LEARNING UNIT 5: LOAD FLOWS

Contents

5.0 Learning outcomes ........................................................................................................................... 2

5.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 3
5.2 Relation between P, Q, V and δ ....................................................................................................... 4
5.3 Power flow in a two-busbar system ................................................................................................. 5
5.4 Data for load-flow studies ................................................................................................................ 8
5.5 Load-flow computations .................................................................................................................. 9
5.5.1 Radial networks ........................................................................................................................ 9
5.5.2 Large systems/networks .......................................................................................................... 11
5.6 Formulating the admittance matrix ................................................................................................ 11
5.7 Methods of solution ....................................................................................................................... 13
5.7.1 Direct methods ........................................................................................................................ 13
5.7.2 Iterative methods..................................................................................................................... 14
5.8 The Gauss-Seidel method .............................................................................................................. 14
5.8.1 The Gauss-Seidel method general notation ............................................................................. 14
5.9 Newton-Raphson method............................................................................................................... 20
5.10 Fast decoupled load flow ............................................................................................................. 24
5.11 Contingency analysis ................................................................................................................... 27
5.12 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 27
Problems .............................................................................................................................................. 28

1
5.0 Learning outcomes

At the end of this learning unit, you should be able to do the following:

• Develop the relationship between P, Q, V and d in power transmission.

• Model the power network for load-flow analysis.

• Specify operating conditions at the system nodes or busbars for load-flow studies.

• Derive the admittance matrix of a given power network.

• Compute load flows for simple radial networks.

• Compute load flows using the iterative methods of solution.

2
5.1 Introduction

A load flow refers to the steady-state solution of an electrical power network to determine the voltage,
current, active and reactive power at various points in a network. A load flow does not essentially
differ from the solution of any other type of electrical network except for certain constraints that are
peculiar to power systems, which may lead to the need for iterative solutions.

Load-flow studies are performed to determine the state of a network under existing conditions; for
example, to assess whether the electrical quantities of voltage, current, active and reactive power are
within acceptable limits. The studies may also be performed to determine the magnitudes of the
electrical quantities under contemplated conditions of normal operation, before the operation is
carried out, such as line switching, which may result in a significant change in power flows. Load
flows are also important for contingency planning.

The design and operation of a power network to obtain optimum economy is of paramount importance
and may require real-time load-flow calculations, the results of which are used to control generating
units and other power network equipment.

Load-flow studies are also performed during the planning phase for future developments; for
example, to study the effects of interconnections, new loads, generating stations and new transmission
lines before they are constructed or installed.

Although the same approach can be used to solve all load-flow problems; for example, the nodal
voltage method, the object is to use the quickest and most efficient method for the particular type of
problem. Radial networks will require less sophisticated methods than closed loops. In very large
networks, the problem of organising the data is almost as important as the method of solution, and the
calculation must be carried out systematically and the nodal-voltage method is often the most
convenient.

In this learning unit, the network modelling approaches for load-flow studies will be introduced
together with a few algorithms based on nodal analysis that have been developed for the solution of
large networks.

Additional reading of the material discussed in this learning unit can be found in the prescribed
textbook: Glover, JD, Overbye, TJ & Sarma, MS. 2017. Power System Analysis and Design (6th
edition). Cengage (chapter 6). We also recommend the following book: Weedy, BM, Cory, BJ,
Jenkins, N, Ekanayake, JB & Strbac, G. 2012. Electric Power Systems (5th edition). Wiley (chapter 6).

3
5.2 Relation between P, Q, V and δ

Consider the transmission line shown in figure 5.1(a) delivering power to a load.

(a) (b)

Figure 5.1: Phasor diagram for the transmission of power through a line

The power drawn by the load may be expressed as

𝑽𝑹 𝑰∗ = 𝑃 + 𝑗𝑄 ,

where VR = receiving-end voltage,

I = load current,
P = load active power, and
Q = load reactive power.

From which

#$%&
𝑰= 𝑽∗𝑹
.

The sending end voltage is given by

#$%&
𝑽𝑺 = 𝑽𝑹 + (𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋)𝐼 = 𝑽𝑹 + (𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋) - 𝑽∗𝑹
.. (5.1)

If VR is the reference phasor, then 𝑽𝑹 = 𝑽∗𝑹 = 𝑉) . Equation (5.1) may then be written as

)#*%+& +#$%)&
𝑽𝑺 = 𝑽𝑹 + (𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋)𝐼 = -𝑉) + ,#
.+𝑗- ,#
.. (5.2)

Equation (5.2) can be represented by the phasor diagram shown in figure 5.1(b), from which the
following relations can be deduced:

)#*%+&
∆𝑉 = ,#
(5.3)

and

4
 +#$%)&
𝛿𝑉 = ,#
. (5.4)

If d is small, then

𝛿𝑉 ≪ 𝑉) + ∆𝑉

and equation (5.2) can be re-written as

)#*%+&
𝑽𝑺 = 𝑉) + ,#
.

From which

)#*%+&
𝑽𝑺 − 𝑉) = ,#
.

That is, the arithmetic difference between the voltages is approximated by

)#*%+&
,#
.

In a transmission circuit, 𝑅 ≅ 0, then

+&
𝑉- − 𝑉) = ,#
(5.5)

and from equation (5.4),

+#
𝛿𝑉 = ,#
. (5.6)

The results given by equations (5.5) and (5.6) are important when interpreting the load-flow results.

From equation (5.5), it can be deduced that the voltage magnitude depends (largely) only on Q.

From equation (5.6), it can be deduced that the transmission angle d depends (largely) only on P,
since (𝛿 ∝ 𝛿𝑉), as can be seen from figure 5.1(b).

