefore, if you notice a decrease in appetite or interest In aged care and disability care,
in eating, ask about tooth pain or check their mouth regular checks of the person’s
for signs of redness, swelling and infection. Smoking, mouth and skin can help to find
the use of medications that reduce saliva output, and infections early.
forgetting to brush teeth or not brushing properly, all
Check regularly for:
increase the risk of dental infections. Consider too that
impaired vision can mean people are less likely to notice • pain in mouth or gums
if they have food stuck on their teeth or that their teeth
• gums that are moist and pink, and not bleeding
have not been cleaned properly.
• sores, redness or ulcers on the skin
Note • signs of dryness or flaky skin
It is just as important to attend • moist lips and mouth.
to oral hygiene for people with
Document and report any problems that you notice
dentures as it is for people with
or that the person reports to you.
their own teeth. Dentures should be
cleaned twice a day and be cleaned professionally
on a regular basis. All dentures in an aged care
facility should be marked with the person’s name.
This is usually done with engraving.

2.6 Nutrition
A good diet can help to increase the person’s immunity and also provide them with a better ability to fight off
infections if the person does contract them.
Older people can need more protein, calcium, zinc, vitamin D and water than many younger people.
Residents in aged care must be weighed at least

Note
monthly, and you must report any unplanned weight loss
Australian Dietary Guidelines
or slow wound healing. A doctor or dietician can help
recommend minimum quantities of
to assess the reasons for the weight loss and help the
certain foods.
person to gain healthy weight.
These recommendations include:
• 2 1/2 servings of meat, chicken, fish or eggs Example
every day
The Disability Trust offers an
• 3-4 servings of calcium rich foods (such as exercise program. They have offices
milk, cheese, yoghurt or ice cream) per day throughout eastern Australia, but
predominantly in NSW.
• 3-4 servings of breads, cereals, rice and
noodles per day ‘Health & Fitness’ from the Disability
Trust
• 2 servings of fresh, frozen, canned or dried
fruit each day https://scnv.io/W9Zm
• 5 servings of vegetables, nuts or seeds each
day
Being underweight is much more of a problem in aged

care than being overweight. In disability services,
however, inability to exercise and frequent use of certain
medications such as SSRIs can make younger people
prone to being overweight. There are body mass index
guidelines to assess whether a person is underweight,
a healthy weight, or overweight, but unfortunately these
do not consider the individual’s body shape and frame.
For example, a very tall person may have a high BMI
but not be overweight, and a very small person may
eat healthy and sufficiently but have a low BMI. And a
person who has lost a limb is not going to have their
body mass line up with the BMI guidelines.
If you have concerns that a client is overweight (again,
this is more likely to be an issue in disability services),
it will be important to consider if there is an exercise
program available that will work for their specific
situation (e.g. they may be a wheelchair user or have
visual impairment).

Appetite Regulation
Older people often have less appetite because of the ensuring they have nourishing, whole foods such as
natural decline in stomach acid that comes with ageing fruit, crackers and avocado or hummus, and wraps with
and perhaps because they are impacted by loss of taste assorted fillings (chicken, salad leaves, pesto) on hand
and smell. If they have health conditions or are no longer for snacking can help reduce intake of high-calorie or
very physically active, they may simply not feel hungry nutritionally empty convenience foods like potato chips,
sometimes. biscuits, bagels and pastries.
Encouraging small meals often can work better for some If you are noticing weight loss or weight gain, talk to
people than three large meals a day. Additionally, it is your supervisor or the duty nurse. Generally, you do not
important for people to enjoy their food and not always want to see protruding bones, dry lips, lack of a belly
focus on the health perspective. For example, an elderly curve, or food being taken in less than three times a day
client may love cheese and crackers and sometimes it is (even if only small amounts). With weight gain, indicators
better that a person eats than does not eat at all. Where that extra support is needed might be if more than 5kg is
possible, try to find out what people enjoy. gained in a few months, if foods being chosen are often
coming from packages, if there is an excess of ‘beige’
Soups and protein powders made into a shake (non-
foods being eaten (chips, breads, cookies, pastries,
dairy milk can be used if needed) can be good ways to
hot chips) and a lack of fresh foods is being consumed.
get nutrition into older people and disabled people who
Soft drinks can be a big contributor to excess sugar
may have reduced appetite.
consumption and associated weight gain, so monitoring
Some medications such as SSRIs are known to cause availability and daily intake of these is advisable.
cravings for carbohydrates and associated weight gain. Sparkling water can be a good way to get the enjoyment
For clients for whom weight management is a concern, of a carbonated drink without all the refined sugar.

Dysphagia Food Intolerance

Dysphagia is when a person has problems with A food intolerance is different to a true food allergy in
swallowing food or liquid. For some people, they will that it does not involve the immune system, is usually
experience this only with certain foods or liquids (e.g. dose dependent, and may develop later in life. Common
thick liquids or hot liquids), while others will not be intolerances include dairy foods, high-histamine foods
able to swallow at all. Cancers, reflux and conditions such as aged meats and cheeses, and salicylate foods.
that affect the nervous system such as cerebral palsy,
Signs of food intolerances:
head injuries, stroke and dementia can contribute to
dysphagia. • stomach discomfort or diarrhoea
• excessive gas
Signs of dysphagia include: • itchy skin, rashes, eczema
• acne around the nose and cheeks
coughing or choking when eating or • sinus problems
drinking • asthma
• sneezing, seasonal allergies
bringing food back up, sometimes • headaches
through the nose • PMS, or worsened PMS.
True food allergies (immune-mediated reactions to a
food or a component in a food) can either be obvious or
chronic drooling difficult to detect and confirm without testing.
For example, a person may have obvious digestive
symptoms and fatigue every time they ingest foods
the feeling of food being stuck in the containing gluten from a young age, which nowadays
throat or oesophagus. would naturally prompt a test for coeliac disease. Or
a person might unknowingly live with coeliac disease
If you see sighs of dysphagia, advise your supervisor for years and only when they develop symptoms of the
or the duty nurse and ensure immediate referral to a severe iron and B12 deficiency (a common eventuality
GP. A GP will rule out other more serious conditions with unmanaged coeliac disease) will their GP decide to
such as cancer, order relevant testing if necessary, and screen them for this food allergy.
implement treatment.
If you suspect a client is experiencing a food intolerance
or allergy, there are several steps you can take:
• Talk to the client if possible and get their thoughts
on how they are feeling and which foods they think
might be causing their symptoms.
• Keep a food diary with symptoms for a few days and
look for patterns.
• Remove the suspected foods for four weeks and see
how the client feels.
• Report to your supervisor or the nurse in charge,
while also documenting what you have noticed (e.g.
client frequently has excessive gas and loose bowel
movements after eating dairy foods, especially cow’s
milk).

Nutrition and Hygiene

The elderly and people who live with a disability may be more vulnerable to food poisoning for a number of reasons.
• Visual impairment or reduced sense of smell means they do not notice a food has gone bad until they taste it.
• Visual impairment could mean they are less likely to notice if meat or fish has been cooked through.
• Cognitive impairment can mean people do not remember how long something has been in the fridge.
• People may forget to wash their hands after using the toilet.
• People may be forgetful or lack understanding about things like needing to wash a chopping board that has had
raw meat on it before preparing vegetables on it.
• If poverty or a tight budget is a factor, they may eat food past its use-by date simply because they need to eat.
As a support worker or carer, consider these factors and give gentle reminders to clients and residents about the
importance of hand washing. If a client develops sudden vomiting or diarrhoea, find out what they last ate and how
they prepared it. Even people not affected by ageing or disability can easily make mistakes with food hygiene, so it is
an area worth having a conversation about.

