ATTITUDE OF GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES Disposition of rocks in space or the way in

which they are exposed at a place is called the attitude of rocks.

Dip & Strike are two basic terms used to express the attitude of any rock body
STRIKE
● It is a geographic direction given by the line of intersection of a horizontal plane with a
bedding plane of a layer of rock
● In which direction, the bedding plane is inclined with the horizontal is called strike.
● It is measured with the help of a compass

APPARENT AND TRUE DIP

If the dip of a layer is measured along a direction which is perpendicular to the strike of that
layer then, the measured dip is true dip.
But if the dip of a layer is measured along a direction which is not perpendicular to the
strike of that layer then, the measured dip is apparent dip.
Relation between true dip & apparent dip values, tan ∝ = tanβ. Cosγ
Where, α = apparent dip angle
β = angle of true dip
γ = angle between strike of the layer and direction in which dip is measured
TYPES OF DIP
1. Primary dip
● Soil formations in the earth are inclined at certain angles.
● If the deposition of rocks takes place in these inclined surfaces, the resulting rock
formations will be also inclined in the same fashion.
● Such dips or inclination of the rock beds is called primary dips or depositional
gradients and it is generally below 20 degrees.
Folds and Folding

CAUSES OF FOLDING
● Folding may be either due to tectonic causes or non-tectonic causes.
● Folding takes place as a response of the rocks to various forces originating
from within the body of the earth is called tectonic causes.
● Non –tectonic folding arises from bending or warping of rocks.
Tectonic Reactions
(1) Folding due to tangential compression:

● Lateral compression is believed to be the main cause for throwing the rocks of
the crust into different types of folds.
● Under the influence of the tangential stresses, folding may develop in any of
the 3 ways:
(i) Flexural folding: It is that process of folding in which the competent or
stronger rocks are thrown into folds due to their sliding against each
other under the influence of lateral compression

The amount of slip or movement depends upon: Thickness of layers, nature of

the contact, distance from the hinge point and type of the rocks

(ii) Flowage folding:

● It is the process of folding in weaker, plastic type of rocks such as clays,

gypsum etc.
● During lateral compression, the material of the involved layers behaves
almost as a viscous or plastic mass and gets buckled up and deformed at
varying rates suffering unequal distortion.
● Hence thickness of the resulting fold does not remain uniform
 (iii) Shear folding:
● Folding is attributed to shearing stresses rather than simple compression.
● It is assumed that in such a process, numerous closely spaced fractures
develop in the rock at the first stage of the process.
● This is followed by displacement of the blocks so developed by different
amounts so that ultimately the rocks take up folded or bent configuration.

(2) Folding due to igneous intrusion: Intrusion of magma or even salt bodies
from beneath cause up-arching of the overlying strata

(3) Folding due to differential compression: When the weight of the overlying
body is unequal then different pressure is being applied, as a result differential
compression occurs. Hence folding occurs
1. Symmetrical folds These are also called normal or upright folds. In such a
fold, the axial plane is essentially vertical. The limbs are equal in length and dip
equally in opposite directions

2. Asymmetrical folds All those folds in which the limbs are unequal in length
and these dip unequally on either side from the hinge line are termed as
asymmetrical folds

3. Overturned folds These are folds with inclined axial planes in which both the
limbs are dipping essentially in the same direction. The amount of dip of the two
limbs may or may not be the same.
 4. Isoclinal folds These are group of folds in which all the axial planes are
parallel, meaning that all the component limbs are dipping at equal amounts

5. Recumbent folds In these folds axial planes acquires almost horizontal attitude.

6. Conjugate folds Pair of fold that may have mutually inclined axial planes are
called conjugate folds.

7. Box fold These folds have exceptionally flattened top and steeply inclined limbs
(See above figure at axial plane A)