5.3 Power flow in a two-busbar system

Consider the situation shown in figure 5.1(a). Usually, the voltage is specified at the generator
(sending-end) busbar, while the power is known at the load busbar (and the voltage at the load is
unknown).

The voltage at the load busbar is given by

𝑽𝑹 = 𝑽𝑺 − (𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋)𝑰. (5.7)

5
The load (received) power is

𝑺𝑹 = 𝑃) + 𝑗𝑄) = 𝑽𝑹 𝑰∗ . (5.8)

Although the complex power of the load is known, the load voltage is unknown and hence the current
cannot be calculated directly.

The generator (sending-end) power is

𝑺𝑺 = 𝑃- + 𝑗𝑄- = 𝑽𝑺 𝑰∗ . (5.9)

Again, the current cannot be calculated, as the power at the generator is unknown. To calculate the
power at the generator, the losses in the line need to be known; for which the current is required.

In summary, from equations (5.8) and (5.9), the current cannot be calculated directly, as power at the
load, SR, and the voltage at the generation, VS (at opposite ends of the circuit) are given.

The expression that links the voltages at the generator and load is obtained by combining equations
(5.7) and (5.8) as

## $%&#
𝑽𝑹 = 𝑽𝑺 − (𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋) - 𝑽∗𝑹
.. (5.10)

Equation (5.10) does not have a closed-form solution. This equation, in relation to VR, is non-linear as
it contains the product of the voltages in the form

𝑽𝑹 𝑽∗𝑹 = 𝑽𝑺 𝑽∗𝑹 − (𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋)(𝑃) − 𝑗𝑄) ). (5.11)

Therefore, solving equation (5.10) requires an iterative method. The solution can start with an initial
(/) ∗(/)
value of 𝑉) , then find 𝑉) . This can then be substituted into equation (5.10) and a new value of
(1)
𝑉) calculated. The process is repeated for several iterations until the voltage of one iteration
converges to that of the next iteration.

This is illustrated by the following example.

Example 5.1: Power flow in a two-busbar system

Figure 5.2 shows a 66 kV transformer feeder supplying an 11 kV busbar. The load on the busbar B is
12 MW and 5 MVAr. The 20 MVA, 66/11 kV transformer has a leakage reactance of 15% on rating
and is being operated at the 63/11kV tap. The 66 kV overhead line is 30 km long with an impedance
of (0.25 + j0.5) W/km. Busbar A is held at 63 kV.

a. Derive an iterative expression for the calculation of the voltage at busbar B.

6
b. Carry out the first two iterations and express your answer in kV. Use a 20MVA base and
assume that initially VB = VA (in per unit).

Figure 5.2: Simple radial network for example 5.1

Solution:

a. The two-busbar equivalent circuit is given below. In the equivalent circuit, the resistance is
the resistance of the overhead line and equivalent reactance is the addition of overhead line
and transformer reactances.

In this case, VS = VA and VR = VB.

Then

𝑉2 = 𝑉3 − 𝐼(𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋).

Now

𝑆2 = 𝑉2 𝐼 ∗

and

- -∗
𝐼 ∗ = ,$ or 𝐼 = ,$∗ .
$ $

The iterative expression is, therefore, (from equation 5.10)

#$ $%&$
𝑉24*1 = 𝑉3 − (𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋) : ∗𝒑
𝑽𝑩
; (5.12)

where p refers to the iteration number.

b. By choosing Sbase = 20 MVA, the different line and transformer impedances can be converted
into p.u. values.
7
 𝑉2;=
𝑍5678(99:,) = 𝑆2 = 217.8 W

Therefore, line impedance, ZL = (0.03 + j0.069) p.u.

Total impedance Z = (0.03 + j0.069) + j0.15 = (0.03 + j0.22) p.u.

Convert source voltage and load power to p.u.

VA = 0.95 p.u.

SB(1-f) = (0.6 + j0.25) p.u.

(/)
Initially assume that 𝑉2 = 𝑉3 = 0.95∠0< p.u.

First iteration:

Substitute the first assumed value of VB into the right-hand side of equation (5.12):

VB1 = 0.873 - j 0.131 = 0.883Ð - 8.530 p.u

Second iteration:

Substitute the value of VB from the first iteration into the right-hand side of equation (5.12):

VB2 = 0.889 - j 0.152 = 0.902Ð - 9.700 p.u.

In real terms, the value of VB from the second iteration

VB = 9.92 kV (line).

5.4 Data for load-flow studies

The starting point in obtaining the data that must be furnished for the load-flow study is the single-line
diagram of the system. Transmission lines are represented by their per-phase nominal p equivalent
circuits. For each line, numerical values for the series impedance Z and the total line charging
admittance Y are specified. Other essential information includes transformer ratings and impedances,
shunt capacitor ratings, and transformer tap settings.

In preparation for each load-flow study, the operating conditions at certain nodes or busbars must be
specified. This includes giving voltages and power injections at certain busbars' known values, as
discussed below.

8
Load nodes (or PQ nodes). At each non-generator bus, called a load bus, both the real and active
power (S = P + jQ) drawn from the system are specified. The problem then is to find the voltage
magnitude and phase angle at these load busbars through the load-flow solution.

Generation nodes (or PV nodes). Any bus of the system at which the voltage magnitude is kept
constant is said to be voltage controlled. At each bus to which there is a generator connected, the real
power generation can be controlled by adjusting the prime mover, and the voltage magnitude can be
controlled by adjusting the generator excitation. Therefore, at each generator bus, the voltage
magnitude and real power are specified. Limits to the value of reactive power may be given. The
problem then is to find the reactive power generated and the phase angle of the busbar voltage.