2.7 Reporting Physical Condition Changes
No one expects you to understand the full range of diseases or conditions that might affect the people you support.
It is, however, important that you are able to look for and report changes in both physical and mental health and
wellbeing that might mean that the person is unwell, or that they need additional help or referral to a professional such
as a GP.
Signs that a person might be experiencing

Signs that a person might be experiencing
physical health changes or illness or that they
mental health changes include:
are at risk of poor health include:
• pain or discomfort, especially if it is ongoing • withdrawal or depression

• changes in toileting, such as diarrhoea or urge • recent loss of a loved one
incontinence (urine or faeces) • loss of physical ability
• blood in stool • trauma (e.g. home invasion, car accident, home
• sudden signs of confusion accident)
• ongoing fatigue
• a high temperature, or feeling hot and sweaty for no
good reason • seeming distressed or overwhelmed for reasons the
person cannot or does not feel able to articulate
• nausea and vomiting
• sleep problems (falling asleep, staying asleep,
• dizziness or weakness
duration of sleep)
• recurring headaches or migraines
• seeking reassurance a lot and seeming overly
• sleep problems (falling asleep, staying asleep, anxious
duration of sleep) • bad dreams (common with post-traumatic stress)
• rashes, redness or other skin problems • avoidance of socialising, avoidance of people
• pale or flushed skin • prior history of mental health struggles or
• changes in the person’s physical abilities. significant life trauma that they have not received
support for.

Recognising such changes can take time, especially if you do not see your client every day. Make a point to regularly
check in with your clients on how they are feeling emotionally, and not just physically.
Your service will have a system for reporting these and other signs of illness. If you have concerns, report them as
soon as possible, because some signs and symptoms can deteriorate quickly or can be indications of a serious
health problem. In community settings, this will often be via a phone call to your supervisor. In a facility, this will usually
be to the supervisor or nurse in charge.
Always trust your gut and never feel that a symptom is too mild or that you are overthinking things. You know your
clients and may even pick up on changes before they do, or before they feel ready to share. It is far better to act early
than wait until things have become worse. Keep in mind that older people may be less likely to talk about their mental
health struggles or changes they are noticing in their cognitive ability (e.g. memory).
You will also need to document the person’s signs and symptoms carefully. Documentation helps to support your
verbal report and can help to ensure that the information is passed on correctly to others such as health professionals.
Documentation in community settings will often be via a form called a monitoring form or an incident and illness
report. In an aged care facility, it will be via a file note in the resident’s file.
Activity 2F
Immune System Health
Read the following blog about keeping your immune system healthy:
‘Eight simple ways to keep your immune system in top shape’ from Good Food
https://scnv.io/Cx5i
1. How many of these foods do you already eat?
2. What changes to your own diet could help prevent you from contracting infections like colds and flus?
3. Do you have any natural remedies for reducing your susceptibility to colds and flu? Share them with the rest
of the group and together determine through research if these examples are based in science, or are simply
old wives’ tales.

2.8 Physical Activity
Regular physical activity helps nearly every organ and system of the human body, including the muscles and brain, to
function better.
Physical activity can:
• help the person to maintain a healthy weight and reduce fat around the body’s organs such as the heart and blood
vessels
• reduce high blood pressure
• pump blood more effectively around the body and into the tissues, providing energy to our cells and to our brain
• work muscles and other structures to keep them strong, supple and efficient and to reduce the chance of falls
• strengthen bones and reduce osteoporosis and fractures
• help lift mood
• provide the person with a purpose and an enjoyable pastime, such as sport or games
• increase the person’s lung function and support breathing
• increase appetite.
Active Exercise
Active exercise means that the person moves their own limbs or body to exercise them. However, as people age,
exercise often becomes less frequent. Additionally, people living with disabilities may not exercise often because of
mobility challenges, not knowing how to make a start if they are adapting to a physical injury (e.g. spinal injury) or
brain injury, and because they feel anxious about how others might judge them.
However, exercise needs to be encouraged and supported in a way that works for the individual, because lack of
exercise can have consequences for overall health. And if unchecked, the ongoing processes of ageing can make it
harder to resume exercise.

Impacts of lack
Impacts of ageing and
of exercise on health
disability on exercise
capacity
• Loss of muscle mass and strength occurs with age • Bone density and muscle size and strength decrease.
or lack of muscle use (e.g. if the person is confined to
• Muscular aches and pains and tightness from limited
a wheelchair). This can make exercise feel harder or
range of muscle movement.
less possible and can become a vicious cycle.
• Need support with daily activities of living as
• A history of falls or fractures may have left the person
movements like getting up from a chair or toilet
feeling anxious about physical activity and abstain,
become difficult and pose a fall risk.
even though they know it is good for them.
• Loss of independence.
• The person may simply not have had adequate
support from healthcare providers with how to • Increased risk of bone fractures and conditions like
do exercise that is appropriate for their physical kyphosis (changes in spinal joint structural health).
capacity and life situation.
Whatever the contributing factors to a lack of exercise,
• Need for understanding people to exercise with, as
a lack of exercise as the years go by is going to lead
they may move more slowly.
to overall loss of strength, increased risk of injuries
• Loss of quality of life as daily activities such as and health conditions such as obesity and joint health
walking, transitioning from chair to standing, and problems, and lost opportunities to connect with others.
playing with grandchildren may become difficult All of this poses a risk to the mental health of the older
and lead to lost opportunities and decreased social person or person living with a disability too.
interaction.
Fortunately, exercise does not have to mean high impact
or energetic workouts. If the person has a physical
disability, an illness or if they are frail, a physiotherapist
or occupational therapist can help them to tailor exercise
to suit their needs and abilities.
Example
The person can exercise in a chair
or wheelchair, using their legs and
arms if they can.
Ball games can be adapted to use a
balloon instead of a ball, giving a safer and gentler
form of exercise.
Walking is a very beneficial exercise for everyone.
The more the person walks, the less chance they
have of injury from falls.

Weight bearing exercises (resistance exercise) can WHO global recommendations and the evidence base
improve bone strength and reduce the effects of (published research) state that for over 65s:
osteoporosis and sarcopenia (loss of muscle mass and
• Muscle strengthening activities should be done two
strength linked to ageing). Resistance exercise can still
or more days a week.
be done in a chair or wheelchair. For example, you can
• Major muscle groups around the hips and spine
ask the person to push down with their feet onto the
should be targeted.
plates of the wheelchair or onto your hands while they
are sitting. Ask them to push against your hands with • The greatest health benefits are experienced when
their hands. This can help strengthen both the muscles the mechanical load is gradually increased over time.
and bones, even if the person does not stand up. Signs that indicate resistance exercise could be highly
beneficial to a person include:
Both osteoporosis and sarcopenia increase the risk of
falls and bone fractures, so countering the effects of • overall loss of muscle mass, especially in the over 40
both conditions is important in decreasing fall risk for the age group
elderly. Resistance exercise has been proven to offer the • history of falls
most benefits for maintaining bone density, muscle mass
• history of fracture
and muscle strength. While it may seem unrealistic to
• sedentary lifestyle.
recommend weight lifting and using weights machines
for frail elderly people or those with disabilities, the great Talk to your supervisor or the duty nurse about what
thing about resistance exercise is that its frequency and type of exercise programs are available to residents
intensity can be personalised to the individual, ideally by and clients and who the recommended referral partners
a personal trainer or physiotherapist. are (e.g. exercise professionals who have experience
working with the elderly and people with disabilities).

With time and rebuilding of muscle mass, strength and
bone density, more complex weight bearing and weight
training exercises can be designed by a physiotherapist
to help the person maintain strong and healthy
bones and muscles.
Cardio exercise increases the strength and resistance of
the heart and lungs. A good rule of thumb for a healthy
person is to try to help the person to reach a heart rate
of 70 percent of their maximum heart rate (220 minus
their age). Below is a calculation for a person aged 50
with a disability but otherwise healthy:
220 minus 50 = 170

70 percent of 170 = 119
So, cardiac exercise that achieves good heart
exercise increases the person’s pulse to 119.
(Always remember to check with the GP
or physio if you are
helping an older
person or a
person with
chronic health
conditions
to exercise)
Older people and people with health conditions are likely

to benefit more from low intensity cardio exercise. Read
Read this fact sheet to help you
Water Exercise
support a person to get started with
Swimming and aqua aerobics can benefit many people exercise safely:
because it is easy on joints and muscles. Your local
‘Physical activity – how
recreation centre is likely to have programs that suit
to get started’ from the Better Health
different age groups and abilities, including programs
Channel
for older people. People with arthritis can benefit from
moving their joints in warm water. Many centres also https://scnv.io/ingO
have disabled access to pools via hoist or water chairs.

Exercise Program Support

Older people should speak to their GP about any new
exercise program to ensure that they can do so safely Read
and without risk to their health.
You will find more information and
Help the person to choose activities that interest them. suggestions for physical activity
For example, they might prefer dancing to swimming. support below:
They are more likely to stick to a program that is fun and
‘Choose health, be active – a
enjoyable, and that they can do with people with similar
physical guide for older Australians’
interests and abilities.
from the Australian Government
Try to make exercise a social event. For example, Department of Health
exercise in small groups or arrange for a coffee or chat
https://scnv.io/Ysiy
after the activity.
Help the person celebrate improvements by charting
weight gain and noticing and commenting on fitness or ‘Healthy aging – staying physically
other improvements. This can help motivate the person active’ from Physical Activity Australia
to keep going. https://scnv.io/Cfic
Use technology such as watches that measure pulse
and that track fitness. These can be an excellent way to
track progress. ‘Disability’ from the ESSA
Help the person to dress in clothing and shoes that https://scnv.io/LfR7
maximise movement and safety. Have a water bottle
nearby and encourage them to drink plenty of fluids.
‘Staying fit and active with a
Consider any sensory losses, such as hearing or vision
disability’ from the Disability Support
loss, and keep the exercise environment safe to reduce
Guide
the chance of injury.
https://scnv.io/C5Ht
Resource
A pre-exercise screening tool can
help a person who is older or who
has chronic illness to determine their
risk level. They can use the tool by
themselves or with their doctor. You might help the
person to complete the tool so that they can take
it with them to an exercise professional, exercise
classes or to their GP or physio. A copy of the pre-
exercise screening tool can be found here:
‘Adult Pre-Exercise Screening System
(APSS)’ from AUSactive
https://scnv.io/EEOg

Passive Exercise Working Alongside Allied Health

Passive exercise means that other people move a
Professionals
person’s limbs for them. This can be beneficial to people Whether supporting clients with their physical, mental
who are frail and people who have paralysis of all or part or cognitive health, it will often be necessary to work
of their body, such as after a stroke or spinal cord injury. alongside allied health professionals to help your clients
and patients have the best quality of life possible.
If a person is not able to move their limbs, the muscles
slowly contract and shorten. This can become Professionals you may work alongside in a long-term
permanent and result in contractures. Contractures way include:
happen when the limbs, fingers or toes have curled
• GPs
up and are unable to be straightened. Contractures
• nurses
are painful and can cause other medical and health
problems including infections. • physiotherapists
• occupational therapists
Passive exercise is important for people who cannot
move their limbs to help prevent contractures. The • osteopaths
exercises usually involve gently moving the limbs, • dentists
fingers or other body parts into a straight and then bent • exercise professionals
position several times a day. A passive exercise program
• nutritionists
is usually designed by a physiotherapist.
• dietitians
• consultant doctors, such as cardiologists,
neurologists and rheumatologists.
Website
You can learn more about passive Referral to allied health professionals will often
exercise here: take place as part of a treatment plan for a specific
health concern. It is important that you follow
‘What Is Passive Range of certain procedures when working with other health
Motion?’ from Healthline professionals to implement a treatment plan for an
https://scnv.io/QAUX elderly or disabled person.
• Always obtain consent from the elderly person or
person with a disability, or from the person who has
authority to give consent for them (usually known as
power of attorney).
Watch • Ensure the client or patient is fully informed about
Watch the following video about what they can expect when they see another health
passive exercises being performed professional and is given the opportunity to ask
by a physiotherapist for a person questions. Where cognitive decline or intellectual
who is immobile: disability is present, you will need to cover this with
the person who has power of attorney.
‘Passive Motion Exercises’ from the
Mayo Clinic • Offer the client the choice of having a support
person accompany them for any appointments or
https://scnv.io/Ia48 procedures.
• Ensure that any copies of client notes, test results
and referral letters are clearly marked as confidential
when sent to another health professional. Do not
send originals.

All health professionals involved in a client’s care should have a copy of the treatment plan. As a support worker, you
are in a good position to check in with your clients on how they are feeling about any referred treatment, including:
• whether they are comfortable with the referred health professional
• whether they are enjoying an exercise or physical therapy program
• if their pain has decreased
• whether they feel they are seeing progress and improvements
• if they have any concerns, questions, or wins to celebrate.
Activity 2G
Seniors Activity Programs
Using the internet, research an example of a government funded exercise program for seniors in your local area
and answer the following questions.
• What does the program offer?

• Where is it held?
• Who is it specifically aimed at?
• What do they recommend regarding safety before commencing the program?
Research examples of physical activity programs for people with disabilities in your local area and answer the
following questions.
• What does the program offer?

• Where is it held?
• Who is it for?
• How does remaining physically active benefit people living with disability?

2.9 Social Connection

Social disconnectedness (the feeling of not being close They may have looked forward to spending more time
to or connected with other people) has become more with their grown children and grandchildren in their
of a problem in the last several decades as society has retirement, only to find they do not see them very often,
increasingly become centred around the immediate especially if physical distance is a factor, or the older
family unit rather than the larger extended family or person no longer drives.
the village, and as so much of our communication has
And yet, we know that social connection is vital for our
moved online (text messages, emails, online calling,
health, and lack of it may well be playing a role in the
social media). In a sense we are more connected
ongoing increase we see in mental health problems.
than ever online, but the simple acts of people getting
together to eat and talk or ‘pop around for a cuppa’ Social connection has been proven to:
have become rare. Busy modern lifestyles, where • reduce the severity of depression and anxiety among
people juggle work, family and multiple commitments, older people
increased stress levels, and long commutes in traffic in
• reduce feelings of being isolated and alone
larger cities have no doubt contributed to many people
• improve immune function
preferring to stay connected online or simply feeling they
do not have the energy for real-life catch ups. • help people recover from disease faster
• possibly help people live longer
This social disconnection is perhaps felt most by the
elderly, who may be less inclined to use technology to • improve people’s self-esteem.
keep in touch, and who have more free time and can Not surprisingly, the opposite is also true. People who
remember when the world was a less frantic place, feel lonely and isolated are at greater risk of mental
where people had and made more time for each other. health problems, inflammation, aggressive behaviour,
slower recovery from disease and even suicide.