Slack, swing or float bus. One of the generator buses must be designated as the slack bus. Both
voltage magnitude and phase are specified. The voltage angle of the slack bus serves as a reference
for the angles of all other bus voltages. The particular angle assigned to the slack bus voltage is not
important because voltage-angle differences determine the calculated values of transmitted power.
The usual practice is to set the angle of the slack bus as 0°. The power (P) is not specified; that is,
there is no power constraint for the slack bus. This is because the total system losses are not known
until the load-flow study is completed and the purpose of the slack bus is to supply these system
losses. The problem then is to find the generated P and Q from the load-flow solution.

5.5 Load-flow computations

5.5.1 Radial networks

Distribution systems are normally operated as radial networks and a simple iterative method based on
the procedure described in section 5.3 can be used to solve the load-flow problem. A common method
used is the forward and backward method. Example 5.2 demonstrates the procedure used in this
method.

Example 5.2: Load flows in radial and simple loop networks

For the system shown in figure 5.3, carry out two iterations of the forward and backward method. The
network data is given in the figure.

Figure 5.3: Simple radial network for example 5.1

9
Solution:

The equivalent circuit of the radial network (in per unit on a 50 MVA base) is given below.

Neglecting losses in lines 2–3, the current I1 is given by (using equation 5.8):

𝑺𝑹 = 𝑃) + 𝑗𝑄) = 𝑽𝑹 𝑰∗

The current

=∗' *=∗( (/.9$%/.;?)*(/.@A$%/.1;B) /.?A$%/.C1B

𝐼1 = = = . (5.13)
,(∗ ,(∗ ,(∗

Similarly, I2 is given by

/.@A$%/.1;B
𝐼; = . (5.14)
,)∗

From equation (5.7),

𝑉; = 1 − 𝑗0.14𝐼1 (5.15)
𝑉@ = 𝑉; − (0.037 + 𝑗0.166)𝐼; (5.16)

(/) (/)
Iteration 1: Assuming that 𝑉; = 𝑉@ = 1∠0< p.u., from equations (5.13) and (5.14),

(1)
𝐼1 =0.98 - j0.45
(1)
𝐼; =0.38 - j0.125

Substituting the values of I1 and I2 in equations (5.15) and (5.16), voltages can be found as

(1)
𝑉; = 0.952∠−8.29<
(1)
𝑉@ = 0.928∠−12.15<

(1) (1)
Iteration 2: Repeat the above steps but use the results of the first iteration 𝑉; and 𝑉@ to obtain

(;)
𝑉; = 0.93∠−8.23<
(;)
𝑉@ = 0.89∠−12.2<

10
 (4*1) (4)
The iterations may be repeated until the termination criterion 𝑉% − 𝑉% < 𝜀 is met. That is, the

change in voltage magnitude from one iteration to the next becomes less than a specified value, e.

5.5.2 Large systems/networks

The nodal voltage method (nodal analysis) is most suitable for the solution of large networks. This
method is more suited to digital implementation due to the great numerical accuracy that is required.
The nodal voltage method involves several steps that include the following:

• Forming the admittance matrix formed

• Specifying the constraints of the network
• Applying the preferred method or algorithm of solution
• Evaluating the node voltages
• From these, obtaining the current, active and reactive power flows

5.6 Formulating the admittance matrix

Consider the one-line diagram consisting of three buses shown in figure 5.4(a). The corresponding
reactance diagram is shown in figure 5.4(b). The Norton equivalent circuit is obtained by re-drawing
the circuit with e.m.f. sources replaced with current sources and impedances replaced by admittances
as shown in figure 5.4(c).

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5.4: Simple circuit for the formulation of nodal equations

Applying Kirchhoff's current law (K.C.L.) at node 1 (i.e. equating current into a node to currents
away from node):

I1 = V1Ya + (V1 – V2)Yd + (V1 – V3)Yc ; (5.17)

for node 2:

I2 = V2Yb + (V2 – V1)Yd + (V2 – V3)Ye; (5.18)

and for node 3:

11
 0 = (V3 – V1)Yc + (V3 – V2)Ye. (5.19)

Re-arranging (5.17)-(5.19):

I1 = V1(Ya + Yd + Yc) – V2Yd – V3Yc (5.20)

I2 = - V1Yd + V2(Yb +Yd +Ye) –V3Ye (5.21)
0 = -V1Yc – V2Ye + V3(Yc + Ye) (5.22)

Writing (5.20)-(5.22) in matrix form gives:

𝐼1 𝑌11 𝑌1; 𝑌1@ 𝑉1

𝐼 𝑌
N ; O = N ;1 𝑌;; 𝑌;@ O N𝑉; O , (5.23)
𝐼@ 𝑌@1 𝑌@; 𝑌@@ 𝑉@

where Y11 = (Ya + Yd + Yc); Y12 = - Yd; Y13 = -Yc; …; and so forth.

The Y matrix is designated Ybus and called the bus admittance matrix. The admittances Y11, Y22, Y33
(on the diagonal) are called self-admittances. Other (off-diagonal) admittances are called mutual
admittances or transfer admittances.

It can be noted that the admittance matrix Ybus may be formulated simply by inspection. By inspecting
equations (5.20)-(5.22), it can be deduced that the current into a node is equal to the sum of the
following products:

i. The voltage at that node times the sum of all admittances that terminate at that node.

ii. The negative of the voltage at another node times the admittance connected directly between
the other node and the node at which the equation is being formulated.

iii. Repeating ii (above) for other nodes.

Example 5.3: Bus admittance matrix

A three-bus power network is presented in figure 5.5. Data relevant for a load-flow analysis of this
system is given in p.u., all on the same base. Form the Ybus matrix for this system.

12
 Figure 5.5: Simple network for example 5.3

Solution:

Line admittances:
Line 1: YL12 = -j3.33 p.u.
Line 2: YL13 = -j6.67 p.u.
Line 3: YL23 = -j4 p.u.

Then by inspection, the Ybus matrix for this system is

é - 10 3.33 6.67 ù
Ybus ê
= jê3.33 - 7.33 4 úú
êë6.67 4 - 10.67 úû

5.7 Methods of solution

5.7.1 Direct methods

Direct methods solve only linear systems. From equation (5.23),

𝐼1 𝑌11 𝑌1; 𝑌1@ 𝑉1

N𝐼; O = N𝑌;1 𝑌;; 𝑌;@ O N𝑉; O .
𝐼@ 𝑌@1 𝑌@; 𝑌@@ 𝑉@

Equation (5.23) may be written in compact form as

[𝒀][𝑽] = [𝑰]. (5.24)

From which

[𝑽] = [𝒀]$𝟏 [𝑰]. (5.25)

In a linear system [𝑰] is specified. These methods invert Ybus; or the equations may be solved
simultaneously.

13
However, the fact that powers (S = P + jQ) are specified in practice makes the problem non-linear and
the direct methods will not be discussed further in this learning unit.

5.7.2 Iterative methods

The basic equations to be solved are given by equations (5.24) and (5.26).

-∗
[𝐼] = T ∗ U (5.26)
,

These two sets of equations (5.24) and (5.26) are solved simultaneously as the iteration proceeds. A
number of methods are available of which three will be described in this learning unit. The first is the
Gauss-Seidel method, which is simple in approach. The second is the Newton-Raphson method,
which, although more complex, has certain advantages. The third is the fast decoupled load-flow
method, which simplifies the Newton-Raphson method using the assumption that the changes in
voltage angle mainly control flows of real power and the voltage magnitudes of busbars mainly
influence reactive power flows as discussed in section 5.2.

5.8 The Gauss-Seidel method

This method involves the following steps:

• The unknown quantities are initially assumed (i.e. specify certain values).
• The value obtained from the first equation (say V1) is used to obtain V2 from the second
equation, and so on.
• Each equation is considered in turn.
• Complete set (of equations) then solved again
• Until the values obtained converge to within required limits.

5.8.1 The Gauss-Seidel method general notation

From equation (5.23),

𝐼1 = 𝑉1 𝑌11 + 𝑉; 𝑌1; + 𝑉@ 𝑌1@ .

From which,

E'( E') F'

𝑉1 = −𝑉; − 𝑉@ + .
E'' E'' E''

Now, 𝑆 = 𝑉𝐼 ∗

-
and 𝐼 ∗ = ,' .
'

14
So,

E'( E') -'∗ 1

𝑉1 = −𝑉; − 𝑉@ + . (5.27)
E'' E'' E'' ,'∗

Re-writing equation (5.27) in iterative form

E E -∗ 1
𝑉14*1 = − E'( 𝑉;4 − E') 𝑉@4 + E ' ∗* , (5.28)
'' '' '' ,'

where p indicates the iteration number.

Similarly

E E -∗ 1
𝑉;4*1 = − E(' 𝑉;4 − E() 𝑉@4 + E ( ∗* (5.29)
(( (( (( ,(

and

4*1 E 4 E 4 -∗ 1
𝑉@ = − E)' 𝑉; − E)( 𝑉@ + E ) ∗* . (5.30)
)) )) )) ,)

That is, at any node i, the already scanned nodes up to (i-1) will have new values appropriate to the
(𝑝 + 1)GH iteration.

Nodes yet to be scanned (j > i) are appropriate to iteration p.

Generally,

-+∗ 1 E+, E+,

𝑉I4*1 = ∗* − ∑%JI 𝑉4 − ∑%KI 𝑉 4*1 . (5.31)
E++ ,+ E++ % E++ %

Equation (5.31) applies to a busbar with specified or fixed P and Q.

At a generator (PV) node, the magnitudes of V and P are specified. Hence, to find Vip+1 we need to
first compute Qip (i.e. the imaginary part of Sip).

That is, calculate Qip corresponding to Vip. Now, Vip is derived from Vip-1.

Hence, derive Qip from Vip-1.

From equation (5.31),

E E
𝑆I = 𝑌II∗ 𝑉14$1 T𝑉I∗4 + ∑%JI E+, 𝑉%4$1 − ∑%KI E+, 𝑉%4 U. (5.32)
++ ++

Qi equals the imaginary part of Si.

15
This value of Qi holds for the existing value of Vi (i.e. Vip).

Example 5.4: Gauss-Seidel method

A four-bus power network is presented in figure 5.6. Data relevant for a load-flow analysis on this
system is given in p.u., all on the same base.

a. Form the Ybus matrix for this system.

b. Use the Gauss-Seidel load-flow algorithm to calculate the voltages at all busbars after the first
iteration. Assume the initial voltages at all busbars to be 1.05 p.u.

(Note: P and Q are considered positive for Watts and lagging Vars generated or supplied, and
negative when received.)

Figure 5.6: Simple network for example 5.4

Solution:

a. Line admittances:

Line 1: YL12 = -j2 p.u.

Line 2: YL14 = -j2 p.u.
Line 3: YL23 = -j1 p.u.
Line 4: YL34 = -j1 p.u.