So how do we help the elderly and disabled, who may face mobility challenges and challenges with getting around, to
maintain social connections?
• Social activities within residential care can be a great way for residents to feel a sense of community.
• Encouraging community-based clients to volunteer for a cause they care about (e.g. community garden, food
bank, knitting for new mothers) not only increases their sense of connection with others but keeps them connected
to their interests, skills and to people with common ground, and gives the satisfaction of doing deeds of service.
Additionally, older people often have very valuable wisdom to share and pass on to the younger generations and
volunteering can support this.
• Ensuring the elderly know how to use technology available to them can help with a sense of connection. While it is
not the same as seeing the grandkids in real life, being able to text with them through the school week or between
visits, to share photos or follow their antics on social media, can offer a sense of keeping in touch.
• Using apps like Zoom to video call is a way to catch up with friends and family in between real-life visits.
• Sometimes, just being around people can offer a feeling of connection. The elderly or disabled person may enjoy
walking to their local café a few times a week to drink tea and chat with the staff or other regular patrons. These
relationships may not be close connections at first, but can still bring a sense of community and friendship, and
that all important ‘out of the house’ feeling.
• Joining hobby groups such as ramblers (day walks for older people) or attending social events (a pub quiz, bird
watching walk, seasonal festivals, music events) can give the elderly or disabled person events to look forward to
and invite others to, as well as that sense of community and connection.
• Finally, we must always encourage people to ask for help if they are feeling lonely or not in their best mental health.
It can be much harder to connect with others when you are grieving or have experienced a trauma. The person
affected may feel like they have no interest in small talk and a strong need to talk about their grief or trauma, but
find others are not comfortable with discussing it if they have not had similar life experience. Counselling can be a
safe space for empathetic connection and may also be a way to connect with support groups (online and in real
life) so they can meet and chat with others who understand.
Read Read
Volunteer Australia has information Psychotherapist Megan Devine
on how to become a volunteer in offers a book, grief journal and
your state or territory: other resources for people who are
grieving. Her approach includes
‘Volunteering Australia – Leading a
acknowledging how taboo grief still is in our
Culture of Giving’
culture. She also runs a popular Instagram account
https://scnv.io/7ejd where grief survivors can connect. Her followers
include widows and people who have lost children:
‘Refuge in Grief: Grief Support That
Doesn't Suck’ from Refuge in Grief
https://scnv.io/Jcae

Chapter 2
Review
Questions
Q1. Outline the meaning of homeostasis.
Q2. Give two examples of how the body can increase the core temperature if a person becomes cold.
Q3. List three signs of dehydration.
Q4. Give two examples of how you can help a person maintain a healthy blood pressure.
Q5. Explain the difference between active and passive exercise.
Q5. Explain why it is important for older people and people with disabilities to remain as active as possible.

3. The Effects of Aging and Disability on Body Systems
Chapter 3
The Effects of Aging
and Disability on
Body Systems
In this chapter, we investigate the effects that ageing and disability
have on the systems of the body, and some of the common conditions
you may encounter as an individual support worker. It is important to
understand the changes that may occur to individuals so you are best
placed to care and support.

3 the impacts of ageing on the body’s
systems
3 how ageing can impact on an individual’s

everyday activities
3 what happens to our tissues and cells as

we age.

At the biological level, ageing results from the impact of the accumulation
of a wide variety of molecular and cellular damage over time. This leads to a
gradual decrease in physical and mental capacity, a growing risk of disease
and ultimately death. These changes are neither linear nor consistent, and they
are only loosely associated with a person’s age in years. The diversity seen in
older age is not random. Beyond biological changes, ageing is often associated
with other life transitions such as retirement, relocation to more appropriate
housing and the death of friends and partners.
World Health Organization
3.1 Ageing and Disability

Ageing
As we age, a number of changes occur to our body,
like greying of hair, wrinkles, and a decline in physical
function and our senses, all of which can have a
detrimental impact on the activities of daily living.
Ageing is the biggest risk factor for many diseases and
many older adults may suffer from more than one health
impairment simultaneously, meaning they need extra
support to function.
Ageing is a complex process that affects aspects
of our whole being physiologically, psychologically,
emotionally, culturally, socially and spiritually.
Contemporary understandings of aging include all of
these elements.
LEARN MORE
Read this resource for an overview of

ageing: ‘Overview of Aging’
by Richard Stefanacci
https://scnv.io/2NQD

Because ageing is a process that cannot be controlled,

people may feel distressed about the physical and
mental changes they are experiencing. Additionally,
different cultures take different attitudes to ageing, with
some cultures placing great value on the elderly for their
wisdom and experience and all they have contributed
to the family and to society, and other cultures placing
much more value on youth. Cultural and societal
attitudes can impact how a person feels about the
natural process of ageing.
Receiving a diagnosis can be upsetting or scary for
many people, whether it is heart disease, early signs
of dementia or rheumatoid arthritis. We tend to focus
on providing medication for each condition, but many
people will benefit from having the chance to talk about
how they are feeling. Counselling and support with
sharing a diagnosis with family and loved ones can help
to ease the stress and loneliness that can come with
ageing and changes in health.
Additionally, finding new activities and interest they
can do, even if they can no longer do some things, can
be beneficial for many people and help them maintain
social connections. For example, long walks may no
longer be an option, but short walks or even sitting in
nature (parks, by the sea, in bush reserves) can help
a person to still feel connected to what they enjoy. If
reading has become difficult, audio books may be an
option, and exercise in water can be a good alternative
for people affected by joint pain and mobility issues.
Read
Access these websites for more information about the physiological changes in
ageing:
‘Aging changes in organs, tissues, and cells’ from Medline Plus
https://scnv.io/D4uk
‘Physiology of ageing’ from the RACGP

https://scnv.io/4EPQ

Disability
Disability is another complex concept that includes A disability is any continuing
and affects the person’s whole being. Contemporary
understandings of disability include physiological,
condition that restricts everyday
psychological, emotional, cultural, social and spiritual activities… The Disability Services
elements. Act (1993) defines ‘disability’ as
The ‘social model of disability’ sees disability arising meaning a disability:
from environmental and social factors that restrict the
person’s ability to function successfully within their own
community. i) which is attributable to an
intellectual, psychiatric, cognitive,
neurological, sensory, or physical
Disability is the result of the impairment or a combination of
interaction between people living those impairments
with impairments and barriers in the
physical, attitudinal, communication ii) which is permanent or likely to be
and social environment. permanent
It is not the inability to walk that iii) which may or may not be of a
keeps a person from entering a chronic or episodic nature
building by themselves but the stairs
that are inaccessible that keeps a iv) which results in substantially
wheelchair-user from entering that reduced capacity of the person
building. for communication, social
interaction, learning or mobility
People with Disability Australia and a need for continuing support
services.
SWEduCareBD
- Education & Research

Disability can result from impairments to organs and

body systems such as muscles and bones, sensory
organs and systems, and the brain and nerves, which
affect functional abilities and present barriers to full
participation in daily activities and in society.
Disability can have links to ageing processes and
diseases which affect functional abilities, such as
dementia, Parkinson’s disease, arthritis and other health
conditions that occur more frequently in older people.
Key Points
• Ageing is a complex process
that affects all of us as we move
through the human life cycle
towards old age.
• Developing age-related health conditions and
diseases is not inevitable and maintaining a
healthy lifestyle can promote healthy ageing. Read
• Disability often has a physiological basis, but the Access this webpage to read more
concept of disability is complex and includes about the social model of disability:
cultural and social factors and ideas about what
‘Social Model of
disability is.
Disability’ from People
• Social factors such as values, beliefs and with Disability Australia
attitudes, and environmental factors such as
https://scnv.io/g9y4
building design, can also affect a person’s ability
to function within their social environment and
result in disability.
• Ageing and disability are often linked through the LEARN MORE
impact of aging processes on ability to function.
• Conditions that primarily originate in an age- Learn more about disability in Australia from the
related condition or process are usually dealt following websites:
with by aged care services. ‘People with disability in Australia:
• Conditions that primarily originate in an defining disability’ from the AIHW
impairment acquired during the developmental https://scnv.io/Oi28
period, that is, before adulthood or old age, are
eligible to receive services through the National ‘Access to the NDIS – the disability
Disability Insurance Scheme and disability requirements’ from the NDIS
services.
https://scnv.io/I1IA

3.2 Common Conditions
There are a wide range of common conditions that arise from the impact of ageing and disability.
Physical Disability Cognitive Disability