Then by inspection, the Ybus matrix for this system is

é- 4 2 0 2ù
ê 2 -3 1 0 ú
Ybus = jê ú
ê0 1 -2 1 ú
ê ú
ë2 0 1 - 3û

16
b. S2 = -0.1 + j0.0
S2* = -0.1 – j0.0

(/) (/) (/) (/)

Iteration 1: Assuming that 𝑉1 = 𝑉; = 𝑉@ = 𝑉C = 1.05∠0< p.u.,

Y21 Y Y S* 1
V21 = - V1 - 23 V3 - 24 V4 + 2 * = 1.050 - j0.032 = 1.05Ð - 1.750 p.u.
Y22 Y22 Y22 Y22 V2

S3 = 0.5 + j0.02
S3* = 0.5 - j0.02

Y31 Y32 Y34 S*3 1

V31 =- V1 - V2 - V4 + *
= 1.06 + j0.222 = 1.083Ð11.80 p.u.
Y33 Y33 Y33 Y33 V3

S4 = -0.4 - j0.05
S4* = -0.4 + j0.05

Y41 Y Y S* 1
V41 = - V1 - 42 V2 - 43 V3 + 4 * = 1.037 - j0.053 = 1.038Ð - 2.930 p.u.
Y44 Y44 Y44 Y44 V4

Example 5.5: Gauss-Seidel method

Consider the simple power system in figure Q2. The generator maintains the voltage at its terminals
(node 1) at 1 p.u., while the compensator connected to node 2 maintains the voltage at 1.03 p.u.
Active and reactive power demands connected to node 2 are 0.5 p.u. and 0.3 p.u., respectively. The
reactance of the transmission line is 0.12 p.u.

a. Form the Ybus matrix for the system.

b. Perform two iterations of the Gauss-Seidel load flow and determine the load angle at node 2
and the output of the reactive power compensator.

Figure 5.7: Simple network for example 5.5

Solution:

17
a. By inspection:

é- 8.33 8.33 ù
Ybus = jê ú
ë 8.33 - 8.33û

b. Bus 1: Slack bus – Find P, Q

Bus 2: PV bus – Find d, Q

P2 = -0.5 p.u.

Y21 S* 1
V21 = - V1 + 2 *
Y22 Y22 V2

First iteration:

Initialise Q2.

𝑆;/∗ = 𝑉;/∗ [𝑌;1 𝑉1/ + 𝑌;; 𝑉;/ ], or 𝑆;/ = 𝑉;/ [𝑌;1

∗ /∗ ∗ /∗
𝑉1 + 𝑌;; 𝑉; ]

From which, 𝑄;/ = 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔(𝑆;/ ) = 0.2505 𝑝. 𝑢.

Then find 𝑉;1 = 1.0195 − 𝑗0.0631 𝑝. 𝑢.

1
Correct for magnitude and angle and find 𝑉;L<MM = 1.0280 − 𝑗0.0636 𝑝. 𝑢.

Second iteration:

𝑆;1 = 𝑉;L<MM
1 ∗ 1∗
[𝑌;1 ∗ 1∗
𝑉1 + 𝑌;; 𝑉;L<MM ]

From which, 𝑄;1 = 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔(𝑆;1 ) = 0.3525 𝑝. 𝑢.

Then find 𝑉;; = 1.0273 − 𝑗0.0669 𝑝. 𝑢.

Correct for magnitude and angle and find

;
𝑉;L<MM = 1.0278 − 𝑗0.0669 𝑝. 𝑢.

and

𝑆;; = 𝑉;L<MM
; ∗ ;∗
[𝑌;1 ∗ ;∗
𝑉1 + 𝑌;; 𝑉;L<MM ].

From which, 𝑄;; = 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔(𝑆;; ) = 0.3587 𝑝. 𝑢.

18
Example 5.6: Gauss-Seidel method

The active power demand of the 132 kV system shown in figure 5.8 is supplied by two generators G1
and G2. System voltage is supported by generator G2 and a large synchronous compensator SC (see
figure 5.8), which both maintain the voltage at 1 p.u. at their respective nodes. Generator G1,
connected at node 1, has no reactive power capacity available for voltage control.

a. Identify the type of busbars for nodes 1, 2 and 3 (Slack, PV or PQ).

b. Form the Ybus matrix for the system.
c. Perform two iterations of the Gauss-Seidel load flow.

Figure 5.8: Simple network for example 5.6

Solution:

a. Bus 1 – PQ bus, because it has no reactive power capacity

Bus 2 – Slack bus, because it is a generator bus and the voltage is controlled
Bus 3 – PV bus, because the voltage is controlled, and a load is connected.

b.
é- 7.5 2.5 5.0 ù
Ybus = j ê 2.5 - 6.5 4.0 úú
ê
êë 5.0 4.0 - 9.0úû

c. Initialisation:

𝑉1/ = 𝑉;/ = 𝑉@/ = 1∠0< p.u.

To find 𝑉@1 need to initialise 𝑆@/ (bus 3 is PV bus)

* 0 0* Y31 0* Y32 0*
S30 = Y33 .V3 [V3 + V1 + V2 ] = 0
Y33 Y33

19
 i.e. 𝑄@/ = 0 (synchronous compensator at bus 3 does not produce real power).

S1 = 0.9 + j0.0
S2* = 0.9 - j0.0

Y Y S* 1
V11 = - 12 V2 - 13 V3 + 1 = 1.00 + j 0.12 = 1.007 Ð6.840 p.u.
Y11 Y11 Y11 V1*

For bus 3, 𝑉@ = 1∠𝛿 < , i.e. magnitude specified; find d:

𝑆@/ = −𝑅𝑒(−1.5 + 𝑗0.3) + 𝑗0 = −1.5, (𝑄@/ already calculated to be equal to zero).

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑆@/∗ = −1.5 − 𝑗0

Hence,

1
~ Y Y S 0* 1
V 3 = - 31 V1 - 32 V2 + 3 0* = 1.0 - j 0.1 p.u.
Y33 Y33 Y33 V3

748L ,N' (1$%/)

But 𝑉@1 = ^𝑉@ ^. )
N = 1.0 × |1$%/| = 0.995 − 𝑗0.0995 𝑝. 𝑢.
O, ' O
)

From which, d = -5.71o and 𝑉@1 = 1∠−5.71<

5.9 Newton-Raphson method

The Newton-Raphson method has better convergence characteristics and for many systems, is faster
than the Gauss-Seidel method; the former requires fewer iterations compared to the Gauss-Siedel
method.