Physical disability arises from any condition that affects The terms cognitive disability and intellectual disability
a person’s physical functioning, including mobility, are sometimes used interchangeably, but cognitive
stamina and dexterity (for example, injuries to the disability or impairment is more commonly used to refer
brain or spinal cord, developmental abnormalities and to difficulties with thinking, memory, communication and
neurological disorders such as multiple sclerosis). Some confusion that occur after the developmental period.
physical disabilities are congenital (inherited and present
Cognitive impairment is common in older people
from birth) and some are acquired (resulting from injury
and can arise from age-related conditions such as
or infection later in life).
Alzheimer’s disease. It can also result from infections
Some age-related changes, such as the development of (especially urinary tract infections), nutritional and
osteoarthritis, can result in physical disability. vitamin deficiencies, heat stroke, dehydration, reactions
to drugs, dementia and strokes.
Read
Access these websites to read more Read
about physical disability: Read more about cognitive
‘Physical disability’ impairment at the link below:
from the Better Health ‘Cognitive impairment’ from
Channel healthdirect
https://scnv.io/4rL9
https://scnv.io/NWhq
‘NDIS FAQ’ from Achieve Australia

https://scnv.io/hTVY

Intellectual Disability Sensory Disability

Intellectual and learning disabilities affect the person’s Sensory disabilities arise from conditions that damage
development of cognitive and other skills and can the body’s sensory systems and include low vision and
result in difficulties with communication, memory, blindness, hearing loss and deafness.
understanding, problem solving, self-care, daily living
Sensory disabilities have a variety of causes, including
and motor skills. Intellectual disability is usually classified
genetic and developmental factors, neurological
as occurring during the developmental period (before
conditions such as sensory processing disorder, injury,
adulthood).
exposure to toxins, infections and age-related changes.
Intellectual disabilities have many causes, including
genetic disorders, brain injury, exposure to toxins or
infections, neurological disorders and malnutrition.
Read
Read more about sensory disability
at the following link:
Read
Read more about intellectual ‘Sensory disabilities’ from Disability
disabilities at the link below: Support Guide
‘What is intellectual https://scnv.io/hPlQ
disability?’ from
Inclusion Australia
https://scnv.io/CyLq
Psychosocial Disability
Activity 3A
This term refers to disability arising from a mental health Supporting Clients with a
condition that affects a person’s ability to function in
social situations. The person’s ability to concentrate
Disability
and complete tasks, communicate, interact with other For each type of disability detailed above, provide
people, manage stress, or cope with crowded, busy an example of how you could provide support to a
or unfamiliar environments and situations, may be client suffering from that type of disability as an
restricted because of a mental illness such as anxiety individual support worker.
disorders, mood disorders and schizophrenia.
Read
Read more about psychosocial
disability at the link below:
‘What is psychosocial disability?’

from NSW Health
https://scnv.io/GQbR

Cells are the basic building blocks of tissues. All cells experience changes
with aging. They become larger and are less able to divide and multiply.
Among other changes, there is an increase in pigments and fatty
substances inside the cell (lipids). Many cells lose their ability to function,
or they begin to function abnormally.
Medline Plus
3.3 Ageing Cells and Tissues

Changes in our cells result in changes to our tissues, organs and body systems. These changes generally result in
decreased functioning. We do not know exactly why these changes occur as we age or whether they are caused by
environmental factors, lifestyle factors or genetics. Ageing is a complex process related to multiple factors and varies
from one individual to another.
All body systems experience physiological ageing at various rates and to various degrees, but most of these are
normal and not a result of disease.
Changes in our cells can result in changes to all body systems, organs, physiological and mental functioning. These
changes can be related to the ageing process or to the impact of disability.
All of the components of our body are interrelated. This means that a change in one organ, body system or element
can also have an impact on some or all of the others. It is important to remember this when you are thinking about the
impacts of ageing and disability on each of the body’s organs and systems.

3.4 The Impacts of Ageing and Disability on Body Systems
Bones and Joints
With age, bones and joints become less dense and therefore, weaker, so we lose strength, movement and flexibility.
Osteoporosis can result in fractures and significant disability. Osteoarthritis is linked to the ageing of joint tissue
and can begin to occur from the 40s onwards. It typically results in joint stiffness and pain that can range from
mild to severe.
The impact of some conditions that affect bones and muscles, such as cerebral palsy and some neurological
disorders such as muscular dystrophy, may increase with age to reduced functioning.
Specific bone diseases such as osteogenesis imperfecta (a genetic disorder that produces brittle or soft bones) can
result in significant disability.
The development or progression of bone and joint health conditions can impact a person’s life in multiple ways.
The elderly person may experience:
• chronic pain
• stress from trying to find the right health professionals or medications that can help
• reduced movement owing to stiffness and pain
• impaired ability to do things they value and enjoy (go for walks, play sports, join outdoor activities, play with the
grandchildren, garden, have sex)
• impacts on their mental health owing to reduced ability to engage in pleasurable activities
• loss of social connections and loneliness if pain stops them from continuing social outings and activities.

Eyes and Ears Areas commonly affected can be the back of the head
Age-related changes to eyes and ears mean that vision and shoulders, lower back and buttocks, elbows, hips,
and hearing becomes less acute and may be lost in and around the knees and heels.
older age. This can be especially distressing if the Early signs of pressure sores to look out for include:
person has had a lifelong love of creative and artistic
• red patches on the skin, or black or purple patches
hobbies that they rely on their vision for, or if listening to
on people with darker skin
or playing music is important to them. Loss of hearing
can also impact an older person’s everyday ability • changes in skin texture, with skin feeling warm, hard
to connect with others in conversation, leaving them or spongey
feeling lonely. • itching or pain in specific areas.
Ways to support skin health and healing include:
Skin
• Regular flannel washes, massage and moving of
With age, skin becomes less elastic and more fragile, patients and clients who are confined to a bed for
which results in vulnerability to damage and in some long periods.
cases, reduces touch sensation, particularly in fingertips, • Eating omega-3, vitamin C, vitamin A, zinc-rich and
feet and toes. The elderly person may also find that protein-rich foods such as salmon, fresh seasonal
skin wounds take much longer to heal and can be more fruits, orange vegetables like squash, carrots and
vulnerable to infection. This can be especially frustrating pumpkin, lamb, meats and eggs. Supplements can
if the person has a hobby where cuts and scrapes are also be taken (e.g. fish oil, cod liver oil, vitamin C and
the norm, such as gardening. zinc supplements, pea protein powder in a smoothie).
For elderly people or people living with a disability who • Using creams that promote skin healing, such as
are confined to a bed for long periods of time (e.g. liquorice cream (good for eczema, dry skin and
an older person suffering with pneumonia, a person inflammation) and calendula (good for cuts, wounds
who cannot walk or has experienced loss of motor and inflammation).
coordination owing to brain injury, spinal injury or • Coconut oil can be used as a gentle and inexpensive
dementia), pressure sores can become a problem. This barrier cream (e.g. to prevent rashes) or moisturiser.
is where there is a lack of blood flow to an area owing to
• Zinc-based creams can be excellent for swiftly
the ongoing pressure on that area as the person is laying
healing rashes related to the use of incontinence
down. Pressure sores are also known as bed sores, and
underwear (e.g. where skin gets damp).
if not treated or not treated properly, they can become
infected and cause serious complications.