The power flow at ith busbar of an n-node power system is given by

𝑃I + 𝑗𝑄I = 𝑉I 𝐼I∗ = 𝑉I ∑Q$1 ∗

%R1 (𝑌I% 𝑉% ) . (5.33)

Now, expressing the voltage and admittance in rectangular form,

𝑉I = 𝑎I + 𝑗𝑏I and 𝑌I% = 𝐺I% + 𝑗𝐵I% .

Then

∗
𝑃I + 𝑗𝑄I = (𝑎I + 𝑗𝑏I ) ∑Q$1
%R1 c(𝐺I% + 𝑗𝐵I% )d𝑎% + 𝑗𝑏% ef . (5.34)

From which,

20
 𝑃I = ∑Q$1
%R1 c𝑎I d𝑎% 𝐺I% − 𝑏% 𝐵I% e + 𝑏I (𝑎% 𝐵I% + 𝑏% 𝐺I% )f (5.35)

𝑄I = ∑Q$1
%R1 c𝑏I d𝑎% 𝐺I% − 𝑏% 𝐵I% e − 𝑎I (𝑎% 𝐵I% + 𝑏% 𝐺I% )f (5.36)

Note that (n - 1) nodes are considered because the slack node n is completely specified. 𝐺I% and 𝐵I% are
constants.

Equation (5.35) is defined as

𝑃I = 𝑓1 (𝑎1 , … … , 𝑎Q$1 ; 𝑏1 , … … , 𝑏Q$1 ). (5.37)

If the initial guesses of variables are

𝑎1∗ , … … , 𝑎Q$1
∗
; 𝑏1∗ , … … , 𝑏Q$1
∗

and errors are

∆𝑎1 , … … , ∆𝑎Q$1 ; ∆𝑏1 , … … , ∆𝑏Q$1 ,

then equation (5.37) can be written as

𝑃I∗ + ∆𝑃I = 𝑓1 (𝑎1∗ + ∆𝑎1 , … … , 𝑎Q$1

∗
+ ∆𝑎Q$1 ; 𝑏1∗ + ∆𝑏1 , … … 𝑏Q$1
∗
+ ∆𝑏Q$1 ). (5.38)

By expanding equation (5.38) using Taylor's series and neglecting higher-order terms,

S#+ S#+ S#+ S#+ S#+ S#+

∆𝑃I = ∆𝑎1 + ∆𝑎; + ⋯ + ∆𝑎Q$1 + ∆𝑏1 + ∆𝑏; + ⋯ + ∆𝑏Q$1 . (5.39)
S6' S6( S6-.' S5' S5( S5-.'

Similar equations hold for DQ in terms of Da and Db.

These equations may be expressed generally using the Jacobian Matrix:

S#' S#' S#' S#'

⎡ S6' ⋯ S6-.' S5'
⋯ S5-.' ⎤
∆𝑃1 ⋮ ⎥ ⎡ ∆𝑎1 ⎤
⎡ ⋮ ⎤ ⎢ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱
⋮
⎢ S# S#-.' S#-.' S#-.' ⎥
⎢ ∆𝑃 ⎥ ⎢ -.' ⋯ ⋯ ⎢ ⎥
S5-.' ⎥ ∆𝑎Q$1
⎢ Q$1 ⎥ = S6' S6-.' S5'
⎢ ⎥ (5.40)
∆𝑄 ⎢ S&' S& ⎥
⋯ S5 ' ⎥ ⎢ ∆𝑏1 ⎥
S&' S&'
⎢ 1 ⎥ ⋯
⎢ ⋮ ⎥ ⎢ S6' S6-.' S5' -.' ⎢ ⋮ ⎥
⎢ ⋮ ⎥ ⎣ ∆𝑏Q$1 ⎦
⎣∆𝑄Q$1 ⎦ ⎢ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱
S&-.' S&-.' S&-.' S&-.' ⎥
⎣ ⋯ ⋯ ⎦
S6' S6-.' S5' S5-.'

The Jacobian matrix may be denoted by

𝐽 𝐽2
t3 v
𝐽T 𝐽U

21
It can be shown that the elements of the matrix are evaluated for the values of P, Q and V at each
iteration as follows.

For the submatrix JA, the diagonal elements are given by

S#+
= 𝑎I 𝐺II + 𝑏I 𝐵II + 𝑐I . (5.41)
S6+

Off-diagonal elements, where 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗, are given by

S#+
S6,
= 𝑎I 𝐺I% + 𝑏I 𝐵I% . (5.42)

For the submatrix JB,

S#+
S5+
= −𝑎I 𝐵II + 𝑏I 𝐺II + 𝑑I (5.43)

and

S#+
= −𝑎I 𝐵I% + 𝑏I 𝐺I% (𝑖 ≠ 𝑗). (5.44)
S5,

For the submatrix JC,

S&+
S6+
= −𝑎I 𝐵II + 𝑏I 𝐺II − 𝑑I (5.45)

and

S&+
S6,
= −𝑎I 𝐵I% + 𝑏I 𝐺I% (𝑖 ≠ 𝑗). (5.46)

For the submatrix JD,

S&+
S5+
= 𝑎I 𝐺II + 𝑏I 𝐵II + 𝑐I (5.47)

and

S&+
S5,
= −𝑎I 𝐺I% − 𝑏I 𝐵I% (𝑖 ≠ 𝑗). (5.48)

The solution commences with the iteration counter 'p' set to zero and all the nodes except the slack-
bus being assigned voltages, usually 1 p.u.

From these voltages, P and Q are calculated from equations (5.35) and (5.36). The changes are then
calculated, thus

22
 4 4 4 4
∆𝑃I = 𝑃I (specified) − 𝑃I and ∆𝑄I = 𝑄I (specified) − 𝑄I

where p is the iteration number.