Taste and Smell The Brain

Age-related changes may reduce the ability to taste and Damage to and changes in the brain can affect the
smell, which can, in turn, affect a person’s appetite and functioning of any of our organs and body system,
quality of life. Eating is something we do every day so which are all controlled by the brain and the nervous
for an elderly person with reduced ability to taste their system. Brain damage can arise from injury, exposure
food it may feel like eating becomes a necessary task to toxins and infections, and genetic factors resulting in
but not something that is enjoyable anymore. This can functional impairments and disabilities.
lead to not eating enough, subsequent malnutrition
For example, the loss of brain cells over time and
and impacts on health. It can also impact the elderly
deposits of microscopic substances and structures such
person’s enjoyment of family gatherings and special
as plaques may result in age-related conditions such
occasions where food is a focus.
as dementia. Dementia is not a condition itself but a
Some disabilities also result in reduced taste and smell, collective term for the symptoms of mental decline that
with similar effects. can occur with a number of age-related diseases, such
as Alzheimer’s disease.
Age-related brain changes can be devastating for the
person affected as they struggle with memory loss,
mood changes, irritability and the inability to function
in daily life. For example, being able to drive, go places
and live independently can be severely impacted by
dementia. The person experiencing dementia may
need more help from family and carers, and find
their relationships are impacted by the symptoms of
dementia (memory loss, less patience, rapid mood
swings). Dementia is a progressive condition, meaning it
tends to get worse with time.
Being able to have open and honest conversations
about a diagnosis of dementia can greatly help those
affected and their loved ones navigate the changes,
stages and grief that comes with dementia. The 2006
film Away from Her is a powerful story about a man who
makes the heartbreaking decision to place his wife in a
care home as her Alzheimer’s worsens.
LEARN MORE
Read more about dementia and age-related brain

changes at the following links:
‘Healthy ageing – staying mentally active’
from Better Health Victoria
https://scnv.io/JRJG
‘Memory changes’ from Dementia

Australia
https://scnv.io/W7Un

Injuries to the brain can also result in impairments to Additionally, parents can be left feeling like they cannot
organs and body systems that affect functional abilities, predict the usual milestones, and that their child is not
and there are genetic factors that also result in disabling ‘normal’. There can also be persistent grief about how
conditions such as multiple sclerosis and muscular things might have been different for their child and their
dystrophy. family, especially if medical error played a role in causing
the brain injury.
Pre-natal and peri-natal damage to the brain through
being deprived of oxygen, for example, can result in a Brain biochemistry is thought to play a role in the
range of disabilities such as cerebral palsy. One of the development of mental illnesses such as depression,
struggles for families of children affected by brain injuries anxiety, obsessive compulsive disorder, bipolar
in utero or at birth is that the full extent of their child’s disorder, and schizophrenia, which can result in
disabilities can take years to become apparent, so it is functional impairment. Because the elderly and those
like an ongoing series of heartbreaks. For example, their living with disabilities can be more vulnerable to
child might grow well but time reveals that language nutritional deficiency, getting support from someone
is a struggle, that there is visual impairment, and that knowledgeable in this area should always be
cognitive understanding of things like toilet training are considered.
going to take longer to occur. Such conditions can have
There is ongoing research into the links between
lifelong impacts on the child’s ability to communicate
nutritional deficiency and mental health. Some of the
and form relationships, undertake education, learn to
pioneers of this movement include Dr Carl Pfeiffer, Dr
ride a bike and drive.
Abram Hoffer, Dr Emily Deans, Dr Julia Rucklidge, and
Dr Ben Lynch. More doctors and psychologists are
beginning to take an integrative approach to mental
health support, either by expanding their training to
include nutrition or by working alongside nutritionists
and naturopaths.
LEARN MORE
Read more about brain injuries and disorders at the

following links:
‘Acquired brain injury (ABI)’ from
healthdirect
https://scnv.io/kh9I
‘Brain disorders’ from Healthline

https://scnv.io/phDk

Impacts of Ageing and Disability on the Cardiovascular System

Nervous System With age our blood vessels tend to become stiffer so
Ageing results in atrophy within the nervous system, that blood circulates more slowly and blood pressure
which means that messages are passed along the increases, requiring the heart muscle to work harder to
nerves more slowly, so our reflexes slow down, and move blood through the body. This can lead to heart
our sensations may become less acute. There may be disease and symptoms such as fatigue, shortness of
loss of feeling in extremities (fingertips, toes and feet). breath, chest pain, sleep problems and impaired ability
Balance, hearing and vision may also be impaired. to carry out daily tasks such as housework or enjoy
There can also be changes in cognitive function, such active hobbies. These impacts can then affect the
as changes in memory, mood and concentration. The person’s emotional and mental wellbeing. They may feel
nervous system includes the brain, so refer to the depressed about not having the energy they once had
section above to review how ageing and brain injuries and no longer being able to enjoy certain activities, or
can impact a person’s daily life, their wellbeing and the not to the same extent.
lives of those around them.
As our muscles weaken with age, our lungs become
Diseases that affect the nervous system (such as less elastic and less able to combat infection. Frequent
motor neurone disease, multiple sclerosis and cerebral respiratory infections are not only frustrating and
palsy) can result in significant disability. There may uncomfortable, with the associated coughing, sore
be impacts on the ability to walk, bowel and bladder throat and impacts on sleep; they can also increase the
control, and changes to vision, speech and sensation, risk of conditions like pneumonia, which can be serious
and symptoms will typically worsen for those affected in an older person.
by multiple sclerosis and motor neurone disease. This
Some disabilities, such as cystic fibrosis, are related to
typically leads to the person losing the ability to do
malfunction of the cardiovascular system.
activities they once enjoyed and being independent in
daily life. Even small tasks like opening jars and getting
up stairs can become very difficult. The changes can be LEARN MORE
frustrating and frightening for the person affected. As
well as practical support with daily living, counselling for Learn more about heart health in ageing at the
the affected person and their close family members can following link:
be helpful.
‘Heart Health and Aging’ from the
National Institute on Aging
LEARN MORE https://scnv.io/jc4a
Read these articles to learn more about the nervous

system:
‘Aging changes in the nervous system’
from Medline Plus Activity 3B
https://scnv.io/3qIJ
Supporting Clients with a
‘Nervous system diseases’ from Cardiovascular Health and
healthdirect Physical Activity
https://scnv.io/4Jwg Briefly explain the importance of maintaining
heart health in older people and give an example
of the types of exercise that older people and
people with limited mobility can engage in.

Digestive System
The ageing process tends to not have a dramatic impact and appetite that unfortunately create further stress for
on the digestive system, but some changes, such as the body if intake of food becomes limited and the food
slowing down of contractions in the oesophagus and eaten is not being broken down well.
large intestine, may cause problems with eating and
There are also some specific diseases that directly
constipation in older people. Deteriorating taste and
affect the digestive system, such as Crohn’s disease
smell can also affect older people’s appetite.
and Coeliac Disease. Both these conditions require
Furthermore, the production of stomach acid tends a combination of medical and wholistic management
to decline as we age (and is also related to nutritional (nutrition, herbal medicine, stress reduction) to ensure
deficiency, especially zinc). This leads to impaired the best possible quality of life for the person affected.
digestion of food, especially protein foods like meat The gut is where we absorb our nutrients, so any
(which requires an acidic environment to be broken health condition that impacts the digestive system
down), and can result in symptoms such as bloating, requires experienced, professional support. Otherwise,
low appetite, chronic belching and chronic nutritional severe nutrient deficiencies can develop, with impacts
deficiencies (especially in iron, zinc and B vitamins), with on cognitive, mental and physical health. Having a
flow on effects to physical and mental health. The use disability that limits physical functioning, such as being
of antacid drugs can further exacerbate this problem, unable to walk, can also affect digestive functions, and
especially as these drugs are commonly prescribed to people with physical disabilities may also have difficulty
the elderly. eating and digesting food. Constipation may be a
significant issue.
Because our body systems are interrelated, some
conditions that affect our muscles, nerves and
hormones can also affect the digestive system. Chronic
LEARN MORE
stress also has huge impacts on digestive function,
because when the brain and body are in fight-or- Read more about digestive issues at the following
flight mode, at a subconscious level, digestion is not link:
a priority and blood flow to the digestive system and
production of digestive enzymes is limited. So, a person ‘Gastrointestinal problems in the
experiencing grief or trauma (bullying, loss of their handicapped child’ from Current Opinion
partner, abuse) or the stress of big life changes (moving in Paediatrics
into an aged care facility, illness and diagnosis) will https://scnv.io/X44g
often experience changes in their digestive function