Next, the node currents are computed as

* *
#+ *%&+
𝐼I4 = : 4 4
; = 𝑐I + 𝑗𝑑I .
,*

The elements of the Jacobian matrix are then formed, and from equation (5.40),

∆𝑎 𝐽 𝐽2 $1 ∆𝑃
T U=t3 v t v.
∆𝑏 𝐽T 𝐽U ∆𝑄

Hence, a and b are determined and the new values, 𝑎I4*1 = 𝑎I4 + ∆𝑎I4 and 𝑏I4*1 = 𝑏I4 + ∆𝑏I4 are
obtained. The process is repeated (p = p + 1) until DP and DQ are less than a prescribed tolerance.

In the preceding development of the Newton Raphson method, the admittances and voltages were
assumed to be rectangular. Sometimes the quantities are expressed in polar form. Equations (5.35) and
(5.36) then take the form

𝑃I = 𝑃(𝑉, 𝛿) and 𝑄I = 𝑄(𝑉, 𝛿).

If the voltage at node i is expressed in polar notation as 𝑉I = 𝑉I ∠𝛿I and that at node j is 𝑉% = 𝑉% ∠𝛿% ,
and if the admittance of the link joining nodes i and j is 𝑌I% = 𝐺I% + 𝑗𝐵I% , then it can be shown that
the power flow at busbar i is given by

𝑃I = 𝑉I; 𝐺II ∑Q$1

%R1 𝑉I 𝑉% (𝐺I% 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿I% +𝐵I% 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿I% ) (5.49)
%V:

and

𝑄I = −𝑉I; 𝐵II ∑Q$1

%R1 𝑉I 𝑉% (𝐺I% 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿I% −𝐵I% 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿I% ). (5.50)
%V:

The changes in power flow at the busbar are given by

S#+ S#+
∆𝑃I = ∑Q$1
%R1 ∆𝛿% + ∑Q$1
%R1 ∆𝑉% (5.51)
SW, S,,

S& S&
∆𝑄I = ∑Q$1 + Q$1
%R1 SW ∆𝛿% + ∑%R1 S, ∆𝑉%
+
(5.52)
, ,

The mismatch equation is

23
 4
∆𝑃4$1 𝐽 𝐽2 $1 ∆𝛿*
t 4$1 v = t 3 v ƒ ∆, „ . (5.53)
∆𝑄 𝐽T 𝐽U -, *.' .

∆, *
∆𝛿 4 is the correction to PQ and PV buses and , *.' is the correction to PQ buses.

Activity 1

Study section 6.6 of the textbook and prove that the polar form of the Jacobian matrix elements
may be expressed as follows:

Off-diagonal elements are given by:

"#!
𝐽! : "$"
= 𝑉% 𝑉& (𝐺%& 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿%& − 𝐵%& 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿%& )

"#
𝐽' : 𝑉& "(! = 𝑉% 𝑉& (𝐺%& 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿%& + 𝐵%& 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿%&
"

"*!
𝐽) : "$"
= −𝑉% 𝑉& (𝐺%& 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿%& + 𝐵%& 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿%& )

"*
𝐽+ : 𝑉& "( ! = 𝑉% 𝑉& (𝐺%& 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿%& − 𝐵%& 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿%& )
"

Diagonal elements are given by:

"#!
𝐽! : "$!
= −𝑄% − 𝐵%% 𝑉%,

"#
𝐽' : 𝑉% "(! = 𝑃% + 𝐺%% 𝑉%,
!

𝜕𝑄𝑖
𝐽𝐶 : = 𝑃𝑖 − 𝐺𝑖𝑖 𝑉2𝑖
𝜕𝛿𝑖

𝜕𝑄𝑖
𝐽 𝐷 : 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑄𝑖 − 𝐵𝑖𝑖 𝑉2𝑖
𝜕𝑉𝑖

5.10 Fast decoupled load flow

As discussed in section 5.2, in a power system, the changes in voltage angle mainly control flows of P
and the voltage magnitudes of busbars mainly change Q. Therefore, the coupling between the Pi , Vj
and Qk , dj components is weak. Hence, the submatrices JB and JC can be neglected. Equation (5.53)
can then be reduced to two equations:

24
 ∆𝑃4$1 = [𝐽3 ][∆𝛿 4 ] (5.54)

∆, *
∆𝑄4$1 = [𝐽U ][∆𝛿 4 ] T, *.' U (5.55)

The decoupled technique is further simplified by assuming that under normal loading conditions, the
angle difference across transmission lines is negligible, thus dij ≈ 0 and for lines and cables it is
reasonable to assume Bij ≫ Gij, thus Gij can be neglected. Therefore, the elements of the Jacobian
matrix given in activity 1 reduce to:

Off-diagonal elements:

S#+
𝐽3 : SW,
= −𝑉I 𝑉% 𝐵I%

S&
𝐽U : 𝑉% S, + = 𝑉I 𝑉% 𝐵I%
,

Diagonal elements are given by:

S#+
𝐽3 : = ∑Q$1
%R1 𝑉I 𝑉% 𝐵I%
SW+
%V:

S&
𝐽U : 𝑉I S,+ = ∑Q$1
%R1 𝑉I 𝑉% 𝐵I%
+
%V:

Example 5.7: Fast decoupled load flow

Using the fast decoupled method calculate the angles and voltages after the first iteration for the three-
node network of figure 5.9. Initially, V1 is 230 kV, V2 is 220 kV and V3 is 228 kV all at 𝜃 = 0< .
Busbar 2 is a load consuming 200 MW, 120 MVAr; busbar 3 is a generator node set at 70 MW and
228 kV. V1 is an infinite busbar.