Urinary Tract and Kidneys

With age and the narrowing and stiffening of veins and
arteries, blood flow to the arteries decreases, which in
turn reduces their ability to filter out waste products and
may increase the risk of dehydration.
Weakening of bladder muscles and changes to the
urethra in women and the prostate in men may result in
urinary incontinence.
People with physical, muscular and neurological
disabilities may also experience incontinence, which in
turn can increase vulnerability to infections of the urinary
tract.
People with developmental and intellectual or learning
disabilities may have difficulties with toilet training and
continence management.
The impacts of incontinence at any age or life

stage include:
• embarrassment
• physical discomfort and skin rashes
• not feeling able to wear nice underwear
• impacts of self-esteem (feeling dirty, feeling not

‘normal’, feeling like you are too young to be
experiencing such a health condition)
• impacts on sex life (fear or loss of bladder control

during sex)
• impacts on mental health (depression and anxiety)
• the frustration of connecting with health

professionals who lack knowledge and may say
you have to live with it, when there are supports
available.

Reproductive System
A decrease in the production of sex hormones results Changes in hormone levels can also occur frequently
in the shrinking of the reproductive organs in women in younger women and can be driven by stress,
(ovaries and uterus) and enlargement of the prostate in overexposure to xenoestrogens (environmental
men as they age. Some women find the natural change estrogens), nutrient deficiencies and use of hormonal
of menopause an empowering life event, while others contraceptives. The impacts of this can range from
struggle with the physical and emotional changes cessation of periods for a time, to PMS, severe
(some more so and some less so). Open and honest menstrual mood changes, and heavy or painful periods.
conversations about the changes that can occur during This is worth keeping in mind for disabled clients who
this life transition can make it feel less taboo, strange may be experiencing changes to their period.
and stressful.
People living with disabilities may also experience
It is interesting to note that in many cultures, menopause societal barriers to expressing their sexuality and
is considered an honourable event, because it means managing hormone related changes. Past stereotypes
a woman has attained the status of an elder and is of people with disabilities tended to assume that they
therefore wise and respected. However, in many western were either non-sexual and had no sexual feelings, or
cultures menopause is viewed as something to dread, that they were unable to control their sexual impulses.
or to mock women about. The prevailing culture surely This led to abusive practices such as chemical or
influences how a woman experiences this life change. surgical sterilisation. Some of these practices continue,
and many people with disabilities are assumed to be
These changes can contribute to problems with the
unable to care for children, so they may be discouraged
urinary tract.
from forming intimate relationships and prevented from
Changes in hormone levels (including sex hormones) becoming parents. From a (cruel) care perspective, it
also have a strong link to behavioural, psychological and may also be considered inconvenient to have to manage
emotional changes. This may be a factor in challenging periods in a disabled woman, so this can be another
behaviours in older people. justification for forced sterilisation.

Endocrine System
As we age, the production of some hormones by our
endocrine glands decreases. This can lead to decreased
muscle mass, changes in kidney functions and a
reduction in the production of insulin, which often leads
to developing type 2 diabetes. This is a risk factor for
developing heart disease.
The impact of changes to the production of sex
hormones has been discussed above.
Physical and neurological disabilities can affect
the functioning of the endocrine system, and some
Bone Marrow
disorders of the endocrine system may result in varying
degrees and types of disability. Decreases in the production of bone marrow and the
consequent reduction in the production of blood cells
That modern scourge, stress, also has significant
can result in conditions such as anaemia and other
impacts on the function of the endocrine system. If the
blood disorders, infection or an increase in bleeding.
body is in chronic fight-or-flight mode, the constant
production of the associated stress hormones like The genetic disorder haemophilia can result in significant
cortisol and adrenaline can leave people feeling wired disability because the blood simply does not clot.
but exhausted, and occurs at the expense of the body A person living with haemophilia can bleed for days
making other hormones (such as sex hormones). The internally from a slight bump or minor injury and require
impacts of stress on hormone health can range from hospitalisation and blood transfusion. This has lifelong
PMS to difficulty becoming pregnant. impacts on the ability to pursue sports and physical
activities, and creates a constant source of worry for
loved ones. Understandably, it can also greatly impact
LEARN MORE the mental health of the person living with haemophilia,
especially as they grow up watching their siblings play,
Read more about the endocrine system at the enjoy sports and the outdoors.
following links:
Fortunately, with access to the right treatment,
‘Endocrine Problems in Children and Adolescents haemophiliacs can now live close to typical life
Who Have Disabilities’ from Hormone expectancy and not need to go to hospital so frequently
Research in Paediatrics as some treatments can be done at home, though this
https://scnv.io/hMc7 has not always been the case.
Bryce Courtenay’s book April Fool’s Day is a searing
‘Anatomy and physiology of ageing
account of the life of his son Damon, who was born
7: the endocrine system’ from The
haemophiliac and acquired HIV from a contaminated
Nursing Times
clotting factor transfusion in the 1980s.
https://scnv.io/1pma
LEARN MORE
Read more about haemophilia at the

following link:
‘Haemophilia’ from healthdirect
https://scnv.io/fi8v

The Immune System, the Lymphatic System

and Ageing LEARN MORE
The immune system tends to weaken and slow down as

Read more about autoimmune disorders at the
we age; and as our cells die or change with age so does
following link:
our ability to fight off infections.
‘Overview of autoimmune diseases’
Older people tend to be more prone to cancer and to
from healthdirect
infectious illnesses such as influenza and pneumonia.
This can lead to fear and anxiety around going out, https://scnv.io/COs9
especially in winter when there are more viruses
circulating and the older person is more likely to
encounter sick people in supermarkets, shops or on
public transport. Experiencing frequent illnesses and
infections also impacts the older person’s quality of life
simply because it is no fun to be coughing, sneezing,
feeling tired, congested and experiencing interrupted
sleep on a regular basis. Fortunately, there is much
that can be done to support immune health at all life
stages, although knowledge on this varies widely among
different health professionals.
There are a range of autoimmune disorders that can
result in disability.

Coronavirus
Older people are also in the high-risk category for contracting coronavirus and experiencing more severe symptoms
and a higher death rate (along with people with underlying medical conditions) during the current pandemic.
This means that stringent infection prevention measures are essential for protecting vulnerable groups, including
residents of aged care facilities, where there have already been high numbers of deaths among the elderly and people
with disability.
People with disability may also have coexisting conditions that increase their vulnerability, or conditions that make
them more vulnerable through functional impairments.
Being in a high-risk category for contracting an illness can be a source of stress. And unfortunately, chronic stress
reduces immune function through the mechanisms of flight-or-flight, where the body, at a subconscious level, does
not prioritise immune function because it is in survival mode. For this reason, it is important to reduce fearmongering,
especially in the media and on social media, about people’s chances of becoming ill and what can happen if they do.
LEARN MORE
To read more about the risk of COVID-19 for people

with a disability, read the following webpage:
‘For people with a disability’ from the
Australian Government Department
of Health and Aged Care
https://scnv.io/Rl8i

The Respiratory System and Ageing

Age related changes to the bones and muscles of the chest can affect breathing and reduce the amount of oxygen in
the body and decrease the body’s ability to expel carbon dioxide, resulting in tiredness. Lung tissue loses its elasticity
and can lead to air being trapped within the lungs. Changes in the brain may result in less control over breathing
functions and the ability to cough to remove foreign particles may be reduced.
All of these factors make older people more vulnerable to lung diseases and infections such as pneumonia, and
to breathing disorders such as sleep apnoea. Also see the section on the cardiovascular system above for more
information on the effects and impacts of ageing on the lungs.
LEARN MORE
Read more about how ageing affects the respiratory system at the following link:
‘Aging changes in the lungs’ from Medline Plus
https://scnv.io/3qIJ

Disability and the Respiratory System

The impact of disability on the respiratory system is complex and there are multiple factors involved, depending on
the type of disability. Research suggests that neurocognitive impairments are linked to problems with lung function,
and muscle weakness and reduced mobility are contributing factors.
The diagram below illustrates this complexity of relationships:
Expiratory
muscle
dysfunction
Decreased
sensitivity of
cough receptors
Kyphoscoliosis
GOR
Swallowing
dysfunction
Decreased
cough eﬃcacy
Aspiration with retention
of secretions
Malnutrition Recurrent and

chronic lung
infections OSAS
Respiratory
Hypoxaemia
muscle wasting
Respiratory
insuﬃciency

Skin, Nails and Hair in Ageing LEARN MORE
As we age, our skin loses elasticity, our nails become
softer and weaker, and our hair thins. This means that
Learning more about the affects of ageing on skin at
maintaining the integrity of the skin is important in aged
the following link:
care to avoid infections and pressure sores, and care of
the nails (especially toenails) is also important. ‘Skin and ageing’ from the Victoria
Department of Health
The same principles apply to people with disability,
especially physical disabilities where mobility is limited. https://scnv.io/jobA
Activity 3C
Regularly Checking on Client Health
For each body system discussed above, write two questions you could ask the client or their carer to check on the
health of this body system.

3.5 Monitoring for Pain

When you work in aged care and with people with disabilities, it is likely you will encounter clients who are in pain
(especially among the elderly). A 2007 study from the Hartford Institute for Geriatric Nursing found that among
community-living people aged over 65 years, 25-50% reported experiencing regular pain. And among those in
residential care, 45-80% reported pain that was often left untreated.
reduced
quality of life depression
pain ca
n
d
ate
lea
Untre
d to:
reduced social
increased
participation
stress
impaired
walking
poor sleep
Unfortunately, older people may not talk about their pain or may minimise it owing to cognitive impairment, difficulty
communicating (such as after a stroke), or because they do not want to be a burden or feel they must put up with it.
This is why it is important for support workers to recognise signs of pain and to make efforts to screen and assess
for pain ongoing, especially in people whose verbal communication may be limited by stroke, dementia or other
health conditions.

Signs of pain Ways to communicate pain

• verbal report (client to support worker)
• facial expression • verbal report
• difficulty standing, turning over, • facial expression

moving • point to area or hold area
• angry or distressed mood • support worker holds up a numeric
• withdrawal pain scale and asks person to point (10
being worst pain possible)
• touching or holding a body part often
• vocalisations
• clenched fists
• foetal position
• rocking, trembling
Pain Scales
The Faces Pain Scale, the Verbal Descriptor Scale, and the numeric rating scale can all be used with cognitively
impaired adults.
Read
Read more about the three pain scale tools here:
‘Try This: Best Practices in Nursing Care to Older Adults’ from the Physician
Associate Foundation
https://scnv.io/x6S3

Impacts of Ageing and Disability on Pain

Pain may be less reported by the elderly compared with
younger people because of cognitive impairment or a Activity 3D
tendency to be stoic. The natural processes of ageing
tend to increase inflammation, which may also worsen Recognising Pain in Clients
pain. Further, the stress of life changes, such as loss of a List five examples of how you could check for the
spouse or partner, moving into residential care, and loss presence and severity of pain in an older person
of physical and cognitive ability, can naturally contribute or disabled client. Consider methods that are
to stress, associated inflammation and suppression of appropriate where communication may be limited
the immune system, and worsened pain. owing to stroke or speech challenges.
People who live with disability may be unsure about
the cause of their pain, and if they do not receive the
right professional support they may feel it is something
they have to live with. For example, if a GP cannot help Resource
them and does not refer them for further investigation, Here is a glossary of common
or the next health professional does not understand abbreviations used in aged and
their situation, the causes of chronic or persistent pain disability care:
may not be elucidated and the person may give up
seeking help and feel nothing more can be done. It is an AC Aged care
unfortunate reality that it can sometimes take multiple
ACAT Aged care assessment team
visits to health professionals to get clarity on the root
causes of a condition. Australian Health Practitioner
AHPRA
Regulation Authority
Support workers are in a good position to frequently
Alz/AD Alzheimer’s disease
check in with clients in the community and residential
care about their physical, emotional and mental health, AL Assisted living
and to keep watch for signs of pain, and use appropriate ASD Autism spectrum disorder
screening tools as necessary. BID Twice per day
Commonwealth home support
CHSP
program
EOL End of life
MH Mental health
OT Occupational therapist
PCP Primary care physician
PD Parkinson’s disease
PT Physical therapist
RN Registered nurse
SCI Spinal cord injury
SR Self reported
TBI Traumatic brain injury
TIA Transient ischemic attack

Chapter 3
Q1. Outline the impacts of ageing on the body, giving examples of how at least three body systems are
affected.
Q2. Briefly explain the social model of disability.
Q3. Explain why it is important to maintain a healthy immune system in older people and people with
disabilities.
Q4. Give two examples of how social and cultural messages can impact a person’s health. Specifically,
consider the natural hormonal changes that occur for women as they age, and the increased
susceptibility to viral infections in the elderly.
Q5. Describe in your own words how stress and being in a state of chronic fight-or-flight mode can impact
human health. Revisit the sections on the reproductive system, the endocrine system, and coronavirus to
help you form your answer.

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Notes
Notes

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CHCCCS041 Recognise healthy body systems 1

Using this Learner Guide

Icons and Information Boxes

Example of the title for the link or RESOURCE

2 CHCCCS041 Recognise healthy body systems

1. Body Systems 4 3. The Effects of Aging and Disability

2. Homeostasis and Regulation of the Body 42

CHCCCS041 Recognise healthy body systems 3

By the end of this chapter,

3 the body systems and how they work

3 terminology that describes the normal

4 CHCCCS041 Recognise healthy body systems

1.1 Cells and Tissues

CHCCCS041 Recognise healthy body systems 5

Epithelial Connective Muscle

Joins different types of tissue

Nervous Adipose Cartilage and bone

Tissue made up of nerve cells

6 CHCCCS041 Recognise healthy body systems

What are the functions of these types of tissues?

What functions do each of these structures have?

CHCCCS041 Recognise healthy body systems 7

1.2 Organs and Organ Systems

This refers to what the organ or

This refers to how the organ or

8 CHCCCS041 Recognise healthy body systems

The Body Systems

Cardiovascular Urinary system Special senses

CHCCCS041 Recognise healthy body systems 9

The Body Cavities

Vertebral canal Pericardial cavity

Abdominal cavity Pelvic cavity

10 CHCCCS041 Recognise healthy body systems

The Nervous System

Structure Function Location

The brain is the body’s control centre. We use our brain

CHCCCS041 Recognise healthy body systems 11

The Nervous System

Common Peroneal Nerve

Deep Peroneal Nerve

Superficial Peroneal Nerve Tibial Nerve

12 CHCCCS041 Recognise healthy body systems

The Cardiovascular System

Consists of the heart and a network of blood

Pumps blood around the body to provide oxygen,

The heart is in our thoracic cavity, while the blood

‘Heart 101 | National Geographic’

CHCCCS041 Recognise healthy body systems 13

The cardiovascular system is sometimes called the circulatory system.

Heart Arteries Veins

14 CHCCCS041 Recognise healthy body systems

The Respiratory System

Structure Function Location

CHCCCS041 Recognise healthy body systems 15

Air passes through the pharynx and into the bronchi.

Mouth and nose

16 CHCCCS041 Recognise healthy body systems