The Ybus matrix is given by (all quantities are in Siemens):

25
 Figure 5.9: Simple network for example 5.7

Solution:

From equation (5.54),

∆𝑃 𝐽 𝐽3;@ ∆𝛿;
t ; v = t 3;; vt v (5.56)
∆𝑃@ 𝐽3@; 𝐽3@@ ∆𝛿@

𝐽3;; is given by

S#(
SW(
= ∑@%R1 𝑉I 𝑉% 𝐵I% = 2.1835 × 10?
%V;

𝐽3;@ is given by

S#(
SW)
= −𝑉; 𝑉@ 𝐵;@ = −1.20835 × 10?

𝐽3@; is given by

S#)
= −𝑉@ 𝑉; 𝐵@; = −1.20835 × 10?
SW(

𝐽3@@ is given by

S#)
SW)
= ∑;%R1 𝑉I 𝑉% 𝐵I% = 2.7874 × 10?
%V@

From (5.49),

P2 = -14.0624 MW
P3 = 5.0096 MW

Therefore,

DP2 = -200 + 14.0624 = -185.9376 MW

26
 DP3 = 70 – 5.0096 = 64.99 MW

Then, substituting into equation (5.56),

∆𝛿 −0.0951 <
t ;v = T U rad = T −5.45 < U
∆𝛿@ −0.0179 −1.026

From equation (5.50),

Q2 = 58.68 MVAr.

From equation (5.55),

∆,(
∆𝑄; = [𝐽U; ][∆𝛿 4 ] T U. (5.57)
,(

𝐽U; is given by

S&
𝑉I S,+ = ∑@%R1 𝑉I 𝑉% 𝐵I% = 2.1835 × 10? .
+
%V;

Then, substituting into equation (5.57),

∆𝑉; = −6.178 𝑘𝑉.

Hence,
V1 = 230 kV
V2 = 220 – 6.178 = 213.82 kV
V3 = 228 kV

The process is repeated for the next iteration, and so on, until convergence is reached.

5.11 Contingency analysis

South Africa is plagued by load-shedding and loss of generating capacity and theft of transmission
lines that make the working environment very difficult for engineers to prevent a total blackout. It is
important that with load flow, the operators are able to divert loads and control the generating
capacity of the generators. In the PowerWorld software that will be used for the laboratory exercises,
there is a contingency model, and it will be worth your while to play around with that portion of the
model to get confident with the power of the simulation program.

5.12 Conclusion

In this learning unit, we introduced the network modelling approaches and methods for the solution of
the load-flow problem. The relation between P, Q, V and d was developed to help interpret the results

27
of load-flow studies. It was also noted that the relationship between P-V and Q-d is weak at
transmission levels, which allows the simplification of the load-flow problem leading to a faster load-
flow solution for large networks. The required data and specification of operating conditions at the
various busbars of the network that enable load-flow calculations were discussed. A method for
formulating the admittance matrix of a large network, by inspection, was introduced. The
'forward/backward' method for the computation of load flows for radial networks was also introduced.
The need for iterative methods for the solution of load flows for large power networks was discussed
and three methods were introduced, namely the Gauss-Seidel method, Newton-Raphson method and
the Fast Decoupled load-flow method that greatly simplifies the load-flow solution.

Problems

P5.1 A load of (1 + j0.5) p.u. is supplied through a transmission line by a generator G1, as shown
in figure 5.10. Generator G1 maintains its terminal voltage at 1 p.u.

(a) Form the Ybus matrix for this system.

(b) Perform two iterations of the Gauss-Seidel load flow.

−2.5 2.5
(Answer: 𝑌5a7 = 𝑗 T U; V1 = 1.0 p.u.; V2 = (0.6 – j0.3) p.u.)
2.5 −2.5

Figure 5.10: System for problem 5.1

P5.2 A 400 kV interconnected system is supplied from busbar A, which may be considered to be
an infinite busbar. The loads and line reactances are as indicated in figure 5.11. Determine the
flow of power in line AC by using two iterations of voltages at each bus.

(Answer: 1.16 GW)

28
 Figure 5.11: System for problem 5.2

P5.3 Determine the voltage at busbar 2, the voltage at busbar 3 and the reactive power at busbar 3
as shown in figure 5.12, after the first iteration of a Gauss-Seidel load flow method. Assume
the initial voltage to be 1∠0< p.u. All the quantities are in per unit on a common base.

(Answer: 0.99 - j0.0133, 1.0 + j0.0015 and Q3= 0.4 p.u.)

Figure 5.12: System for problem 5.3

P5.4 In figure 5.13, the branch reactances and busbar loads are given in per unit on a common
base. Branch resistance is neglected.

(a) Form the Ybus admittance matrix for this network.

(b) Using busbar 1 as the slack (reference) busbar, carry out the first iteration of a Gauss-
Seidel load-flow algorithm to determine the voltage at all busbars. Assume the initial
voltages of all busbars to be 1.01 p.u.

(Answer: V2 = 0.997 - j0:03, V3 = 0.9968 - j0.0415, V4 = 1.0056 - j0:026)

29
 Figure 5.13: System for problem 5.4

P5.5 Active power demand of the 132 kV system shown in figure 5.14 is supplied by two
generators G1 and G2. System voltage is supported by generator G2 and a large synchronous
compensator SC at bus 3, which both maintain the voltage at 1 p.u. at their respective nodes.
Generator G1, connected at node 1, has no reactive power capacity available for voltage
control.

(a) Form the Ybus matrix for this system.

(b) Perform two iterations of the Gauss-Seidel load flow.

−7.5 2.5 5
(Answer: 𝑌5a7 = 𝑗 N 2.5 −6.5 4 O;
5 4 −9

V1 = 0.9825 + j0.0520 p.u., V2 =1.0 p.u., V3 = 0.9903 - j0.1386 p.u.)

Figure 5.14: System for problem 5.5

30